HYDRAULICS 2A (HYDCIA2)

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW HYDRAULICS

PATIENCE DAVHANA & MONDLI MTHOMBENI
Unit 6: Open Channel Flow Hydraulics
Topics

➢ Introduction.
➢ Types of open channels.
➢ Classification of flow in open channels.
➢ Uniform flow.
➢ Design formulas in open channels
➢ Hydraulic efficiency of channel.
➢ Non-uniform flow.
➢ Specific energy principles.
➢ Varied flows.
➢ Hydraulic jump.

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Open Channel – Basic Definition

⮚Conduit or passage through which liquid flows with a free surface which is subject to the atmospheric pressure.
⮚Atmospheric pressure relatively constant.
⮚Therefore, flow of liquid in these channels is by gravity.
⮚Rivers, streams, irrigation canals, sewer lines, drainage ditches, gutters, etc.
⮚The key difference between open channel flow and pipe flow is the presence of a free surface.

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Examples of Open Channels

5
Examples of Open Channels

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Open ChannelFlow
A natural channel is one which has irregular sections of varying
shapes developed in a natural way, e.g., rivers, streams, etc.

Artificial channel one is built artificially for carrying water.

Usually, they have regular geometrical shapes.
Can be lined or unlined.
Can be covered or uncovered

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Open Channel Flow Vs. Pipe Flow

Pipe flow Open channel flow

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Open Channel Flow Vs. Pipe Flow
Aspects Open Channel Flow Pipe Flow
Cause of flow Gravity (provided by the bed slope). - Flow is achieved by pressure (hydraulic pressure).
- This pressure continuously decreases in the
direction of flow.
- Pipe generally runs full.
Geometry of cross-section Open channel may have any shape: - Generally, round in cross section.
rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, - For a pipe running full, the cross section is fixed
circular, etc. since the flowing liquid entirely fills the pipe section.
Internal surface roughness Varies between wide limits; the Roughness coefficient varies very widely with the
hydraulic roughness varies with depth pipe material.
of flow.
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) - HGL coincides with the liquid surface. - HGL does not coincide with water surface.
- Piezometric head = (z + y). - piezometric head = (z + P/ρg).
Velocity distribution - The maximum velocity occurs just The velocity distribution is symmetrical about the
below the water surface. pipe axis, with maximum velocity occurring at the
- The shape of the velocity profile is pipe centre and the velocity at the pipe wall reducing
dependent on the channel roughness. to zero.

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Common Artificial Channel Geometry

Water Level

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Uniform Flow – Terms of interest.

➢ Top width, (T).

T
➢ Bottom width, (b or B).
➢ Flow depth, (y or d)
➢ Uniform depth or Normal depth (yn).
➢ Wetted area, (A).

f
➢ Wetted perimeter, (P).
➢ Hydraulic radius, (R = A/P). Water
➢ Hydraulic depth, (D = A/T)

d
➢ Discharge (Flow rate), (Q)
➢ Average velocity, (V = Q/A)
➢ Manning’s coefficient, (n). b
➢ Chezy coefficient, (C).
➢ Bed Slope, (S).
Typical Open channel cross-section
➢ Side Slope, (z).

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Open Channel Flow Section Geometries

➢ Top width, (T)

➢ Bottom width, (B)

➢ Flow depth, (y)

➢ Wetted area, (A)

➢ Wetted perimeter, (P)

➢ Hydraulic radius, (R = A/P)

➢ Hydraulic depth, (D = A/T)

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Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow
Manning’s Equation: Commonly used to calculate flow rate in open channels.

Formula:

.
Where:
Q = Flow rate

n = Manning's roughness coefficient A = Cross-sectional area of

flow

R = Hydraulic radius (area divided by wetted perimeter)

S = Slope of the energy grade line

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Application in Water Engineering
Stormwater Design
• Flood Management
Open channels are crucial for conveying stormwater during heavy rainfall to prevent urban flooding.
• Channels and Drains
Surface drainage systems are designed using open channel flow principles to safely direct water
away from urban areas.

Sewer Systems
• Wastewater Conveyance
Gravity-driven sewer systems use open channel flow to transport wastewater to treatment facilities.
• Hydraulic Design
Ensuring the proper slope and capacity of sewers helps prevent blockages and maintain efficient
flow.

