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Pethuru Raj, Houbing Herbert Song, Dac-Nhuong Le, Narayan Vyas (Eds.)
Quantum Machine Learning
Quantum Computing

Edited by
Pethuru Raj and Abhishek Kumar
Quantum Machine
Learning

Quantum Algorithms and Neural Networks

Edited by
Pethuru Raj, Houbing Herbert Song, Dac-Nhuong Le
and Narayan Vyas
Editors
Pethuru Raj, Ph. D. Dac-Nhuong Le, Ph. D.
Reliance Jio Platforms Ltd. Faculty of Information Technology
AECS Layout, C Block Haiphong University
D 002, Prospect Princeton Apartment 171 Phan Dang Luu
Bangalore-560068 Haiphong 180000
India Vietnam
[email protected] [email protected]

Houbing Herbert Song, Ph. D. Narayan Vyas

University of Maryland Department of Computer Science & Application
Balitmore Country (UMBC) Vivekananda Global University
1000 Hilltop Circle I-379, New Bapu Nagar
Sherman Hall, Wing A, 4th floor Near Mayur Sr. Sec. School
Baltimore, MD 21250 Bhilwara, Rajasthan -311001
USA India
[email protected] [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-134209-2
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-134227-6
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-134259-7
ISSN 2940-0112

Library of Congress Control Number: 2024935945

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Preface
Quantum computing (QC) can process calculations tenfold quicker than traditional com-
puting by utilizing the unique characteristics of quantum bits or qubits. The three funda-
mental ideas of quantum mechanics – superposition, entanglement, and interference –
give QC its particular strength. A qubit can store quantum information in a state of su-
perposition, which combines all of the qubit’s potential configurations. Computational
spaces can be made complex and multidimensional by using multiple qubits in superpo-
sition. These spaces allow for many representations of complex problems.
Changes to one qubit directly affect the other when two qubits are entangled.
Probabilistic waves exist in an environment of entangled qubits in a superposition
state. When multiple waves peak at the same result, they might compound on top of
one another or cancel each other out when peaks and troughs intersect. Both of these
are examples of interference. To put it succinctly, QC creates new opportunities.
This paradigm shift in computation can solve complex problems pronounced difficult
by classical computers. Quantum computing is being explored across different industry
verticals. High-performance computing is indispensable for high-end scientific, technical,
mathematical and physics problems. These high-performance problems will be addressed
easily and speedily through fault-tolerant quantum computing. Besides ensuring high-
performance capability for next-generation computing requirements, QC offers signifi-
cant security, blockchain, 6G communication, and AI potential. Precisely speaking, QC
promises noteworthy breakthroughs in performing process optimization and en-
hancing the security and privacy of data transmission over any network.
Modeling the behavior of individual atoms in a molecule turns out to be a com-
plex problem. Similarly, identifying subtle fraud patterns in real-time financial trans-
actions is another complex problem. Some real-world problems are truly complex to
be encoded and solved through classical computers. Thus, high-performance comput-
ing has to be taken to the next level. Supercomputing is one powerful approach.
Supercomputers are being used to accomplish hugely complex computations.
Supercomputers are large-scale classical computers with thousands of central and
graphic processing units (CPUs and GPUs). When scientists and engineers encounter
difficult problems, they turn to supercomputers. A big cluster of distributed CPUs and
GPUs is being leveraged, especially for creating and fine-tuning general-purpose and
purpose-specific large language models (LLMs). Such centralized and distributed
supercomputers are being utilized for solving intractable problems. Supercomputers
are binary code-based machines reliant on the last-century transistor technology, so
they struggle to solve certain kinds of problems. In a nutshell, even a supercomputer
falters and fails to solve problems with a high degree of complexity.
However, as the quantum computing phenomenon is soliciting a lot of attention
from worldwide researchers and practitioners, there is a glimmer of hope that in fu-
ture, for solving high-end AI requirements, quantum computers with large numbers
of qubits will be used. Quantum computers are also expected to challenge the current

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111342276-202
VI Preface

cryptography methods and introduce new possibilities for ensuring complete private
communication.
Our ability to study, simulate, and work with other quantum systems will be aided
by quantum computers. This competency, influenced by quantum mechanics, will en-
hance our comprehension of physics. The findings have implications for designing ob-
jects engineered at a scale where quantum physics is relevant. In other words, once
quantum computers are in use, we will have innovations in computer chips, communi-
cation devices, energy technologies, scientific instruments, sensors, clocks, and materi-
als that are groundbreaking and setting trends. According to IBM, quantum physics
underpins the real world. Our finest tools for comprehending it should, in many cases,
be computers that perform calculations utilizing the quantum states of quantum bits.
Artificial intelligence (AI), quantum computing, and 6G technologies are
evolving fast to bring in a suite of evolutionary and revolutionary advance-
ments for the information processing and communication industry. With the
broader acceptance and adoption of the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm,
market researchers, analysts, and watchers estimate that there will be trillions
of digitized objects and billions of connected embedded systems. When interact-
ing and collaborating, such a humungous number of digitized sensors and ac-
tuators can easily result in zettabytes of data. QC is being presented as the way
forward to make sense of such big data. The IoT devices are typically the data
generator and collector; 5G and 6G in future will be the primary data carrier.
AI is the modern data cruncher to emit actionable insights in time. Quantum
computing is the next-generation IT infrastructure to host and run data and
process-intensive AI models.
By fusing quantum computing, AI and 6G technologies, it is possible to envisage
and realize newer possibilities beyond what each field can achieve individually. For
6G, quantum computing can potentially optimize network resource allocation, im-
prove channel estimation, enhance security mechanisms, and enable advanced algo-
rithms for intelligent network management. Furthermore, quantum entanglement’s
inherent secure communication capabilities can offer novel solutions for encryption,
data privacy, and secure transmission in 6G networks, succulently mitigating emerg-
ing security challenges.
Quantum computing is being proclaimed as a next-generation technology for the
total society. With the faster maturity and stability of enabling theories, techniques and
tools, it is safe to pronounce that quantum computing will become the new normal in
the coming decades. The greater awareness, adoption, and adaptation of digital technol-
ogies (the IoT, AI, cybersecurity, cloud-native computing, 6G, etc.) has inspired national
governments across the world to form special missions to fast-track the research initia-
tives and implementations to smoothen the path for quantum computing to flourish.
This book will discuss the trends and transitions happening in the enigmatic and en-
ergetic quantum computing space. How digitization and digitalization technologies are
being succulently empowered through quantum computers is to be explained easily.
Contents
Preface V

Kavita Arora, Neha Gupta, Rashmi Agrawal and Nguyen Ha Huy Cuong
1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift from conventional computing 1

Neera Batra, Sonali Goyal, Amandeep Kaur and Rakhi Chauhan

2 An exploration of quantum computing: concept, architecture, and
innovative applications 21

Dankan Gowda V, Avinash Kumar, Belsam Jeba Ananth M, Vasanthakumar G U

and Mandeep Singh
3 Quantum machine learning in healthcare: diagnostics and drug
discovery 39

