Solid waste treatment-Composting

By- Dr. Ekta Khare

Department of Microbiology,
Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur
 Composting
• Composting is the process by which the organic, biodegradable portion of
MSW is microbiologically degraded under aerobic conditions.
• During the process of degradation, bacteria are used to decompose and
break down the organic matter into water and CO2, which produces large
amounts of heat and water vapor in the process.
• Given sufficient oxygen and optimum temperatures, the composting
process achieves a high degree of volume reduction and also generates a
stable end product called compost that can be used for
mulching, soil amendment, and soil quality enhancement.
• Four tasks are central to the design of a modern munciple solid waste
(MSW) composting system:
– Collection
– contaminant separation
– sizing and mixing
– biological decomposition
 Collection
• Separate collection of compostable materials programs can include everything from
yard and food waste to soiled paper products, and in some cases have recovered 45
to 50 percent of the entire solid waste stream for composting.
• However, even when organic compostables are separately collected, a small
fraction of non-compostable wastes will need to be removed at the composting
facility.
• Educational programs are a critical aspect of source separated composting systems,
since such programs depend on residents to accomplish much of the separation.
• Composting programs which accept a mixed waste stream accept material more or
less as it is currently collected, relying on the facility separation techniques.
• There are several trade-offs between source separation and centralized separation
of compostables.
• It is clear that source separation can produce a higher quality, less contaminated
compost, as well as maximize the recycling of glass and paper.
• And while source separation is generally less convenient for the waste generator,
pilot programs are finding that many generators like to do it.
 Centralized Separation
• In composting systems there are three objectives for materials separation:
1) recover recyclable or combustible materials as marketable by-products,
2) reduce the levels of visible inert materials (e.g., plastics and glass), and
3) reduce the levels of chemical contaminants (e.g., heavy metals).
Table 1. MSW Composting - Centralized Separation Technologies
 ...Centralized Separation
Screening (Figure 1): Fine materials, including soil, grit,
and much of the organic wastes, fall through the
screen as "unders".
• Plastic films and large paper products are retained
on the screen as "overs" and may possibly be
recycled or marketed as a refuse derived fuel (RDF),
which is burned for energy recovery.
Manual Separation: With materials segregated to a
relatively uniform size, it becomes much more
practical to hand separate recyclables and Figure 1.
contaminants as they move along conveyor lines.
Magnetic Separation: utilize magnetic belts, rollers or
overhead magnets to separate the ferrous metals
from the rest of the stream.
Eddy current separation (Figure 2): This technology
works by exerting repulsive forces on electrically
conductive materials.
• Aluminum is the primary metal recovered from
MSW, although some copper and brass will also be
separated. Figure 2.
 ...Centralized Separation
Air classification: The heart of an air classification
system is an air column or "throat", into which the
waste stream is fed at a gradual rate.
• A large blower sucks air up through the throat,
carrying light materials such as paper and plastic,
which then enter a cyclone separator where they
loose velocity and drop out of the air stream.
• Heavier materials, such as metal, glass, and food
waste, fall directly out of the throat (Figure 3).
Wet separation: take advantage of the density
differences as air classifiers, use water rather than
air as the floating medium.
• After entrainment in a circulating water stream, the
heavy fraction drops into a sloped tank where it Figure 3.
moves to a removal zone.
• The less dense org. matter floats and is removed
from the recirculating water by screening systems.
Ballistic separation: takes advantage of both density and
elasticity differences to separate inert and organic
constituents.
 Size Reduction and Homogenization
• Even after the removal of much of the non-compostable material, municipal solid
waste needs further processing before composting. Large pieces of paper,
cardboard, food and yard waste will break down slowly if not reduced to a smaller
size.
• Reducing particle size increases surface area, enhancing composting rates because
the optimum conditions for decomposition occur on the surfaces of organic