Open channel flow is a fundamental concept in water engineering, playing a critical role in the design of
stormwater and sewer systems.
As urbanization grows, efficient open channel flow designs will be vital for sustainable water
management.

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Classification of Flow in Open Channels

➢ Steady and unsteady flow.

➢ Uniform flow and non-uniform (or varied) flow.
➢ Gradually varied flow and Rapidly varied flow.
➢ Laminar flow and turbulent flow.
➢ Critical, Subcritical and supercritical flow.
➢ Normal flow.

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 Uniform Flow

➢ Energy Line slope, Water Surface slope and Channel Bed slope are the same.
➢ Depth, cross-section, velocity remain constant from place to place.
➢ Uniform flow may be steady or unsteady.
➢ Commonly encountered in practice in long straight sections of channel with:
➢ Constant slope.
➢ Constant cross-section.

➢ Water in open channel can reach the state of Uniform Flow only
if no acceleration (or deceleration) takes place between any two
section.
➢ This is only possible when the gravity force component and the
resistance to the flow are equal and opposite in direction in the
section.
➢ Thus, uniform flow is sometimes referred to as NORMAL FLOW.

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Uniform Flow Equations

➢ In open channel flow, UNIFORM FLOW is therefore established when:

• Terminal (constant) velocity is reached.
• And thus, head loss is equal to elevation drop.

hL = z

➢ Thus,

Se = Sws = So

➢ Consider a control volume as shown above,

F1 + WSin − F2 − Ff = 0
➢ Hydrostatic forces (pressure forces),
F1 = F2 (since y1 = y2) Control volume

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Uniform Flow Equations

➢ Weight component,

WSin = gSin = gALSin

➢ For most open channels, channel slope is small and hence, this
approximation is made:

Sin = Tan = So
➢ Therefore, Weight component,

WSin = gALSo
➢ Resistance (friction) force is expressed in terms of shear stress (τo)
and total wetted area.

Ff =  o PL Control volume

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Uniform Flow Equations

➢ Antoine Chezy (1769) assumed that τoαV2, and therefore,

 o = KV 2

➢ Thus,
Ff =  o PL = KV 2 PL

➢ Now, substituting all these equations in the original equation for

the control volume,

F1 + W Sin  − F2 − Ff = 0
 g ALS o − KV 2 PL = 0
 g ALS o = KV 2 PL
Control volume

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Uniform Flow Equations

➢ Thus,

V2 =
gASo g A
=   So
KP K P
where A/P is hydraulic radius, R.
➢ Hence,
g 
V = RS o
K
g  1 2 1 2
V = R So
K
1 1
V = CR 2 So 2

g
where is represented as C,
K
Commonly known as Chezy constant. Control volume

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Uniform Flow Equations - Manning’s Equation

➢ Chezy formula is probably the first formula derived for UF.

➢ Chezy constant, C, was found to vary with:
• Condition of the channel.
• Flow in the channel.
➢ The simplest relationship to derive the value of C was performed by Robert Manning (1891~1895).

C =1R
1
6

n
where n is known as Manning’s coefficient of channel roughness.

➢ Some typical values of n are given in Table.

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Uniform Flow Equations - Manning’s Equation

➢ Substituting the Manning’s equation for C above,

1 1
V = CR 2 So 2
 1 16  1 1
V =  R   R So 2 2

n 
V = 1 R 2 3 S 12
o
n

➢ This is the Manning’s Equation.

➢ Designing of open channels is generally an iterative procedure.
➢ However, to avoid this tedious procedure, design charts provided below may be used for the design of
circular, rectangular and trapezoidal channels.