Kanu Priya Baheti and Purushender Dhiman

4 Quantum machine learning in finance 65

Ronak Duggar and Nesma E. ElSayed

5 Crucial role of blockchain in quantum computing: enhancing security
and trust 79

Neha Bhati, Aradhya Pokhriyal and Abeer Saber

6 Algorithmic exploration of unveiling fault tolerance in quantum machine
learning 103

Yash Mahajan, Muskan Sharma and Abdullah Alzahrani

7 Quantum machine learning in renewable energy systems 131

Malik Muzamil Ishaq, Inam Ul Haq and Aya Gamal

8 Decentralized quantum machine learning: distributed quantum
computing for enhanced learning 149

Ashutosh Pagrotra and Vedant Dhiman

9 Quantum reinforcement learning: decision-making in quantum
environments 171
VIII Contents

Umesh Kumar Lilhore and Sarita Simaiya

10 Quantum machine learning in natural language processing:
opportunities and challenges 199

Hardik Dhiman and Maheshwar Dhiman

11 Unveiling intelligence: exploring variational quantum circuits as
machine learning models 217

Mahsa Radnejad, Khushdeep Kaur, Houbing Song and Lei Zhang

12 Methods and tools to improve quantum software quality: a survey 245

Manisa Manoswini, Debasish Swapnesh Kumar Nayak, Tejaswini Das

and Tripti Swarnkar
13 Quantum-enhanced neural networks: bridging the quantum algorithm
and machine learning 273

Dankan Gowda V., Saptarshi Mukherjee, Belsam Jeba Ananth M.,

L. Sri Ramachandra and Shafiqul Abidin
14 Future trends and research horizons in quantum machine learning 293

Biographies 321

Index 323
Kavita Arora✶, Neha Gupta, Rashmi Agrawal and
Nguyen Ha Huy Cuong
1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift
from conventional computing
Abstract: Quantum computing is a contemporary method of computation that follows
the concepts of quantum mechanics. This technology is a wonderful amalgamation of
physics, mathematics, computer science, and information technology. This technology
imparts towering computing capacity, lessened energy demand, and mounting speed
on top of conventional machines. This is accomplished by having a control on the be-
havior of tiny physical matter such as atoms and electrons. This chapter gives a sneak
peek into the world of quantum computing and its fundamental concepts. This work
also discusses the conventional mechanism of computing and augmentation and
transfiguration happened due to constraints in the existing machines. After discussing
this, the flow of work moves to discussion of the basic work mechanism and proper-
ties of quantum computing. This work also uncovers the hardware and software re-
quirements, its significance, and favorable and unfavorable outcomes. This study
certainly gives a deep insight into the power of this new arising technology in this
competitive world.

Keywords: Quantum computing, conventional computing, qubits, superposition, inter-

face, entanglement

1.1 Introduction to quantum computing

It is a fact that the new findings in the domain of science and technology have paved
way for the unearthing of novice technologies. Nowadays, if the data to be fed in is rele-
vant as well as directions are conducive, machines can instantly and accurately resolve
problems. This all began with a “universal Turing machine,” a true general-purpose ma-
chine, invented by Alan Turing. Von Neumann revised its architecture, and is now con-
sidered to be the pivotal framework for machines as shown in Figure 1.1.

✶
Corresponding author: Kavita Arora, School of Computer Applications, Manav Rachna International
Institute of Research and Studies, Faridabad, Haryana, India, e-mail: [email protected]
Neha Gupta, School of Computer Applications, Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and
Studies, Faridabad, Haryana, India, e-mail: [email protected]
Rashmi Agrawal, School of Computer Applications, Manav Rachna International Institute of Research
and Studies, Faridabad, Haryana, India, e-mail: [email protected]
Nguyen Ha Huy Cuong, Software Development Centre, The University of Danang, Danang, Vietnam,
e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111342276-001
2 Kavita Arora et al.

Figure 1.1: Conventional computing to quantum computing.

The consummation and adeptness of machines has increased and emergence of physi-
cal elements took place. Eventually, computer industry surpassed the military depart-
ment, and currently, people can use the most recent electronic devices, thanks to the
expansion of humankind’s understanding of and sway over machines [1].

1.1.1 New kind of computing

In comparison to traditional machines, quite bulky, costly, and power-hungry, current

age machines are more affordable, quicker, highly efficient, and potent. This is feasi-
ble by amelioration in in-built mechanism of machines that run them. Computer elec-
tronic circuitry is becoming ever-more miniature. Electric or electronic signals are
amplified and switched by transistors, which are compact semiconductor devices.
Prior to now, a silicon piece was used to fabricate them. On a single silicon surface,
these transistors were connected to create the circuit. All layers of silicon were simul-
taneously printed with the circuit shapes found in an integrated circuit (IC). No matter
how many transistors are added to the circuit, the procedure still consumes equal
time slice. The size of silicon was considered to be the determination factor for the
cost of manufacturing an IC. Due to decreased product prices, IC production and sales
increased, thereby increasing benefits and sales. Individual transistors were first con-
nected, then groups of transistors (logic gates), and eventually all logic gates were
combined to an individual IC. Modern technology allows for the integration of small
computers onto a single IC.
 1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift from conventional computing 3

Gordon Moore, a co-founder of Intel in 1965, observed that silicon microprocessor

chip prices had dropped by half since the invention while the number of transistors
had increased every year by a factor of 2. Moore’s law refers to this. The significance
of Moore’s law lies in the fact that it predicts that as time goes on, computers will
become smaller and more powerful [2]. The advancement of traditional computers
has slowed down because of this law, but it has not always been this way.
If there exists a situation wherein a circuit can be designed of a size of an atom,
this inspires the notion of the smallest computer. However, since electrons inside the
atoms can exist in more than one place at once, these circuits will be unable to func-
tion as switches. This results from the “quantum tunneling” teleportation phenome-
non in quantum mechanics. It demonstrates that after 5–7 nm, the circuit’s size in a
traditional device has reached its maximum. The law of classical physics, talking
about deterministic elucidation of universe, can be applied as an example of how
these computers represent and process data. The biggest preferment in physics, quan-
tum mechanics, had been brought to light as a result of this failure to envisage pro-
nounced natural phenomena. There are more limitations on how to design computers
due to quantum phenomena. This alters fundamental components of a machine, ne-
cessitating in addition to development of novice hardware, new designs, programs, as
well as levels of abstraction to enable designers to build as well as use these systems,
though level of complexity increases with time. Quantum properties must dictate how
the hardware is constructed [3].

1.1.2 Quantum computing

Based on quantum mechanics, a new type of computation known as quantum com-

puting interacts with real world in an unforeseeable and probabilistically uncertain
way. Quantum mechanics, a highly extensive model of physics that gives rise to a
quantum computing model, possesses more capacity to resolve concerns that a tradi-
tional system is unable to do. This approach uses own quantum bits, to store as well
as manipulate information, dissimilar to traditional machines using binary bits 0 and
1. Machines based on this mechanism of computation are termed as “quantum com-
puters.” Transistor, logic gate, and ICs are not applicable in these small computers [4].
Consequently, it utilizes bits that are subatomic particles, including atoms, elec-
trons, photons, and ions, together with information about their spins and states, as
shown in Figure 1.2. It is possible to superimpose them to create more combinations.
As a result, the machines can effectively use storage by increasing their power.
4 Kavita Arora et al.

Figure 1.2: Representation of atoms, electrons, photons, and ions in quantum computing.

1.2 Need for quantum computers

Quantum computers are capable of resolving any computational issue that a classical
computer is capable of resolving. The opposite is also true, according to the Church-
Turing hypothesis: classical computers can address every issue related to quantum
computers. This means that in terms of computability, they are no better than conven-
tional computers, but some challenging and intractable problems are beyond the
speed and efficiency of current conventional computers. More processing power is re-
quired for this. This ability to solve these issues in a short span with exponentially
lower time complexity is referred to “quantum supremacy.”
Peter Shor signified that quantum mechanics is able to resolve mentioned issues
remarkably much rapidly – like in fraction of seconds – while remaining cool. The
created formulas made it quick to factor large numbers. Since the foundation of calcu-
lations, chance of an atom’s state prior to its actual knowledge, these could process
data in exponentially large quantities. In addition to this, it explains how a real-world
quantum computer could decode the classified codes used in cryptanalysis. This
might jeopardize prudence of messages as well as ciphered data and may reveal con-
 1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift from conventional computing 5

fidential and private information, even though one shall keep in consideration that
quantum computers’ advantages prevail over their imperfections. Consequently, they
are still required, and more research is being done in order to ensure a better fu-
ture [5].

