Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

UNIT – 1, Computer Network, BCS-603

 Computer Network

When two or more computers are connected together (wired or wireless) for the purpose of sharing
resources (sharing resources like video, audio, text, files, images, pdf, document etc.) is known as
Computer Network.

Types of Networks:

Wired Network: A wired network uses physical cables, like copper or fiber optic wires, to connect
devices to the internet or other networks. Devices such as laptops and desktop computers use these
cables to communicate.
Wireless Network: A wireless network does not need physical cables. It uses signals like radio
waves, microwaves or infrared to transmit data. Devices such as smartphones, Wi-Fi-enabled laptops,
and TV remotes use antennas to send and receive signals wirelessly, allowing communication without
any physical connections, also some wireless technologies like satellite communications and some
wireless internet connections, providing fast data transfer over long distances.

 Goals of Computer Network

 Sharing Information: Computer networks help different devices (like computers, phones, or
printers) share information with each other. This can be files, emails, or even messages.

 Resource Sharing: Devices on a network can share resources like printers, storage, or internet
connection. This means you don‟t need separate devices for everything.

 Communication: Networks allow people to communicate with each other, whether it's through
emails, messages, or video calls. This is really helpful for talking to people far away without needing
to travel, so you don‟t have to spend money on travel.

 Access to Remote Services: With a network, you can access services or information stored on
other computers even if they are far away. This is like using the internet to visit websites or access
cloud storage.

 Security: Networks aim to keep the data safe by protecting it from unauthorized access, using
passwords, encryption, and other methods.

 Reliability: A good network ensures that data can be sent and received correctly, even if some
parts of the network fail.

 Saving Costs: Computer networks save money because you can share things, talk to people, and
use services without traveling expenses.

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 Application of Computer networks

 Internet Browsing: Access websites and information online.
 Email: Send and receive messages quickly.
 File Sharing: Share files between devices easily.
 Online Gaming: Play games with others online.
 Video Calls: Make video calls to others.
 Cloud Storage: Store and access files online.
 Social Media: Connect and share content on platforms like Facebook.
 Remote Work: Work from anywhere with network access.
 Online Shopping: Buy products from websites like Amazon.
 Streaming Services: Watch movies and listen to music online.
 E-Learning: Attend classes and access study materials online.
 Banking and Payments: Handle banking and payments online.
 VoIP Calls: Make calls over the internet with apps like Skype.
 Telemedicine: Consult with doctors remotely via video.
 Smart Home Devices: Control home devices through the network.
 Collaborative Work: Work together on shared online documents.

 Categories of Network

1. Based on Geographical Area:

 LAN (Local Area Network): Small area (home, office).
 WAN (Wide Area Network): Large area (cities, countries).
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city or campus.
 PAN (Personal Area Network): Personal devices, short range.
 CAN (Campus Area Network): Connects several LANs in a campus.

2. Based on Network Topology:

 Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh, Tree, Hybrid: Different ways devices are connected in a network.

3. Based on Functionality:
 Client-Server: Clients request services from servers.
 Peer-to-Peer (P2P): Devices share resources directly.

4. Based on the Mode of Communication:

 Wired Network: Physical cables (Ethernet, fiber).
 Wireless Network: Radio waves (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).

5. Based on Protocols:
 Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, VPN: Different technologies for communication.

6. Based on Security:
 Private Network: Secure, restricted access.

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 Public Network: Open to all, less secure.

 VPN (Virtual Private Network): Secure connection over a public network.

 Organization of Internet
The Internet is organized into several key layers and components:

1. Physical Infrastructure: Includes cables, routers, switch, hubs, computers, data centers, and
satellite systems that make up the physical network connecting the world.
2. Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Companies that provide users with access to the Internet,
managing regional networks and offering connectivity.
3. Protocols: Standards like TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) and
HTTP/HTTPS that define how data is transmitted and accessed across the network.
4. Domain Name System (DNS): Translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers use. (DNS is use to convert names to IP
and IP to names).
5. Governance Bodies: Key organizations like ICANN (for domain names), IETF (for
standards), and W3C (for web technologies) oversee the Internet's functioning and
development.
6. Security: Protocols like SSL/TLS, firewalls, and cyber security measures protect data and
ensure privacy.
7. Content Delivery: by using Websites, cloud services, and applications we can easily deliver
the content to users.
8. Applications: Platforms like search engines, social media, email, and online services (e.g.,
Google, Amazon) operate on top of the Internet, offering interactive and informational
services.