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Design Charts for Normal flow

Trapezoidal channels Circular channels

(side slopes, (z) represented as (m)) (diameter, (D) represented as (d0))

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Design Charts for Normal flow

Trapezoidal channels Circular channels

(side slopes, (z) represented as (m)) (diameter, (D) represented as (d0))

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Uniform Flow Equations - Pipe Flowing Full

➢ Head loss: ➢ For pipes flowing full,

where the hydraulic radius, R = D/4

fLV 2 fL V 2 S 0 L = hL
hL = = 
2gD 2g D fL V 2 fL V 2
S0 L = 
2g D = 2g  4R
➢ Elevation drop: f V 2 f V 2
S0 =  = 
2g 4R 2g  4 R
z = S0 L 2g  4
V 2 = RS 0
f
➢ Thus, 2g  4
V =  RS 0
fLV 2 fL V 2 f
S0 L = = 
2gD 2g D V =C RS 0

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Uniform Flow Equations - Pipe Flowing Partially Full

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Uniform Flow Equations - Design Formulas

➢ Chezy Formula ➢ Manning Formula

• Introduced by the French engineer Antoine Chezy in • Modified version of the Chezy Equation. Courtesy to an
1769 while designing a canal for the water-supply Irish Engineer, Robert Manning (1891 ~ 1895).
system of Paris
1 1 1 1 V = 1 R 2 3 S 12 → Q = 1 R 2 3 S 12 A
V = CR S 2 2 → Q = CR S 2 A
2
n n
Where: Where:

C = Chezy constant. (60 < C < 150) n = Manning’s coefficient.

R = Hydraulic Radius (m). R = Hydraulic Radius.

S = Slope (Energy gradient slope).
S = Slope (Energy gradient slope).
A= Wetted Area
A= Wetted Area
Q=Discharge
Q=Discharge
• Like the Chezy formula, this formula too is only applicable
• This formula is only applicable to channel bed slope
to channel bed slope of <0.10.
of <0.10.

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Manning’s n

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Manning’s n

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Manning’s n

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Hydraulic Efficiency of Channels

➢ Best hydraulic channel is one that gives maximum hydraulic radius, R.

➢ Flow (Q) is maximum when hydraulic radius, R, is maximum (with A, S, and n being constant).
➢ Hence, best channel is that with maximum R.
➢ Also, best channel is that with the least wetted perimeter.
➢ This is the channel with higher hydraulic efficiency.
➢ Of all cross sections, the one with highest hydraulic efficiency (maximum R for a given A) is Semi-circle.
➢ Best trapezoidal channel has the shape of a half hexagon section.

➢Thus, for trapezoidal channels, best channel has R = d

2

➢ For rectangular channels, best channel has depth equal to one half the width. d = b
➢ Thus, best rectangular channel is a half-square section.
2

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Non-uniform (Varied) Flow

➢ Like in uniform flow, non-uniform flow may be steady or unsteady.

➢ Non-uniform flow is also known as flow of varying depth or varied flow.
➢ And may be:
• Gradually varied flow (GVF) – depth of flow increases or decreases gradually in the direction of flow.
• Rapidly varied flow (RVF) – sudden change of flow occurs at a particular point.
➢ Water Surface slope not equal to Channel Bed slope.
➢ Non-uniform flow may be caused by:
• Change in width, depth, bed slope etc, of the channel.
• Obstruction constructed across a channel of uniform width.

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Energy Principles in Open Channel Flow

➢ Just like in pipe flow, a fluid particle in a channel will possess mostly
three types of energy:
• Kinetic energy, Ek.
• Pressure energy, Ep.
• Potential (Elevation) energy, Ee.
➢ Thus, the total energy contained in a unit weight of water at any
section in an open channel:

E = Ee + Ep + Ek

➢ Thus,
V 2
E = z+ y+
2g

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Specific Energy in Open Channel Flow

V2
➢ With channel bottom considered as datum, E = y+
2g
Q 
2

 A

E = y+
2g
Q2
E = y+
2gA2
➢ This is known as the Specific Energy. And it is defined as the total
energy per unit weight of the liquid measured from the channel bed
as datum. It is a very useful concept in the study of open channel
flow.
➢ The equation above is valid for all cross-section.

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Specific Energy in Open Channel Flow

E = y+ Q2
➢ For, say, a rectangular section,
2g ( by ) 2

➢ Thus, the energy per unit width, q 2

E = y + 2
2gy

Where: q = Q/b = discharge per unit width.

➢ For a given channel section and discharge, the equation above can
be represented graphically as a plot of specific energy, E, against
the depth of flow, y.