1.3 Fundamentals of quantum computing

It was taken into consideration when designing the conventional computer that noise
would have an impact on transistor’s performance, especially as they get smaller. An
effort was made to completely exclude quantum phenomena; however, a varied meth-
odology was employed in place of traditional bits and makes use of the quantum phe-
nomenon. This makes use of quantum bits and because of certain quantum properties,
they can also exist in both states simultaneously, giving rise to the idea of super-
posed bits.

1.4 Origin point of bits

The fundamental constituents of an IC are transistors, joined by wires in a circuit.
They transport electric signals among gadgets, further utilized by transistors inside
an IC to send messages to each other. Analog behavior characterizes signals, and their
interaction with background environs also produces babble. Thus, a little change
from 0 to 0.1 generated with environmental quaver or transpose in temperature can
remarkably change how system deports itself. The environment incorporates genus of
noise, wherein the first one turns out when energy instabilities, such as temperatures
above absolute 0 K, occur suddenly inside the object and these are of the fundamental
kind. The variant is signal interaction, which leads to additional types of noise and
could have been created or fixed. However, not done as they were purposefully left
unfixed at the hardware layer [6]. IC is constructed using transistors that can operate
on digital signals in order to get control over noises in analog circuits, and they are
named as “logic gates.” They interpret electric signals that carry real-valued numbers
as binary bits, or “bits.” Registers belong to a different class of gate that stores the
quantity of bits for later processing. Putting a limit on the range of values that a signal
can cling to, gates can reduce noise in a signal. The guidelines of Boolean algebra de-
fine Boolean functions. With the aid of this manufacturing technology, standard li-
brary having collection of validated logic gates can be incorporated into silicon chip
design as their use can result in extremely low error rates. This aids in strengthening
the design. Additionally, an error correction code is used to encrypt the data by ap-
pending some extra bits to the memory. The inaccuracy is found by periodically
6 Kavita Arora et al.

checking this code. Additionally, it aids in testing and debugging, two additional de-
sign characteristics.
A computer’s memory and processor are represented by the basic building blocks
of quantum information, termed as a quantum bit, which stands in for subatomic par-
ticles like atoms and electrons. Either 0 or 1 may exist, or both simultaneously. Com-
pared to the most sophisticated supercomputers currently in use, it is a million times
more powerful. Engineering must overcome formidable obstacles to produce and
manage qubits. However, to combat processing variations and any kind of noise, this
computing requires a unique approach. Additionally, it requires a method for han-
dling design flaws and debugging errors.
Like traditional binary states, qubits have two quantum states. Figure 1.3 depicts
that a qubit may stay in either of the two states or in their simultaneous superposi-
tion. These quantum states are depicted with the help of technique known as the
Dirac notation [7].

Figure 1.3: Qubit in quantum computing.

The state labels between two symbols in this notation are | and ). Provided the sum of
the probabilities of every state occurring must be 1, states are expressed as |0) and |
1), which are literal analog values, both contributing to give any value between 0 and
1. Qubits are an analogous concept that serves as the foundation for quantum compu-
tation and quantum information [8].
Consequently, any quantum bit wave function can be mentioned as a two-state
linear combination, each with a unique complex coefficient:

jwÞ = x j0Þ + y j1Þ

where x and y are coefficients of both states.

A state’s probability is inversely proportional to the square of its coefficient’s
magnitude. The chance of identification of qubit 0 is |x|2 and of qubit state 1 is |y|2.
The sum total of these two shall be 1 or can be represented as |x|2 + |y|2 = 1, de-
picting the square of length of vectors, also known as “unit vector.” Other name given
 1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift from conventional computing 7

to this is probability amplitudes. In other words, it can be stated that according to Dir-
ac’s Ket notation (| >), a qubit is a unit vector in a 2D complex vector space.
If it maps to 2D complex vector space, it can be represented as a column vector
using the syntax . a=b; thus, for ground state, |0 >, it is . Σ 1=0, where a = 1 and b = 0, and
for excited state |1 >, it is . Σ 0=1, where a = 0 and b = 1.

1.5 Properties of quantum computing

According to quantum mechanics, the quantum object appears to be a particle. Interest-
ing physical phenomena result from the dual nature of particles. Any quantum object’s
state can be expressed as a wave function, which is the sum of possible participating
states. These states are coherent due to interference from all the participating states,
which may be positive or negative. Observing such quantum objects is referred to as a
quantum measurement. By causing disruption in the quantum state, the measurement
can also cause loss of information.
In the context of quantum computing, the quantum objects being discussed here
are qubits. Schrodinger’s equation, which describes how the energy environment af-
fects the system’s wave function, controls the development of any quantum system
which is further controlled within its environment. To do this, the system needs to be
moved apart from forces of cosmos which are tough to control and give exclusive en-
ergy allocation. An entire system cannot be isolated. However, it is possible to limit
the exchange of energy and information and further leads to decoherence [9].
The mathematical expressions and conceptual guidelines that explain character-
istics of particles are known as their properties. The three basic characteristics of
quantum mechanics are applied by quantum computers to save, serve, and prepare
data which turn them augment swiftly when compared with conventional computers.
Main characteristics of quantum computing are discussed below [10].

1.6 Superposition, entanglement, and interference

– Superposition: Think of simultaneously touching the water’s surface of a pond at

two different locations. The waves from each point would spread out before overlap-
ping to form a more complex pattern where several waves are superimposed. Similar
to this, in quantum physics, particles with wavelike characteristics, like electrons and
photons, can combine to form a state known as superposition. As per this concept,
two legitimate quantum states can be combined to create another quantum state [11].
This becomes the cornerstone of quantum mechanics and is remarkably superior to
its classical equivalents, which have binary constraints, and provides high-speed con-
8 Kavita Arora et al.

current processing. Information that is simultaneously present in two states gets

saved in the quantum computer system. Lasers are used to influence qubits, causing
them to be in a superposition where they can simultaneously store 0 and 1. In tradi-
tional computing, if there are only 2 bits, a total of four possible values can be com-
bined, but only one value is ever possible.
However, in the event that if a quantum computer has two qubits, combinations
result in the sum of four possible values, considering every value concurrently possi-
ble. It seems impossible because it differs from gravity, which can be easily demon-
strated by observing an apple falling. Superposition only occurs in the realm of
quantum particles, so laws of classical physics do not apply here.

– Interference: As wave interference is a property in traditional physics, interference

is a property of quantum computers. Two waves interacting in the same medium are
said to interfere with one another. Constructive interference is created when their
amplitudes are summed up and their alignment in the same direction. The opposite
happens when their alignment is in opposite to each other, leading to a resultant
wave with their amplitudes canceled out. Depending on the nature of the interfer-
ence, net wave may be preponderant or vice versa. Subatomic particles possess dual
nature, that is, particles, and wave nature, just like light, there could be interference
with the quantum particle. Nonetheless, this may probably lead to a quantum com-
puter combining all calculations, which increases its proneness to error [12].

– Entanglement: Entanglement refers to a process wherein multitudinous quantum

objects get inextricably connected, making it impossible to measure one without af-
fecting the possibility of measuring the other. A set of particles can interact as it
would be the case that it is not possible to describe them in a solitary state. One of the
key characteristics of quantum computation is entanglement. It refers to a remark-
able correlation between two qubits, which are quantum particles and physical prop-
erties of systems. They are intertwined to one another and one’s state actually affects
other’s state; hence, qubits are able to communicate effectively. When bits in tradi-
tional computers double, so does computational power. In a way resembling a quan-
tum daisy chain, quantum computers make use of this property.