 ISP (Internet Service Provider)

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company or organization that provides individuals,

businesses, and other organizations with access to the Internet. ISPs offer various types of internet
connections, including broadband, fiber-optic, cable, satellite, and wireless services, depending on
the region and the infrastructure available.

Working of ISP:

 Getting Connected: When you sign up with an ISP, they provide you with a way to connect
to the Internet, usually through a cable, fiber-optic line, or wireless network.
 IP Address: They give your device (like your phone or computer) a unique number called an
IP address so it can talk to other devices online.
 Speed and Service: ISPs offer different speeds and plans. For example, some plans let you
stream movies quickly, while others are slower and better for checking emails or browsing.

Types of Connections ISPs Provide:

1. Wi-Fi (wireless internet): Connecting to the internet through a router in your home.
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2. Cable or Fiber-Optic: Fast internet connections that come through cables plugged into your
home.
3. Mobile Internet: Internet through your phone or mobile device using 4G or 5G networks.

Examples of ISPs:

 Comcast (USA)
 AT&T (USA)
 Verizon (USA)
 BT Group (UK)
 Vodafone (Global)
 Sky (UK)
 Airtel (India)

 Network Structure and Architecture

LAN – Local Area Network
MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
WAN – Wide Area Network
CAN – Campus Area Network
PAN – Personal Area Network
BAN – Bluetooth Area Network

LAN – Local Area Network

• Local Area Networks are used to connect Interconnection of PCs and other Network devices
that are very close together in a limited area such as a floor of a building, a building itself or
within a campus.

• Use to create small networks.

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MAN – Metropolitan Area Network

• Metropolitan Area Network is used to connect networking devices that may span around the
entire city or within a city.

• Use to create medium networks.

WAN – Wide Area Network

• Wide Area Networks which connects two or more LANs present at different geographical
locations like Country or Satellite Communication.

• Use to create large networks.

• Internet is a most important example of WAN.

• It connects millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any

computer can communicate with any other computer as long as they are both connected to
the Internet.

CAN – Campus Area Network

• Campus Area Network was shortly called the CAN. Office, school, any area that presented at
a limited distance is called the campus. The providing of the network at a particular location
is called a Campus Area Network.
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• It is the collection of multiple buildings or houses at a particular within the particular area.
• Example - university campus or school campus, the whole campus is connected through the
Internet.

PAN – Personal Area Network

• A personal area network (PAN) connects electronic devices within a user's immediate area.
• The size of a PAN ranges from a few centimeters to a few meters.
• One of the most common real-world examples of a PAN is the connection between a
Bluetooth earphone and a smartphone.
• PANs can also connect laptops, tablets, printers, keyboards, and other computerized devices.
• PAN network connections can either be wired or wireless.
• Wired connection methods include USB and FireWire.
• Wireless connection methods include Bluetooth, Hotspot etc. For instance, a desktop
computer, a wireless mouse, and wireless headphones can all be connected to each other.

Types of Personal Area Network (PAN):

Personal Area Network can be of 2 types depending upon its connection i.e., Wireless PAN, and
Wired PAN.

These are explained as following below:

1. Wireless PAN –
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is connected through signals such as Hotspot,
Bluetooth etc.

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2. Wired PAN –
Wired PAN is connected through cables/wires such as mobile connected through laptop, wired
earphone connected with mobile, Firewire or USB (Universal Serial Bus).

BAN – Bluetooth Area Network

• BAN is an example of PAN.

• It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for exchanging
data over smaller distances.
• Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters.
• WPAN is also known as (BPAN Bluetooth Personal Area Network).

Types of data transmission modes in computer network:

 Unicast
 Multicast
 Broadcast
 Anycast

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• A Unicast communication is from one device on the network to another device on the
network.
• One to One Communication between sender and receiver.

• A Multicast communication is from one device on the network to many, but not all, devices
on the network.
• One to Many Communication between sender and multiple receivers.

• A Broadcast communication is from one device on the network to all devices on the
network.
• One to all Communication between sender and multiple receivers.

 An Anycast communication is from one device on the network to many devices on the
network.
 Communication between one sender and multiple receivers, but data is send to the nearest
node first.

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Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Another Types of data transmission modes (Communication modes) in

computer network:

 Simplex Communication.
 Half – duplex Communication.
 Full – duplex Communication.