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Specific Energy Curve/Diagram for Rectangular Section

➢ The curve for potential energy, (E = y (or d)), is

a 450 straight line passing through the origin.
➢ The curve for kinetic energy (E = v2/2g) is a
parabola.
➢ Specific energy is asymptotic to the horizontal
axis for small values of y (or d), and asymptotic
to the 450 line for high value of y.

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Specific Energy Curve/Diagram for Rectangular Section

➢ At a certain depth, yc, called the critical depth, the specific energy curve has a point of minimum specific
energy.
➢ The corresponding flow velocity is called critical velocity, Vc.
➢ For every value of specific energy other than
the minimum specific energy, there are two Ek Es
Ep
possible flow depth (y1 and y2), one greater than
the critical depth and the other smaller than the
critical depth. These two depths are normally
referred to as alternate or conjugate depths.
➢ Thus, alternate depths are the two depths with
y2
the same specific energy and conveying the yc
y1
same discharge.

37
Specific Energy Curve/Diagram

Q2
➢ Once again, the general equation for specific energy, E = y+
2 gA 2

➢ At the critical state where the specific energy of the flow is the minimum,

dE d  Q2  Q2 dA
= y+  = 1− 3 
2 
=0

dy dy  2gA  gA dy

➢ The differential water area (dA/dy) near the free water surface is (dA/dy =T), where T is the top width of the
channel section.
➢ Hence,
Q2T Q2T
1− =0 or =1
3 3
gA gA

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Specific Energy Curve/Diagram

➢ Therefore, for Critical Condition in any channel, where:

2 3 Q2/A2 =V2 and A/T=D.
Q A
= c
V
1 V  1 =1 V2
g T 2
=1 =1
g D gD gD
Where:
Q = flow in the channel (m3/s). Where:
Ac = area of cross section (m2). Q = flow in the channel (m3/s).
T = water surface width (m). A = area of cross section (m2).
T = water surface width (m).
➢ Thus, D = hydraulic depth (m)
2
1 Q  T =1
 2 ➢ This is the Froude Number:
N F = Fr =
V
=1
g A A gD

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Froude Number and Wave Speed

➢ Froude number, NF, for any cross section: ➢ Wave speed:

• Dimensionless number. • The speed at which a surface disturbance travels
• Defined as the ratio of the inertia force in the through the liquid.
flow to the gravity force in the flow. • For NF < 1,
• Also defined as the ratio of mean flow velocity ▪ Wave travels upstream.
(V) to the speed of a small gravity ▪ Flow depth, y  yc
(disturbance) wave traveling over the water • For NF > 1,
surface, ( gD ). ▪ Wave speed travels downstream.
▪ Flow depth, y  yc
V • For NF = 1,
NF = Fr = ▪ Wave speed is equal to flow velocity.
gD
▪ Flow depth, y = yc

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Varied Flows in Open Channels

➢ Critical flow.
➢ Subcritical flow.
➢ Supercritical flow.

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Critical Flow

➢ Critical flow ➢ For rectangular channels,

• Flow corresponding to critical depth. • Critical depth,
• Flow in which specific energy is minimum.
Q2 Q2 q2
➢ Characteristics yc = 3 =3 =3
• Unstable surface T 2g b2 g g
• Series of standing waves
➢ Occurrence • Critical velocity,
• Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
Vc = yc g
• Channel Controls (rapid changes in cross-section)
• Over falls
• Changes in channel slope from mild to steep
➢ Used for flow measurements. V
NF = =1
➢ At critical flow, Froude Number, gD

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Critical Flow - Trapezoidal & Circular channels

➢ For trapezoidal and circular channel, an explicit equation such as the equation above is not available.
➢ However, design charts mentioned earlier, may be used to solve for the critical depth in trapezoidal and
circular channels.
➢ For an open channel of any sectional shape, the critical depth is always a function of the channel
discharge and does not vary with the channel slope.

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Subcritical Flow

➢ Sometimes called tranquil or streaming flow.

➢ Corresponds to lower velocity.
➢ Type of flow corresponding to flow depth that is greater than critical depth,

y  yc
➢ In this type of flow, the Froude Number,

V
NF =
gD

NF  1

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Supercritical Flow

➢ Shooting or torrential flow.