In nature, it is observed that some instances of entanglement such as when a large

number of electrons within the electron cloud get extensively entangled despite being
physically separated from one another. Similar circumstances apply to the other elec-
tron if one electron is equally likely to be in the spin-up and spin-down states, with a
chance of 0.5.
 1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift from conventional computing 9

1.7 Topography of quantum mechanics

Technologies such as quantum information science, quantum communication, and
quantum metrology are also affected by quantum phenomena. All these technologies
are interdependent and capable of controlling and transforming the entire quantum
system and utilize similar hardware, have the same physics-based principles, and use
similar techniques [13]. The goal of quantum information science is to discover effec-
tive ways to store information in the quantum system. This provides information on
quantum mechanics statistics and related impediments.
Quantum cryptography is a branch of quantum communication. Study and creation
of quantum systems are known as quantum sensing and metrology. Such a system can
be used to measure critical physical properties more precisely than conventional sys-
tems by taking advantage of its extreme sensitivity to environmental disturbances. Ex-
perimental quantum systems are used to implement qubit-based quantum sensors.

1.7.1 Classical versus quantum computing

Traditional and quantum computers differ from each other based on respective
computational capacities and operational characters. These techniques are as differ-
ent as day and night from each other. A look on the dipartite aspects is reflected in
Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Analogy of traditional and quantum computing.

Traditional computing Quantum computing

The fundamental unit for manipulating and Qubits, also known as quantum bits, are used to
storing information is the “bit.” manipulate and store data.

Voltage, charge, and other factors influence how Quantum bits for information storage are based on the
bits are stored. spin orientation of an electron.

Logic gates, like NOT, AND, OR, etc., are used to Quantum logic gates handle the processing of
process information. information.

Boolean algebra is used to define operations. Operations are defined by linear algebra.

Fast, scalable, and macroscopic technologies like Microscale technologies, such as NMR (nuclear
CMOS make it simple to implement circuits. magnetic resonance), which are slow, fragile, and not
Defined and constrained solutions as a result of yet scalable, must be used in circuits.
the design of the algorithm. The superposition and entanglement properties lead
to the consideration of probabilistic and multiple
solutions.
10 Kavita Arora et al.

Figure 1.4: Architecture of quantum mechanics.

 1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift from conventional computing 11

1.8 The framework of quantum machines

A blueprint can be thought of as architecture. As shown in Figure 1.4, the five layers
make up the architecture of a quantum computer, which combines classical and
quantum integrants, each representing the functional integrant of a computer.
– Application layer: This layer is independent of hardware and represents the cod-
ing environment, operating system, user interface, and other elements needed for
creation of effective quantum algorithms.
– Classical layer: The role of this layer is to make the quantum algorithm highly
coherent and turns it into microinstructions.
– Digital layer: The major responsibility of this layer is to convert microinstructions
into signals. This is rendering of the required analog pulses. Additionally, it pro-
vides measurements as a feedback to the abovementioned classical layer, allowing
latter to incorporate outcomes of quantum computation into the final product.
– Analog layer: This layer produces voltage signals and forwards for further qubit
performance.
– Quantum layer: This is incorporated into analog and digital processing layers of the
same chip and serves as a qubit storage device in absolute room temperature. This sec-
tion handles error correction, and the effectiveness of a machine is also bent on this.

1.9 Hardware and software requirements

of quantum computers
Collaboration is required between quantum and traditional machines and this is ca-
tered by hardware and software components.

1.9.1 Hardware requirements

Four conceptual layers are used to create imperative hardware:

– “Quantum data plane,” holding qubits, comes first.
– “Control and measurement plane,” accountable to carry out operations and meas-
urements on qubits as necessary, comes in second.
– The “control processor plane” is the third component, and it specifies the order of
those operations and outcomes of the measurements that will be used to guide
subsequent quantum operations.
– The final one is referred to as the “host processor,” a conventional machine oper-
ating on the conventional operating system. It provides a high bandwidth connec-
tion that is used to control the processor [14].
12 Kavita Arora et al.

1.9.2 Software requirements

A functional quantum computer needs software components along with the hard-
ware. This resembles older computers in some ways. Any targeted quantum architec-
ture must be considered when designing the programming language. Online access is
available to some antecedent tools that turned out to be created to bolster up quan-
tum computers [15]. In order to allow software developers to think more algorithmi-
cally and less about the specifics of quantum mechanics, it is necessary to develop
these tools conceptually. This software needs to be adaptable enough to change with
hardware and algorithm advancements. Creating a comprehensive software architec-
ture is a toughest obstacle facing quantum computing. Getting the hardware’s qubit
count and operation requirements as low as possible is the main objective [16].

1.10 An insight into quantum algorithm

An entire set of rules or an ordered set of instructions that has to be followed in order
to finish a task or calculation is referred to as an algorithm. It is a step-by-step method
for resolving a problem, particularly when using a computer. On quantum computers,
almost all classical algorithms can be executed. However, in order to be referred to as
quantum algorithms, the algorithms must have at least one single quantum step aris-
ing from either superposition or entanglement [17].
An algorithm that executes quickly on a simulator as opposed to hardware does
so by replacing the measurement overhead while culmination of the process. Simula-
tor optimization is another name for it. When compared with a classical algorithm, a
quantum algorithm can be reversed. This suggests that if the measurement is passed
over, it can go across a quantum circuit in the backward direction, undoing every sin-
gle operation carried out by a forward traversal of a circuit. The indeterminacy issue
asserts that issues that cannot be resolved with the help of a conventional algorithm
can never be resolved with the help of a quantum algorithm either. The Shor algo-
rithm and the Grover algorithm are two instances of quantum algorithms. Shor’s algo-
rithm is exponentially faster than the most popular classical algorithms at factorizing
very large numbers [18], though Grover’s algorithm is four times faster and is em-
ployed for discerning long unordered lists or amorphous databases [19].
The quantum algorithms currently in use include the following [20]:
– BQP-complete problems
– Amplitude amplification-based quantum algorithms
– Quantum walk-based algorithm
– Fourier transform-based quantum algorithms
– Hybrid quantum/classical algorithms
 1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift from conventional computing 13

1.11 Impediments of quantum computers

Quantum computers’ rampant computing power is achievable by identifying as well
as fixing design flaws, helpful in keeping the high quality. Major design restrictions
are as follows:
– Foremost, only when all qubits become entangled with one another do the num-
ber of coefficients in Dirac’s notation which describes a quantum computer’s
state increase proliferating as the number of qubits increases. This is impossible
to accomplish it directly because it becomes tough to maintain direct relationship
and it is possible to reduce to sundry straightforward, basic operations straight-
away supported by hardware. Initial phases of evolution are decisive, as they
allow for indirect coupling and lead to an overhead in computers in traditional
computing.
– The other restriction is that it is not possible to duplicate an entire quantum sys-
tem [21]. Making copies of intermediate states and storing them in memory are
essential aspects of classical computing. Different method is compulsory for quan-
tum computers though.
– Another restriction results from qubit operations’ lack of noise protection. Since
the fundamental gate operations do not discard tiny deformities in gate opera-
tions, they accumulate over the period of time. This may have a significant nega-
tive impact on the quantum systems’ coherence, measurements, and calculation
accuracy.
– Quantum machine’s ineptitude to recognize complete state even after its opera-
tion is complete is the final constraint. Suppose that a quantum computer has cre-
ated starting a set of qubits that are in a superposition of all possible state
configurations. When any function is applied to this state, a new quantum state is
created. Measuring this quantum system will not reveal this information. One
must manipulate the system to make the states that result from operations more
likely to be measured than any other likely outcome in order to design a success-
ful quantum algorithm.