materials.
• However, reducing particle size also reduces the pore size, limiting the movement of
oxygen required for composting.
• Thus for any composting system and material there is an optimum range of particle
sizes, and for MSW this is usually between 0.5 and two inch diameters (1.2 - 5 cm).
• There are three major types of size reducing devices available for municipal waste
processing: hammermills, shear shredders, and rotating drums.
• Shear shredders usually consist of a pair of counter-rotating knives or hooks (each of
which is several centimeters thick), which rotate at a slow speed with high torque.
• The shearing action tears or cuts most materials, although thin flexible items like
film plastic may slip through the gaps between the knives.
 Size Reduction and Homogenization
Hammermills consist of rotating sets of
swinging steel hammers through which
the waste is fed (Figure 4).
Rotating drums mix materials by tumbling
them in a rotating cylinder (Figure 5).
• Internal flights or vanes lift material up
the sides of the rotating drum where
they fall to the base by gravity.
• Drums take advantage of gravity to
tumble, mix, and homogenize the
wastes.
• Dense, abrasive items such as glass or Figure 4.
metal will pulp the softer materials,
resulting in considerable size reduction
of paper and other cellulosic materials.
• While some of these drums can also
function as biological reactors, typical
residence times of less than 36 hours
allow only the beginnings of microbial
decomposition. Figure 5.
 Biological process of composting
• Carbon and nitrogen: are the two most important elements in the composting process.
• If nitrogen is limiting, microbial populations will remain small and it will take longer to
decompose the available carbon.
• Excess nitrogen, beyond the microbial requirements, is often lost from the system as ammonia
gas or other mobile nitrogen compounds and can cause odors.
• While the typically recommended C:N ratios for composting MSW are 25:1 to 40:1 by weight.
• Nitrogen is usually the limiting element in MSW, and additives such as manure, clean sewage
sludge (biosolids), septage and urea can be used as a supplemental nitrogen source.
• Moisture: is essential to the decomposition process, as most of the decomposition occurs in thin
liquid films on the surfaces of particles.
• Excess moisture fill many of the pores between particles with water, limiting oxygen transport.
• If too little oxygen gets to the center of the compost, anaerobic decomposition will result.
• While anaerobic activity normally occurs to a limited extent in the interior of particles within an
otherwise aerobic system, high levels of anaerobic metabolism can generate a wide range of
unpleasant and pervasive odors and other by-products.
• A moisture content of 50- 55 % is usually recommended for high rate composting of MSW.
• During the active composting phase, additional water usually needs to be added to prevent
premature drying and incomplete stabilization.
• MSW compost mixtures usually start at about 52 percent moisture and dry to about 37 percent
moisture prior to final screening and marketing.
 ... Biological process of composting
• Oxygen and Temperature: Both fluctuate in response to microbial activity, which
consumes oxygen and generates heat.
• Aeration both resupplies oxygen as it is depleted and carries away excess heat.
• Rapidly decomposing wastes can use up the oxygen introduced by turning within a
matter of minutes.
• Oxygen concentrations in the large pores must normally be at least 12-14 % (ideally 16-
17 %) to allow adequate diffusion into large particles and water filled pores.
• Most MSW composting systems used a forced aeration system with blowers and
distribution pipes to supply oxygen during the initial phases of active composting.
• Passive diffusion and natural convection help supply oxygen to windrow systems
between turning events.
• Heat is a by-product of decomposition, and is important in raising and maintaining
temperatures for efficient decomposition.
• Temperatures of 45 to 59°C (113-138°F) provide the highest rate of decomposition, with
temperatures above 59°C (138°F) reducing the rate of decomposition due to a
reduction in microbial diversity.
• Since temperatures in excess of 55°C (131°F) for several days are usually required for
pathogen control, the ideal temperature operating range is relatively narrow.
• Temperature also can affect odor, with odor generation rates for many compounds
peaking between 56 and 70°C (132-158°F).
Composting process
 Composting: microbial succession
• A typical microbial succession has been described in the following terms: First,