Simplex Communication: (One way communication)

 It is a one way or unidirectional communication between two devices in which one device is
sender and other one is receiver.
 Devices use the entire capacity of the link to transmit the data. It is like a one way street
where vehicles can move in only one direction.
 For example, data entered through a keyboard to the monitor, but keyboard did not receive
any data or we can send data from remote to TV, but TV did not send any data to the remote,
similarly audio sent to a speaker are one way communications. With the advent of IoT,
controlling home appliances is another example of simplex communication. Example - TV
or Remote, Keyboard or Monitor.

Half-duplex Communication: (Two way communication but one at a time)

 It is two way or bidirectional communication between two devices in which both the devices
can send and receive data or control signals in both directions, but not at the same time.
 While one device is sending data, the other one will receive and vice-versa. Vehicles cannot
pass the bridge simultaneously.
 Basically, it is a simplex channel where the direction of transmission can be switched.
Application of such type of communication can be found in walkie-talkie where one can
press the push-to-talk button and talk. This enables the transmitter and turns off the receiver
in that device and others can only listen.

Full-duplex Communication: (Two way communication but both at the same time)

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 It is two way or bidirectional communications in which both devices can send and receive
data simultaneously.
 It is like a two way road where vehicles can go in both directions at the same time.
 This type of communication channel is employed to allow simultaneous communication, for
example, in our mobile phones and landline telephones.

 OSI Model
ISO – OSI Reference Model
There are 7 layers in OSI Reference Model:

 Application Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Session Layer
 Transport Layer
 Network Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Physical Layer
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – „International
Organization for Standardization„, in the year 1984. It is 7 layer architecture with each layer
having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one person to another across the globe.

OSI mainly defines the relationship between layers over the internet.

The main purpose of OSI model is to transfer digital data among the 7 layers. If you send message
from one place to another, so that message will travel from all the layers of OSI model securely.

In OSI reference model all the 7 layers are separated because if an error occurs in one layer, then
that error does not cause problems in other layers because they are separated, therefore, we will
solve the layer, in which error occurs.

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Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Receiver Side: Physical layer to Application layer: Bits converted into Frames, Frames converted
into Packets, Packets converted into Segment, Segment converted into Data.

Sender Side: Application layer to Physical layer: Data converted into Segments, Segments
converted into Packets, Packets converted into Frames, Frames converted into Bits.

Note:
Physical layer, Data link layer, Network layer are lower layers or we can say hardware
layers of OSI model.

Session layer, Presentation layer, Application layer are upper layers or we can say software
layers of OSI model.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

 The lowest layer or first layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
 Coverts bits into electrical signals.
 Physical layer is a hardware layer because it contains hub, repeater, modem, cables,
computers etc.
 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.

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 Contains bits.
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
 It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
 When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and
send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables, Computers are Physical Layer devices.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2):

 The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
 The lowest layer or second layer of the OSI reference model is the data link layer.
 Physical layer contains data in the form of bits and when that data moves from
physical layer to data link layer that bits converted into frames.
 Error control and Flow control at local level.
 Data link layer is a hardware layer because it contains Switch and Bridge.
 Contains MAC address.
 Contain frames.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.

Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)

The functions of the Data Link layer are:

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching
special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
address) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.

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Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving
acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the
MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.

Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host
machines.
Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

 The lowest layer or third layer of the OSI reference model is the data link layer.
 Data link layer contains frames, when that data moves from data link layer to
network layer that frames converted into packet.
 Router, IP and Routing is done in this layer.
 Host to host Communication.
 Fragmentation – Divide the data into parts.
 Network layer is a hardware layer because it contains Router that performs routing.
 Contains packets.
 Contains IP.

 The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks.
 It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available.
 The sender & receiver‟s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing. Routing can be done by
using router.
2. Logical Addressing (IP): In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver‟s IP addresses are placed
in the header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.

Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet.

Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

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 End to End Encryption, end to end delivery of packets.

 The fourth layer of the OSI reference model is the Transport layer.
 Network layer contains packets, when that data moves from Network layer to
Transport layer that packet converted into segments.
 Contains segments.
 Flow control and Error control at global level.
 The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer.
 The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
 It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
 TCP and UDP are the transport layer protocol. TCP is connection oriented protocol and
UDP is the connectionless protocol.
 Congestion Control.

Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.

Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

 The fifth layer of the OSI reference model is the Session layer.
 Manage session or communication between two parties.
 Contains DATA.