1.12 Advents of quantum computing

Presuming a possibility to design each gate to be minutely divergent, generated elec-
tric signals will communicate with one another, resulting in periodic noise. Noise im-
munity of the employed gates will be sufficient for the efficient cancelation of the
effects of various noise sources. Consequently, even with millions of gates operating
concurrently, the concluding system may result in identical result as a logical gate
model. The design aims to reduce the noise in qubits to avoid the qubit state passing
14 Kavita Arora et al.

through noisy channels. Changing the qubit in a physical energy environment can
alter its state. Consequently, it results in two strategies for quantum computing:
– Analog quantum computing: The energy environment corresponding to the
Hamiltonian is frequently changed smoothly in this strategy. The Hamiltonian
method is used directly to create the quantum state after initializing it, and along
with adiabatic quantum computers, it also includes quantum annealing and
simulation.
– Gate-based quantum computing: This strategy is comparable to the traditional
computer strategy, in which the issue is divided into a series of gates, and for cer-
tain input states, the mentioned gates have effectively defined digital outcomes.
The basic operations used in quantum computing are distinct from those used in
classical computing.

1.13 Pros and cons of quantum computing

Quantum computing is audacious enough to bring a revolution in the field of comput-
ing as it is a rapid and commanding technique, and on the other hand, it has the
power to break the present-day cyphering. This proves that this technique has its own
pros and cons.

1.13.1 Pros of quantum computing

– As per the researchers, this technology has the power to puzzle out those chal-
lenging mathematical problems that traditional machines cannot resolve in a
given time frame.
– The approach extends the computing capability that is sufficient to process abnor-
mally high volumes of data (2.5 exabytes daily, or 5 million laptops) produced all
around and derive meaning from them.
– This is capable to operate in parallel and consume less electricity, thereby dimin-
ishing power utilization around 100 times.
– A general-purpose quantum computer can perform tasks time and again quicker
as compared to the classical machine. Google, for instance, built a quantum ma-
chine, a million times quicker as compared to other conventional machines.
– This is able to maintain a cold temperature of up to 0.2 K inside the quantum sys-
tem for stability, and also has the potential to resolve complex snags without get-
ting too hot.
– It can quickly resolve optimization issues like choosing the best path and plan-
ning train and flight schedules. Furthermore, it has got the capability to calculate
 1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift from conventional computing 15

1 trillion chess moves per second. The strongest as well as the most impenetrable
encryption methods will be susceptible to quantum computer cracking.
– Everything from the drug and petroleum industries will undergo a revolution,
thanks to quantum computing. It will be possible to create novice pharmaceuti-
cals and financial institutions could make their marketable algorithms better. The
icing on the cake is sooner or later, artificial intelligence (AI) will also advance
with this.

1.13.2 Cons of quantum computing

– Future generations may suffer greatly from quantum machines as security of cur-
rent Internet of things may diminish due to advances in quantum computing.
Moreover, defense system, government and private organization databases,
banks, and cryptographic techniques are prone to be vulnerable.
– Due to the fact that classical computers are more adept at tasks like email and
excel than quantum computers, this cannot be completely replaced.
– Significant obstacles include environmental sensitivity and quantum error cor-
rection. Subatomic particles like atoms and electrons are affected by all types of
vibration which may result in noise, faults, and even failures. As a result, there
may be loss of quantum coherence, or “decoherence.”
– The stability and testing of quantum processors are very challenging. Tempera-
ture has to be maintained at 0.2 K, at absolute zero. It is very challenging to keep
this temperature under control.
– Another challenge is to create a personal computer with a price range within con-
sumers’ means. Large-scale industries will have access to them first, followed by
retail markets.

1.14 Application areas of quantum computing

The amount of data that conventional computing can handle and the kinds of deci-
sions it can make are constrained by the fact that it processes data in a binary space
and the process is termed as serial processing. On the other hand, quantum comput-
ing follows the concept of multidimensional computing.
Serial processing analyzes each combination of that data on an individual basis
to produce the correct response. Contrary to serial processing’s binary approach,
which employs bits, multidimensional processing employs layers. This leads to faster
delivery of computations, accuracy, and divergent outputs. In other words, faster,
higher quality results are possible with quantum computing.
16 Kavita Arora et al.

The following list contains a number of potential future uses for quantum
computing:
– Cybersecurity: On privacy and encryption, quantum computing might have a di-
rect impact. Given the cybersecurity environment’s rapid evolution, quantum
computers may help maintain data encryption while in use, offering both in-
transit and at-rest security.
– AI and ML (machine learning): AI and ML have a lot of potential when it comes
to the ability to calculate solutions simultaneously rather than sequentially. Now-
adays, businesses use AI and ML to look for alternatives for automation and im-
provement of tasks.
– Manufacturing units: Testing and prototyping can be done using quantum com-
puters with greater accuracy and realism. This might result in better designs that
require less testing in the manufacturing sector and lower prototyping costs.
– Battery optimization: Quantum computing might make it easier for manufac-
turers to comprehend how to incorporate new materials into things like batteries
and semiconductors. This might offer more knowledge about how to maximize
the efficiency and longevity of batteries.
– Research: A superior and more accurate understanding of molecular structure
can be achieved by using quantum computers to develop better models for how
atoms interact with one another. This could have a direct impact on how new
products and medicines are developed as well as drug and chemical research.
– Traffic optimization: To ensure efficient supply chain logistics and transporta-
tion, the best route planning is essential. Quantum computers are particularly
strong in this area. All of that data could be processed in real time, and routes for
an entire fleet of vehicles could be changed all at once, putting each on the best
possible course.

1.15 Limitations of quantum computing

Quantum computing is a cutting-edge technology that is capable enough to transform
the way data is processed and stored, and it uses quantum bits, or qubits in place of
conventional bits in order to accomplish this process.
These qubits exhibit peculiar characteristics, when compared to the world of con-
ventional computing. They can become entangled with one another, enabling parallel
computation, and can exist in a superposition of states, permitting to represent multi-
ple values simultaneously. For some types of problems, like factorization and data-
base searching, this makes quantum computing potentially much faster than classical
computing.
 1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift from conventional computing 17

The following difficulties have been created by the complexity associated with
this technology, for researchers, engineers, and business people working on quantum
computing:
– First and foremost, challenge is that the quantum algorithms that are run on
quantum computers are hugely susceptible to interference, which causes inaccu-
racies and as a result, inaccurate results may be obtained.
– Another significant challenge is finding the right talent, as there is a severe lack
of applicants with doctorates in quantum physics, engineering, or statistics.
– It is necessary to establish a broad multistakeholder network. It is unclear
whether India will prioritize long-term applications, immediate quantum applica-
tions, or both. India’s quantum initiatives ought to center on turning research
into practical applications.
– The majority of the hardware and components used in quantum computing can-
not be produced in India on a domestic level. Another strategic sector where im-
ports are necessary for India is this one.
– It is still a challenging task to construct a quantum computer with many qubits.
Increasing error rates and the need for reliable control mechanisms make the
process of scaling up quantum processors challenging.