facultative (aerobic) and obligate (anaerobic) bacteria begin to work and are active
through the mesophilic phase.
• The initial mesophilic temperatures are produced in the early stages of bacterially-
dominated decomposition by species such as Pseudomonas sp., Streptococcus sp.,
Azobacter sp., Proteus sp., Bacillus sp.
• Then, after 5 to 10 days, thermophilic fungi become prevalent.
• Thermophilic decomposition is enhanced by fungi such as Aspergillus,
Emericella, and Penicillium, among others.
• Following this period, during the cooling down curing/maturation period,
actinomycetes (filamentous bacteria) and molds become prevalent.
• Decomposition within the compost involves the successive actions of these different
“chemical decomposer” microbes, which, in turn, are food for the larger “physical
decomposer” macro-organisms (mites, centipedes, sow bugs, rotifers and various
worms).
• The numbers of each group of microorganisms present in compost:
– Bacteria 1,000,000 – 1 billion present per gram of compost.
– Actinomycetes 100,000 -100 million in a gram of compost.
– Fungi 10,000 -1,000,000, fungal cells per gram of compost.
 Methods of composting
• The method of choice depends on the volume of
waste to be composted and the availability of
space for composting.
• Three most common methods of MSW
composting are:
• Windrow
• Static aerated pile
• Closed in-vessel
– Vertical reactors
– Horizontal reactors
 Windrow method
• This type of composting involves forming organic waste into rows of
long piles called “windrows” and aerating them periodically by
either manually or mechanically turning the piles.
• The ideal pile height is between four and eight feet with a width of
14 to 16 feet.
• This size pile is large enough to generate enough heat and maintain
temperatures.
• It is small enough to allow oxygen flow to the windrow's core.
 Static aerated pile
• In static aerated compost piles, the MSW piles are not
physically agitated, rather air is supplied and excess heat is
removed by a system of sensors and pipes within the pile.
• Piles are often covered with a layer of wood chips or mature
compost to insulate the active compost from ambient
temperatures and/or provide some odor treatment.
 Vertical reactor
• Vertical composting reactors are generally over 4 meters high.
• Organic material is typically fed into the reactor at the top through a distribution mechanism,
and flows by gravity to an unloading mechanism at the bottom.
• Process control is usually by pressure-induced aeration, where the airflow is opposite to the
downward materials flow.
• Neither temperature nor oxygen can be maintained at optimal levels throughout the reactors,
leading to zones of non-optimal activity.
• Some manufacturers have minimized these difficulties by enhanced air distribution and
collection systems, including changing the airflow direction from vertical to horizontal between
alternating sets of inflow and exhaust pipes.
• Tall vertical reactors have been successfully used in the sludge composting industry where
uniform feedstocks and porous amendments can minimize these difficulties in process control,
but are rarely used for heterogeneous materials like MSW.
 Horizontal reactors
• Horizontal reactors avoid the high temperature, oxygen, and moisture
gradients of vertical reactors by maintaining a short airflow pathway .
• They come in a wide range of configurations, including static and agitated,
pressure and/or vacuum-induced aeration.
• Agitated systems usually use the turning process to move material through
the system in a continuous mode, while static systems require a loading
and unloading mechanism.
• Aeration systems are usually set in the floor of the reactor, and may use
temperature and/or oxygen as control variables.
• Systems with agitation and bed depths less than two to three meters
appear effective in dealing with the heterogeneity of MSW.
Hotizontal bed reactor
 Questions
• What is composting? Explain the four tasks are
central to the design of a modern municipal solid
waste (MSW) composting system.
• What are the different methods of composting?
Explain biological degradation and composting in
detail.
• Write short notes on:
– Composting and its importance
– Microbial succession during composting
– Factors effecting composting
– Types of composting
Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)
1. Introduction
 Launched on October 2, 2014, by Prime Minister Narendra Modi to honor
Mahatma Gandhi’s vision of a clean India.
 Largest sanitation and cleanliness drive in India’s history, aimed at transforming
urban and rural hygiene practices.
 Implemented by Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) for urban
areas and Ministry of Jal Shakti for rural areas.