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

authentication, and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are:
1. Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: Communication between two different parties. Two or more actions happen
exactly at the same time. This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered
synchronization points into the data.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

All the below 3 layers (including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP
model as “Application Layer”.
Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known
as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

Scenario:

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Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which
provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and converted into bits (0‟s and 1‟s) so that it can be
transmitted.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

 The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer or Syntax layer.
 The sixth layer of the OSI reference model is the Presentation layer.
 Contains DATA.
 Contains encryption and decryption.
 The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are:
 Translation: physical layer plays a role of translator to receive and transfer the data.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

 Provides services to the user. Like user login or password etc.

 Application layer is the seventh layer of OSI model.
 Contains DATA.
 These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
 Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

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Note: OSI model is the new model and TCP/IP is the old model, we will learn OSI model first but
actually TCP/IP model comes first, and then OSI model. OSI model is a theoretical model but
TCP/IP model is a practical model.

 TCP/IP Model or TCP/IP Reference Model (4 layers Model)

TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It was developed by

the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s. It is named after the two main protocols that are
used in the model, namely, TCP and IP. TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP
stands for Internet Protocol.
TCP/IP is a 4 layers model.
 Host-to-Network Layer/Network interface
 Internet Layer
 Transport Layer
 Application Layer

The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are −

 Host-to-Network Layer/Network interface −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the
physical transmission of data. It is a combination of Physical layer and Data link layer.
TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but supports all the standard protocols.

 Internet Layer – In case of TCP/IP model Network layer is known as Internet Layer. It
defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over the network. The main protocol in
this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP,
RARP, and ARP.

 Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data. The protocols
defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol
(UDP).

 Application Layer − this is the topmost layer of TCP/IP model, and defines the interface
of host programs with the transport layer services. Application layer of TCP/IP model is a
combination of 3 layers i.e. application layer, presentation layer and session layer of OSI
Model. This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
etc.

The following diagram shows the layers and the protocols in each of the layers −
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Difference between OSI and TCP/IP model (also with diagram).

OSI Model TCP/IP Model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol.
OSI model is a theoretical model, because it TCP/IP model is a practical model, because
does not contains protocols. TCP/IP model contains protocols like FTP,
DHCP, DNS, SMTP, IP, ARP, RARP, GARP,
HTTP, IMAP and POP3 etc.
OSI Model is a new model. (comes after TCP/IP is an old model. (Comes first)
TCP/IP model)
OSI model contains 7 layers. TCP/IP model contains 4 layers.
In OSI model Application layer, presentation In TCP/IP model Application layer,
layer and session layer are separated. presentation layer and session layer are
combine together and becomes Application
layer.
In OSI model the third layer is Network layer. In TCP/IP model Network layer becomes
Internet Layer.
In OSI model Application layer, Data link In TCP/IP model Data link layer and physical
layer and physical layer are separated. layer are combine together and becomes
Network access layer.
OSI model is a Vertical approach. TCP/IP model is a Horizontal approach.

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 Network Devices or Components / Internetworking Devices

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 Physical Layer

 Functionalities of Physical Layer:

The Physical Layer in a computer network is the first layer in the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model. It is responsible for the actual transmission of raw data bits (0s and 1s) over
a physical medium, like cables, wireless signals, or optical fibers. Its primary functionalities include:

1. Sending Data: It converts data into signals (like electrical signals or light) to send through
cables or air.
2. Choosing the Medium: It decides what kind of cables or wireless signals to use (like copper
cables or Wi-Fi).
3. Speed of Transmission: It controls how fast the data is sent.
4. Connection: It sets up and ends the physical connection between devices.
5. Signal Synchronization: It ensures the sender and receiver are in sync to send and receive
data correctly.

In short, the Physical Layer is all about physically sending data over a network.

 Transmission Media in Physical Layer:

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Two Types of Media:

 Guided (Wired)
 Unguided (Wireless)

Guided (Wired): Guided media in computer networks refers to physical cables or wires that
carry data signals from one place to another. The data travels through these cables in a specific path.
The most common types of guided media are:

1. Twisted Pair Cable: Wires twisted together to reduce interference, crosstalk, errors.
2. Coaxial Cable: A central wire surrounded by insulation and a shield to protect the signal.
3. Fiber Optic Cable: Uses light to transmit data through glass or plastic fibers.