1.16 Contribution of quantum computing

This is evidently feasible to create quantum computer capable of carrying out opera-
tions that would take a conventional computer a lifetime to complete. For practical
applications of quantum computing, exceptional control of quantum phenomena and,
by extension, the quantum universe is required. The quantum supremacy experiment
is an important test of quantum mechanics theory that will help to increase support
for quantum theory while also yielding unexpected results. Physics has already begun
to be influenced by the growth of numerous aspects and elements of quantum infor-
mation technology and computing. This has been discovered to be critical for using
quantum error correction theory to create fault-tolerant quantum systems. Practical
applications of quantum information theory include the study of the physics and dy-
namics of multibody systems, such as large numbers of quantum subatomic particles,
black holes, and related ideas. In order to have meticulous understanding of physical
structures, advancement in this field is crucial. Wide range of engineering disciplines,
including physics, mathematics, chemistry, computer science, and material science,
have been influenced by this. In addition to this, it has revamped traditional comput-
ing too. Classical computing algorithm has been enhanced with quantum computing
development strategies. Numerous computer science-related questions have been re-
solved by research on the quantum algorithm. By defining the bounds of physical
computation and developing computational techniques, it can aid in assessing the se-
18 Kavita Arora et al.

curity of cryptographic systems. This will accord to the expansion of human knowl-
edge of cosmos.
Building sensors, precise clocks, and other devices all make use of qubits that
have latterly been utilized in quantum computing. The use of quantum communica-
tion allows for remote communication between two quantum machines. Asymmetric
cryptography along with whole security system is now more vulnerable. Conse-
quently, efforts are being made to create novel quantum cryptography. Global atten-
tion is currently being paid to the advancement of science, information, and quantum
computing.

1.17 Conclusion
With its unmatched computing capabilities, quantum computing is at the cutting edge
of scientific research. Collaboration between scientists, researchers, and industry pro-
fessionals is necessary to overcome these challenges, including maintaining qubit co-
herence and scalability and developing dependable quantum hardware and software.
Overcoming these obstacles will open the door for quantum computing’s revolutionary
effects on a variety of fields, including materials science, drug discovery, optimization,
and cryptography. In the near future, the most difficult problems in computers, com-
munications, sensing, chemistry, imaging, encryption, and mechanics will be solved
using quantum techniques. These applications will also have the potential to boost ca-
reers in numerical weather prediction, communication security, aerospace engineering,
simulations, advanced manufacturing, cybersecurity, health, and agriculture. Our coun-
try will therefore have a better chance of achieving substantial economic growth and a
leadership position if it is admitted to the selective group of countries having a competi-
tive edge in this field.

1.18 Future scope of quantum computing

There is still a significant amount of work to be done before a useful quantum com-
puter can be launched. Future work must address some issues.
Among the foreseeable needs are:
– to make it possible for a quantum error correction algorithm to reduce error
rates related to qubits with minimal overhead;
– to create more algorithms for problem-solving which require fewer qubits;
– to enable the operation of NISQ computers by reducing the thickness of the
circuit;
– to improve techniques for simulating, testing, and verifying quantum computers;
 1 Quantum computing: a paradigm shift from conventional computing 19

– to boost the number of qubits per processor to keep the error rate constant or,
alternatively reduce it; and
– to identify additional algorithms that can speed up computation and produce out-
put for the quantum processor.

It is predicted that future quantum computers will cover every possible operation
and randomly introduce them into games, thanks to their quantum properties like
superpositioning and qubit entanglement. Such “quantum games” are anticipated to
provide unanticipated circumstances and outcomes which a player may experience
and the experience may go on forever.
Like other cutting-edge technologies such as AI and cryptography, “quantum com-
puting in cloud” possesses the capability to eclipse enterprise dynamism. A memory
framework for application creation and verification for numerous programmers to
simulate quantum computers using suitable shared resources should also be sup-
ported, since the storage required for a conventional simulation of 50 qubits equals 1
petabyte and doubles with each additional qubit. Issues involving AI and ML might be
solved in a fraction of the time – from millions of years to just a few seconds. Numer-
ous quantum algorithms have been devised, such as Shor’s algorithm for factoring
large numbers and Grover’s algorithm for searching. Additional quantum algorithms
will be made available soon. Furthermore, Google has announced that it will develop
a functional quantum computer with 50 qubits in the next 5 years, achieving quantum
supremacy. IBM will soon be able to provide mercantile quantum devices to its cli-
ents. Numerous variables influence how quickly quantum computing technology is
developed. Commercial applications for NISQ computers may be developed with the
help of financial and interest from private sector. This depends on how well quantum
algorithms are developed, how much money the government is willing to invest in
the field of quantum technology, and how much discussion there is among research-
ers, scientists, and engineers. A defensive outcome is advantageous to illuminate the
limits of quantum technology. This can aid to prevail over unfavorable outcomes,
which might result in a new discovery.

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Neera Batra, Sonali Goyal✶, Amandeep Kaur and Rakhi Chauhan
2 An exploration of quantum computing:
concept, architecture, and innovative
applications
Abstract: Recent interest in quantum computing has grown due to its potential to trans-
form information processing. This chapter covers quantum computing’s fundamentals,
complicated architecture, and breakthrough applications. This research begins with a
quantum physics lesson and then explores quantum computing fundamentals like su-
perposition and entanglement. It then analyzes gate-based quantum computers, quan-
tum annealers, and hybrid quantum–classical systems. Beyond theory and technology,
this study examines quantum computing’s growing list of novel applications. This chap-
ter illuminates quantum computing’s theoretical roots and practical applications and
seeks to improve understanding of quantum technology and its consequences for re-
search, industry, and society by examining its current condition and future prospects.

Keywords: EPR, unitary transformation, decoherence, superposition, quantum me-

chanics, computation

2.1 Introduction
Quantum computing is a revolutionary field of study that leverages the principles of
quantum mechanics to process and manipulate information in fundamentally different
ways compared to classical computing [1]. Recent years have seen significant progress
in understanding theoretical principles, building quantum hardware, and exploring ap-
plications that use quantum computers’ unique characteristics. This research analysis
aims to provide a comprehensive overview of quantum computing, delve into its under-
lying architecture, and explore the emerging innovative applications.

✶
Corresponding author: Sonali Goyal, Department of CSE, MMEC, Maharishi Markandeshwar
(Deemed to Be) University, Mullana, Haryana, India, e-mail: [email protected]
Neera Batra, Department of CSE, MMEC, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to Be) University,
Mullana, India, e-mail: [email protected]
Amandeep Kaur, Department of CSE, MMEC, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to Be) University,
Mullana, India, e-mail: [email protected]
Rakhi Chauhan, Chitkara University, Rajpura, India, e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111342276-002
22 Neera Batra et al.

2.1.1 Conceptual understanding of quantum computing

Quantum computing fundamentally differs from classical computing, which relies on

bits to represent information as 0s and 1s. On the other hand, quantum computers
use quantum bits, or qubits. These bits can exist in superposition, meaning they can
represent 0 and 1 at the same time. And qubits can also be entangled, meaning they
can form complex correlations between particles, even when they are hundreds of
kilometers apart. These quantum processes are the foundation of quantum algo-
rithms, which can solve problems exponentially faster than classical ones. Under-
standing the nature of superpositions, entanglement and interference are essential
for understanding quantum computing.

2.1.2 Quantum computing approaches

There are many ways to build a quantum computer, each with its own pros and cons.
Some of the most promising are:
– Superconducting qubits: This architecture is based on the idea that qubits can
be represented by a superconducting circuit. It has become popular because of its
ability to scale and the fact that it can carry out operations via microwave pulses.
Leading companies such as IBM, Google, and Rigetti are making great strides in
the development of quantum processors based on superconducting materials.

Table 2.1 describes quantum computing approaches, features, advantages, and name
of companies.

Table 2.1: Quantum computing approaches, features, advantages, and name of companies.