2. Components of SBM
A. Swachh Bharat Mission - Gramin (SBM-G)

 Focuses on eliminating open defecation and promoting sanitation in rural areas.

 Provides incentives for toilet construction and encourages behavioral change
through community engagement.
 Key targets:
o Construction of household toilets, community toilets, and school toilets.
o Creation of ODF villages and sustainable rural sanitation systems.

B. Swachh Bharat Mission - Urban (SBM-U)

 Aims to modernize waste management, sanitation, and public hygiene in cities

and towns.
 Focuses on:
o Waste management: Door-to-door garbage collection, segregation, and
recycling.
o Sanitation: Elimination of open defecation and promotion of public toilet
infrastructure.
o Awareness campaigns to drive behavioral change.

3. Key Objectives
 Achieve Open Defecation Free (ODF) India through improved sanitation facilities.
 Develop a solid waste management system that ensures waste segregation,
processing, and disposal.
 Encourage community participation in maintaining cleanliness.
 Use digital technology (e.g., Swachh Bharat App) to track cleanliness activities.

4. Major Initiatives Under SBM

 Swachh Survekshan: Annual cleanliness survey ranking cities based on sanitation
performance.
 ODF Certification: Recognizing villages and cities that achieve 100% open
defecation-free status.
  Waste-to-Wealth Initiatives: Converting waste into compost, biogas, and energy.
 Plastic Waste Management: Encouraging reduction, recycling, and alternative
solutions to plastic waste.

5. Achievements & Impact

 Over 100 million toilets constructed nationwide.
 Declared 100% rural India Open Defecation Free (ODF) in 2019.
 6,000+ cities and towns participated in Swachh Survekshan.
 Reduction in sanitation-related diseases such as diarrhea and cholera.
 Improved waste collection efficiency in urban areas.

6. Challenges & Limitations

 Sustainability: Many toilets built under SBM are not maintained properly.
 Waste management issues: Cities struggle with efficient waste segregation and
disposal.
 Behavioral change: Some rural and urban populations still resist modern sanitation
habits.
 Financial constraints: Continuous funding is required for long-term maintenance of
sanitation infrastructure.
 Uneven implementation: Some states have performed better than others in meeting
SBM targets.

Smart Cities Program

1. Introduction
 Launched in June 2015 as a part of urban transformation initiatives.
 Aims to develop 100 cities with smart infrastructure, technology-driven
governance, and sustainability.
 Implemented by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).

2. Key Objectives
 Enhance the quality of urban life by improving housing, public services, and safety.
 Develop efficient public transportation and smart traffic management systems.
 Implement e-Governance for transparency and better service delivery.
 Promote sustainable urban development with renewable energy and water
conservation.
 Encourage public-private partnerships (PPP) for financing urban projects.

3. Features of Smart Cities

A. Area-Based Development (ABD)

 Focuses on redevelopment and retrofitting of select urban areas.

 Enhances infrastructure, public spaces, and transport in specific zones.

B. Pan-City Smart Solutions

 Technology integration across the entire city to improve public services.

 Examples include:
o Smart traffic management with AI-based surveillance.
o Digital governance portals for services like tax payments and grievance
redressal.
o Smart waste management using sensors and automated collection.

C. Smart Infrastructure Development

 24x7 water supply and electricity with real-time monitoring.

 Affordable housing for lower-income groups.
 Safe and green urban spaces with smart lighting and public amenities.

D. Technology-Driven Urban Services

 IoT (Internet of Things), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Geographic

Information Systems (GIS) for better urban planning.
 Smart sensors for pollution monitoring, traffic management, and energy
efficiency.
 Integration of digital payment systems in public services.

4. Implementation Strategy
 Cities selected through a competitive process based on proposals.
 Funded by:
o Central and state governments.
o Public-private partnerships (PPP).
o Municipal bonds and external financing.

5. Achievements & Impact

 100 smart cities selected and projects launched.
 Better waste management and sanitation through smart solutions.
 Improved public transport with intelligent traffic management.
 Increase in digital services such as online municipal services and mobile apps.
 Better governance transparency due to digital monitoring.

6. Challenges & Limitations

 Funding constraints: Many cities struggle with financing smart projects.
 Implementation delays: Many projects are behind schedule.
 Technological adaptation issues: Smaller cities lack expertise and infrastructure.
 Social inclusivity: Risk of smart city benefits being limited to wealthier groups.
 Coordination issues: Requires integration between multiple government agencies.