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Unguided (Wireless): Unguided wireless media refers to the transmission of data without the
use of physical cables or wires. Data is sent through the air using radio waves, microwaves, or
infrared signals. These are examples of wireless communication methods.

 Radio Waves: Used for mobile phones, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.

 Microwaves: Used for satellite communication and long-distance links.
 Infrared: Used for short-range devices like remote controls.
 Light Waves (Laser): Used in optical wireless communication, ex CD, DVD etc.

Microwave machines, ovens, and air fryers fall under unguided media because they use
microwaves (a type of electromagnetic wave) to cook food, and these microwaves travel through the
air without using any physical cables or wires.

 Microwave Oven: Uses microwaves to heat and cook food.

 Air Fryer: Often uses hot air circulated at high speeds (sometimes in combination with a
small amount of microwaves) for cooking.

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 Network Topology (Style of Connectivity)

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Note: Simplest topology is a bus topology, complex topology is mesh topology,

and best topology among all the topology is star topology.

 Network Performance

 Bandwidth: The amount of data is transfer from one place to another is known as
Bandwidth. The maximum data transfer rate (higher is better).
 Latency: The time it takes for data to travel (lower is better). If data is transfer slowly then
latency is more or higher, if data is travel fast then latency is less or lower.
 Throughput: throughput refers to the amount of data successfully transmitted over a
network in a given period of time. It is typically measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits
per second (Kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps). Packet
Loss: The percentage of lost data packets (lower is better).
 Jitter: This is the inconsistency in how fast data moves. Sometimes data goes quickly,
sometimes slowly. High jitter can mess up things like video streaming or calls, making them
blurry or laggy. (Lower is better).
 Error Rate: The rate of corrupted or lost packets (lower is better). A low error rate means
fewer problems.
 Network Load: This is how much of the network is being used at any given time. If a lot of
people are using it, the network can get slow or overloaded, like a crowded highway. How
much of the network‟s capacity is being used (lower is better).

 Transmission Impairments
Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the original signal send
by sender. In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets
different amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we
get changes in bits (0's or 1's).
Causes
There are various causes of transmission impairments −
 Noise
 Distortion
 Attenuation

Noise
Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets added to the
transmitted signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets modified and at the receiver side it
is difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal. These noises are various kinds like shot noise,
impulse noise, thermal noise etc.
Noise is diagrammatically represented as follows −

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Distortion or Delay Distortion

Distortion happens when a signal gets changed or messed up while traveling. This can make it look
or sound different from what it was supposed to be.
Distortion can make things unclear or cause errors, like a bad phone call or slow internet.
Original signal which leads to the change in shape of the signal. The delay happens due to
environmental parameters or from the distance between transmitter and receiver etc.
Distortion is diagrammatically represented as follows −

Attenuation or Attenuation Distortion

Attenuation means decrease or reduction or we can say the reduction of the force, effect, or value of
something.

Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received signal will be difficult to
receive at the receiver end. This attenuation happens due to environmental problems signal strength
decreases. The above picture shows that the signal loses power at its travels time.

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

 Switching Techniques and Multiplexing

 Switching Techniques:

 Switching is the process of transferring data packets from one device to another in a
network, or from one network to another, using specific devices called switches.
 Switching takes place at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model.
 A switch is a hardware device in a network that connects and helps multiple devices share a
network without their data interfering with each other.
 Some data packets come from devices directly connected to the switch, like computers or
VoIP phones. Other packets come from devices connected through hubs or routers.

Types of Switching
There are three types of switching methods:
 Message Switching
 Circuit Switching
 Packet Switching
o Datagram Packet Switching
o Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Message Switching: This is an older switching technique that has become obsolete. In message
switching technique, the entire data block/message is forwarded across the entire network thus,
making it highly inefficient.

Circuit Switching: In this type of switching, a connection is established between the source and
destination beforehand. This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the network until the
data is transferred completely.
This approach is better than message switching as it does not involve sending data to the entire
network, instead of its destination only.

Packet Switching: This technique requires the data to be broken down into smaller components,
data frames, or packets. These data frames are then transferred to their destinations according to
the available resources in the network at a particular time.
This switching type is used in modern computers and even the Internet.

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

 Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Datagram Packet Switching: In Datagram Packet switching, each data frame is taken as an
individual entity and thus, they are processed separately. Here, no connection is established before
data transmission occurs. Although this approach provides flexibility in data transfer, it may cause
a loss of data frames or late delivery of the data frames.

Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching: In Virtual-Circuit Packet switching, a logical connection

between the source and destination is made before transmitting any data. These logical
connections are called virtual circuits. Each data frame follows these logical paths and provides a
reliable way of transmitting data with less chance of data loss.

 Multiplexing Techniques:

 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
 Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

1. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

 Description: In TDM, the available bandwidth of a communication channel is divided into

fixed time slots. Each data stream is assigned a specific time slot, and the streams take turns
transmitting their data in the allotted time frame.
 Types:
o Synchronous TDM: The time slots are predefined and fixed, regardless of whether
data is being transmitted in that slot or not.
o Statistical TDM: Time slots are dynamically allocated based on demand, which
helps in utilizing bandwidth more efficiently.

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

 Example: Telephone systems often use TDM to allow multiple calls to share the same
physical line.
 TDM mainly focus on time.
 Imagine you have a single road, and multiple cars (data streams) need to travel on it. TDM
divides the road into time slots, and each car gets a turn to use the road for a short period of
time. It allows multiple signals to share the same channel by taking turns, based on time.

2. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

 Description: FDM works by dividing the total bandwidth of a communication medium into
smaller frequency bands. Each data stream is transmitted at a different frequency, allowing
multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously without interference.
 Example: Analog TV, radio, broadcasts use FDM to transmit multiple channels over the
same frequency spectrum.
 FDM mainly focus on frequency.
 Think of FDM like a radio with multiple stations. Instead of everyone using the same
frequency (channel), each station gets its own frequency to broadcast on. This allows
multiple signals to travel simultaneously without interfering with each other.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

 Description: WDM is a technique used in fiber optic communication. It divides the available
fiber-optic bandwidth into multiple wavelength channels, where each wavelength carries a
separate data stream.
 Types:
o Dense WDM (DWDM): Offers a large number of closely spaced channels (high
capacity).
o Coarse WDM (CWDM): Offers fewer channels with wider spacing.
 Example: Internet service providers use WDM for high-speed data transmission over long
distances via fiber-optic cables.
 WDM mainly focus on wavelength.
 WDM is like FDM but for light signals in fiber optics. Imagine you have a fiber-optic cable
and can send light signals at different colors (wavelengths). Each color carries a separate
signal, allowing you to send many signals at once over the same fiber.

4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

 Description: CDM allows multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously over the same
frequency channel by using unique codes for each signal. Each user or data stream is
assigned a unique code, and the data is transmitted by modulating the signal with that code.
The receiver can decode the signals using the same code.
 Example: CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is widely used in mobile communication
networks for handling multiple calls.

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava

 CDM works like a secret code. Multiple signals are sent at the same time, but each signal is
scrambled with a unique code. The receiver can separate them out using the correct code,
even though they‟re all sent at the same time.

5. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

 Description: SDM involves the use of multiple physical channels, each operating
independently. This is achieved through the use of different physical media, such as multiple
wires, antennas, or fiber optic cables.
 Example: Multiple antennas or fiber-optic cables can be used to provide parallel
communication paths.
 SDM is about using different physical paths for communication. For example, instead of
sending all signals through one wire, you can send them through multiple wires or antennas.
It‟s like having multiple lanes on a highway for different cars to travel at the same time.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS (UNIT-1)

 What are applications of Computer network? (imp)
 What are Advantages and Disadvantages of Mesh Topology?
 What are Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology?
 What are Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology?
 Explain the working of Bridge.
 Define Compression.
 Name and explain Network Devices on each layer of OSI model.
 Define various topologies with diagram, features and pros and cons. (Imp)
 Explain the difference between point to point and point to multipoint.
 Explain 7 layers of osi model with diagram. (Imp)
 Explain TCP/IP model with diagram and protocols in detail. (Imp)
 Explain Transmission impairments.
 Discuss about transmission medium (modes) in networking.
 Discuss each command in detail used in networking: ipconfig, netstat, ping, hostname,
tracert.
 Discuss the different physical layer transmission media.
 Differentiate between circuit switching and packet switching.
 Discuss the functionalities of Physical Layer.
 Difference between connectionless and connection oriented services. (Imp)
 Difference between OSI and TCP/IP model. (Imp)
 Discuss about transmission modes in networking.
 Differentiate between Internet, Intranet and Extranet.
 Discuss the different transmission media in physical layer.
 Explain ISDN with its types.

Notes by Professor Tanya Shrivastava