Approaches Features Advantages Used by

companies

Superconducting Uses superconducting Due to its scalability and the ability to IBM,
qubits circuits to represent qubits perform operations using microwave Google, and
pulses Rigetti

Trapped ion Long coherence times Ideal for error correction IonQ and
quantum Honeywell
computers

Topological Relies on exotic particles Resistant to decoherence Microsoft’s

quantum called anyons Station Q
computing

Photonic Photons as qubits Low error rates and easy transmission Xanadu and
quantum over long distances QuTech
computing
 2 An exploration of quantum computing 23

– Trapped ion quantum computers: In this method, ions are captured and manip-
ulated by lasers to generate qubits. Because ions have a long coherence time, they
are ideal for error correcting. Companies, such as Honeywell, are making prog-
ress in this field.
– Topological quantum computing: Topological quantum computing uses unusual
particles called anyons. Some anyons have specific qualities that prevent decay.
Microsoft Station Q is a leading topological quantum computing architecture
proponent.
– Photonic quantum computing: Xandu and QuTech have developed photonic
quantum computers for quantum computing. Photon qubits offer low error rates
and are easy to transport over long distances.

The computing industry strives for quicker and more powerful technology. However,
classical computing, based on classical physics, has permitted decades of technical
and scientific advances [2]. Classical computing is struggling to solve more complex
computer challenges. Quantum computing, based on quantum mechanics, is moti-
vated by these constraints. Quantum computing may solve intractable problems with
massive processing power.

2.1.3 Motivation

Due to the exponential growth in data quantity and complexity and the requirement
to solve hard problems in cryptography, drug detection, optimization, and AI, more
powerful computing technologies are needed. Traditional computers, which use bits
to represent 0 or 1 values, struggle to handle many choices. Quantum computing uses
entanglement and superposition to control quantum bits, which can be 0 or 1. Quan-
tum computing is more efficient than classical computing because it uses superposi-
tions and entanglements to do large-scale parallel operations. This could change
economics, healthcare, materials research, and environmental modeling [3].

2.1.4 Objectives

This chapter covers quantum computing principles, architectures, and cutting-edge ap-
plications that potentially revolutionize technology. This chapter’s key objectives are:
– To explain quantum computing principles, such as bits, superposition, entangle-
ment, and gates, in comparison to classical bits and logic gates [4];
– to explore the architecture and use cases of quantum computing by examining
different models [5]; and
– to investigate a wide array of scenarios in which quantum computing could be
used to outperform more conventional methods of problem-solving.
24 Neera Batra et al.

2.2 Literature survey

The literature survey covers quantum computing’s history, algorithms, computational
models, error correction, cryptography, and applications. It also shows the field’s rapid
development and increased interest. Quantum computing is a new and captivating field
that combines mathematics, computer science, and physics. It improves computing effi-
ciency with quantum mechanics [6]. Rietsche et al. [7] introduced some of the funda-
mental concepts of quantum computing. They began by motivating the fundamental
ideas of quantum mechanics with toy models. Subsequently, they provided a formal ex-
planation of the relatively small fraction of (deterministic) quantum mechanics that is
necessary for fundamental quantum computing. Finally, he described the fundamental
notions of quantum architecture, such as qubits and quantum gates. In order to com-
pare the architectures of classical and quantum computers, authors provided an over-
view of the history, architecture, and structure of classical computers. Subsequently,
the architecture and implementation methods of quantum computers are also dis-
cussed [8]. According to the evaluation results, the quantum computer speed for the
algorithm in research was 100 times faster than a general computer. In order to achieve
fault-tolerant quantum computers, it is necessary to consider the quantum error correc-
tion (QEC), which carries an overhead to the system. However, topological stabilizers,
operating on two-dimensional quantum surface codes, are able to tolerate relatively
high levels of errors, thus making them the most suitable type of stabilizer for the fu-
ture scale-up of the system. A study is conducted to investigate the network architecture
for a topological quantum computer. The authors proposed QMOS, which is a quantum
computer that incorporates qubits into the architecture of CMOS devices at very low
temperatures. Additionally, QMOS has the potential to benefit from several advances in
CMOS technology. The authors proposed a novel quantum computer architecture that
can be found on the network/node method [9]. A paper published in the Journal of
Quantum Engineering described quantum perceptron on a neural and field network in
a quantum computer. The paper improved the classical perceptron and resolved de-
feats, resulting in quantum perceptron over field [10]. Artificial intelligence (AI) and
quantum computation share numerous characteristics [11]. Quantum computing can ac-
celerate training for AI and machine learning while reducing computational costs [12].
However, AI can endow quantum computers with error-correction techniques. A node/
network architecture for large-scale surface code quantum processors was presented,
which claimed that the minimum node size for semiconductor quantum dot spin qubits
is just seven quantum dots [13]. Nodes are separated microns apart, providing useful
space for wire interconnections and integration of traditional transistor circuits. The
entanglement between neighboring nodes is distributed between spin singlets, which
are loaded locally, and then one of the pair is shuttled through a linear field of empty
dots. A quantum neural network named “quantum perceptron over a field” is proposed,
which is a generalized version of the classical perceptron [14].
 2 An exploration of quantum computing 25

This model addresses some of the shortcomings identified in previous quantum

perceptron models. In addition, the authors presented an algorithm that optimizes
the weights and architectures of neural networks. Utilizing a linear time to quantum
parity of the number of models in the learning set, the optimal finite neural network
architecture is determined. This algorithm determines a network’s architecture in
polynomial time using neural network architecture learning. The method is acceler-
ated by quantum concurrency and a nonlinear quantum operator [10]. The advan-
tages of various quantum architectures that had not previously been identified by
other authors are examined [15]. A heterogeneous quantum computer architecture is
proposed by Fu et al. [16]. The model proposed is a multilayer structure, combining
classical and quantum parts. Due to the fragile and unstable nature of quantum states
and quantum systems, QEC is a difficult problem. The authors of this chapter pro-
posed that the classical part of the computer performs the error correction task. In
addition, the control unit is quantum-based. They demonstrated that the instruction
requirements for the hardware architecture are significantly reduced.
Quantum computing has the potential to break down computational barriers
with faster and better ways to solve optimization, simulation, and machine learning
issues [12, 17]. Europe and Germany have been successful in setting up research and
funding initiatives to help develop the technology’s ecosystem and industrialize it,
making it more digital, secure, and competitive. For example, Kanamori et al. [18]
worked on quantum computers’ clock frequency and looked at the state of quantum
computer, quantum computer system, and quantum simulator.

2.3 Concept and architecture

This section explains the main concepts and architectural foundations of this cutting-
edge topic within quantum computing. It intends to present a concise but comprehen-
sive understanding of the basic components that enable quantum computers to over-
come previously insurmountable computing hurdles. This foundational information
guides the discussion of quantum computing’s practical applications and emerging
applications.

2.3.1 Quantum computing: its rich and promising past

The idea of quantum computing has been around for a while. In the early 1980s, it
was first proposed in a paper written by two scientists called Richard and David Feyn-
man. Basically, Feynman thought that quantum systems could be used to simulate
things that are too hard to compute on a regular computer. David Deutsch came up
with the idea of using quantum systems to simulate things that cannot be done on a
26 Neera Batra et al.

regular computer, and in 1985, he came up with a quantum Turing machine that basi-
cally laid the groundwork for quantum computing [19].
Table 2.2 describes quantum computing with its rich and promising past.

Table 2.2: Quantum computing: its rich and promising past.

Superposition A state “exists” with several values. Measurement collapses it into a known state. It
may be measured as any of its premeasurement results. A state’s probabilistic state
can be  or , with % probability as  and % as I. Measured, it becomes  or .
Reverse measurements are impossible.

Decoherence It characterizes the condition where quantum states are only weakly connected to
their surroundings. Since a quantum system is rarely completely isolated, information
is lost over time. They lose the ability to maintain stable phase correlations between
states. Because of this, states may lose their characteristic features and exhibit
unexpected behaviors (such as superposition and interference).

Entanglement It characterizes the phenomenon that occurs when several quantum states are
interconnected. Once they have become interconnected, they cannot be separated.
When one entangled state is measured, all the others are destroyed. When measured,
all the other states produce discrete numbers.