➢ Corresponds to higher velocities.
➢ Flow is supercritical when depth of flow in the channel is less than critical depth,

y  yc
➢ In this type of flow, the Froude Number,

V
NF =
gD

NF  1

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Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic Jump

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Hydraulic Jump - Definition

➢ Also known as Standing Wave.

➢ A distinct rise or jump in the elevation of water surface in open channel occurring when rapid flowing
stream abruptly changes to slow flowing stream.
➢ Hydraulic jump converts kinetic energy of stream rapidly flowing into potential energy. Thus, some ‘loss’ of
kinetic energy happens here.
➢ At a place where hydraulic jump occurs eddys (or eddying turbulences) form which cause energy
dissipation.
➢ Practically, a hydraulic jump occurs at the toe of spillways and below sluice gate.

48
Hydraulic Jump

49
Hydraulic Jump - Height of the jump

➢ From the diagram, terms of interest include:

• Height of jump, Hj
• Length of jump, Lj
➢ Relative height of the jump,

hj 2
1+ 8N F1 −3
=
E1 2
N F1 +2

Where:
hj = height of the jump ( y2 − y1 ).

E1 = specific energy upstream the jump.

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Hydraulic Jump - Length of the jump

➢ Length of the jump, Lj, can be determined from experimental data.

➢ Lj varies with NF1, from about Lj = 4y2 when NF1 = 1.7, to a maximum of Lj = 6.15y2 when NF1 = 7, after
which the length decreases.

Table : Variation of the length of a hydraulic jump, Lj, with NF1.

(Hamill, les 2011, 3rd Edition)
NF1 < 1.7 1.7 2 2.5 3 4 5 7 14 20
Undular
Lj 4.0y2 4.4y2 4.8y2 5.3y2 5.8y2 6.0y2 6.2y2 6.0y2 5.5y2
jump

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Hydraulic Jump - Initial and Sequent Depths

➢ Predicting the sequent depth can be achieved by the depth ratio equation:
1+ 8NF1 −1 )
y2 1
=
y1 2
( 2
or
q2 = y y (y1 + y2 )
g 1 2
2

➢ The energy head loss through the hydraulic jump can be calculated as:

hL =
(y2 − y1 )
3

4 y1 y2

52
Beneficial Effects of Hydraulic Jump

➢ Velocity of flow is decreased.

➢ Excess energy contained in high velocity flow is dissipated in the jump.

53
Examples
Example 1

55
Example 1

56
Example 2

n = 0.013

57
Example 3

n = 0.017

58
Example 4
3
n = 0.017

59
Example 4

60
Example 5

Figure shows a stormwater drain with a bottom width of 5m,free surface width of 12.2m , and flow depth of
1.2m discharges water at a rate of 3126 m3/min. If the surfaces of the channel are lined with asphalt
(n=0.016), determine the slop of the channel.

Given
b = 5m
3126 m3
Q= = 52.1
60 s
y = 1.2m
T = 12.2
n = 0.016

61
Example 5

➢ Side slope , z

Z = 12.2 − 5 = 3
2 1.2

➢ Area , A

A = By + zy2 = 51.2 + 31.23 = 10.32m2

A = 1 (T + b)d = 1 (12.2 + 5)1.2 = 10.32m2 (Another Eq.)
2 2
➢ Wetted perimeter , P

P = b + 2 y 1+ z2 = 5 + 2 1.2 1+ 32 = 12.59m

62
Example 5

➢ Hydraulic radius , R

R = A = 10.32 = 0.82m
P 12.59

➢ From the Manning’s equation ,

2 1
Q= 1 R
n 3S 2 A
2 1
1
52.1 =  0.823  S 2 10.32 → S = 0.0085
0.016
➢ Thus , for every 1 km , the drop is

drop = 0.00851000 = 8.53m

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Example 6

n = 0.013

64
Example 7

65
Example 8

66
Example 8

y = 0.63
D

A = 0.64 R = 1.12
Af Rf

67
Example 9

68
Example 9

69
Example 10

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Example 11

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Example 12

72
Example 13

73
Example 14

74
Example 15

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Example 15

76
Example 15

77
Example 16

78
Example 17

79
Example 17

80
Example 18

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Thank You