Interference It illustrates how quantum state wave functions can enhance or attenuate each other.
It is closely related to phase transformations, which are necessary for many effective
quantum algorithms. Sometimes it refers to environmental noise that disrupts a
state’s society.

Noncloning It has been established that it is impractical to replicate an arbitrary undetermined

theorem quantum state.

2.3.2 Quantum algorithms

Here are five of the most important quantum algorithms as shown.

Table 2.3 describes quantum algorithms with its description.

– Shor’s algorithm: The entire security system is premised on the impossibility of

factoring numbers with thousands or millions of digits. In 1995, the physicist Peter
Shor demonstrated that quantum mechanics enables factorization to be performed in
polynomial time as opposed to the exponential time typically required by conven-
tional algorithms. Shor’s algorithm is an integer quantum factoring algorithm. It has a
time-to-factorial runtime that is polynomial. This implies that the amount of time nec-
essary to factorize an integer increases exponentially as more digits are introduced.
For instance, the time required to factor a number increases exponentially when
there are multiple digits to factor.
 2 An exploration of quantum computing 27

Table 2.3: Quantum algorithms.

Name Description

Shor’s algorithm Shor’s algorithm is capable of factorizing enormous integers in polynomial

time, posing a threat to existing cryptosystems.

Quantum key QKD utilizes quantum and conventional channels to safely exchange a secret
distribution (QKD) key.

Grover’s algorithm When searching for something that lacks a distinct structure, you can employ
Grover’s method. In comparison to its classical equivalent, its pace is four
times faster. It searches through all possible input values for a black-box
function and returns the one with the highest probability of producing the
desired result.

Deutsch–Jozsa The advantages of quantum computation over classical computation were

algorithm originally shown with Jozsa’s algorithm. If a black box function is constant or
balanced, this test will show it.

Teleportation The term “quantum teleportation” refers to the transfer of information

between two entangled quantum systems. It copies a state from a sender to a
receiver while simultaneously erasing that state at the sender.

– Quantum key distribution (QKD): It operates by transferring photons, which are

“quantum particles” of light, through optical networks. Nowadays, these connections
utilize optical fibers, which have a comparable distance restriction brought on by loss.
In order to achieve complete worldwide coverage, work is also being done to use trust-
worthy quantum satellites. According to the fundamentals of quantum physics, observ-
ing a quantum state results in disturbance. In order to assure that any effort by an
eavesdropper to examine the transmitted photons will truly disturb the transmission,
the various QKD algorithms have been developed. Authorized users can see transmis-
sion defects caused by this disruption. This verifies the distributed key security. There-
fore, interaction between the authorized users is necessary for QKD implementation.
Photons – light’s “quantum particles” – are sent across optical networks in a process
known as QKD. These connections are now made using optical fibers, which also have
a distance limitation caused by loss. The use of reliable quantum satellites is also being
worked on in order to attain full global coverage. The foundations of quantum physics
state that any observation of a quantum state causes disturbance. The numerous QKD
algorithms have been designed to ensure that any attempt by an eavesdropper to in-
spect the transmitted photons will actually disrupt the transmission. Authorized users
can observe the gearbox defects this disturbance has caused [20].

– Grover’s algorithm: An Indian-American computer scientist devised Grover’s algo-

rithm, one of the most important quantum algorithms after Shor’s. It quadratically
speeds up unstructured search issues, but it can also be used as a tool or subroutine
28 Neera Batra et al.

to speed up other methods. Imagine trying to find one unique thing in a list of N
items. Traditional computers would search N/2 items, or all N things, to find the
unique item in a list. With quantum computing, Grover’s amplitude amplification can
reduce steps to N, a quadratic speedup over classical methods.

– Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm: The quantum algorithm Deutsch–Jozsa solves the

“Deutsch–Jozsa problem.” This challenge is to identify if a Boolean function is “con-
stant” (i.e., produces the same outcome for all inputs) or “balanced” (i.e., yields distinct
outputs for at least one input pair) with the fewest queries. The quantum computer
can assess whether a function is constant or balanced for inputs of n bits with one
call to the function f(x). The conventional approach requires at least two calls to at
most 2(n – 1) + 1.

– Quantum teleportation: This is a process by which quantum information is trans-

mitted from a transmitter located at a specific location to a receiver situated at a dis-
tant. The portrayal of teleportation in science fiction often involves the transportation
of physical objects, but quantum teleportation exclusively involves the transfer of
quantum information. The sender does not necessarily require knowledge of the exact
quantum state being transmitted. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the precise
whereabouts of the recipient may remain unknown; however, it is imperative that es-
sential data is transmitted from the sender to the receiver in order to achieve success-
ful quantum teleportation. The phenomenon of quantum teleportation is inherently
limited by the speed of light due to the necessity of transmitting classical information.
Although it is theoretically possible to use quantum teleportation to physically teleport
macroscopic objects (in the sense that two objects with the exact same quantum state
are identical), the amount of entangled states required to do so is far beyond what is
physically possible, as maintaining such a large number of entangled states without
decohering is a challenging problem. The operation of quantum computers, where the
manipulation of quantum information is of utmost importance, however, depends on
quantum teleportation. In the future, quantum teleportation might help in the creation
of a “quantum internet” that would function by transferring data between nearby
quantum computers [21].

2.3.3 Quantum computing models

– Gate-based quantum computers: In this approach, which is influenced by classi-

cal computation, qubits are manipulated and quantum operations are carried out
using quantum gates. Examples worth mentioning are Google’s Sycamore proces-
sor and IBM’s Q System One.
– Adiabatic quantum computers: The adiabatic quantum computing model uses
the adiabatic theorem to resolve optimization issues. It was developed by Edward
 2 An exploration of quantum computing 29

Farhi and coworkers. Based on this approach are the quantum annealers from
D-Wave Systems.
– Topological quantum computers: Invented by Alexei Kitaev, these exotic par-
ticles with non-Abelian statistics are used by topological quantum computers to
store and handle quantum information. Station Q from Microsoft is one of the
platforms investigating this idea.

2.3.4 Key issues of quantum computing

– QEC: Quantum computation is inherently susceptible to errors and noise because

of environmental decoherence. To safeguard quantum information from defects
and enable fault-tolerant quantum computation, QEC techniques are essential.
The Shor code, the surface code, and the topological color code are notable QEC
codes [22].
– Quantum cryptography: Quantum cryptography creates secure communica-
tion channels by utilizing the laws of quantum mechanics. Most likely, the net-
work preferences are unfriendly. To maintain data integrity and security, the
information that is sent must be safeguarded. Therefore, one of the essential
components of any kind of Internet is cryptography. QKD is the most popular
quantum cryptography for key exchange. Based on the concepts of quantum en-
tanglement and uncertainty, QKD protocols like BB84 and E91 offer uncondi-
tional security guarantees. It is made to share conventional secret keys between
two individuals in a quantum environment. All throughout the world, imple-
mentations of it have been constructed. It is well known for its quantum nature
in measuring invasions.
– Quantum machine learning: The phenomenon by which quantum informa-
tion is conveyed from a transmitter positioned at a particular site to a receiver
situated at a remote point is generally denoted as quantum teleportation. The
representation of teleportation in science fiction frequently encompasses the
conveyance of tangible entities, although quantum teleportation alone entails
the transmission of quantum information. The individual transmitting the in-
formation is not always need to possess knowledge of the precise quantum
state being conveyed.
– Quantum simulators and emulators: Prior to the widespread adoption of actual
quantum computers, quantum simulators and emulators are crucial tools for un-
derstanding quantum systems and algorithms. While Rigetti’s Forest offers a
quantum emulator, notable quantum simulators include IBM’s Qiskit and Goo-
gle’s Cirq.
30 Neera Batra et al.

2.4 Architecture
2.4.1 Physical layer or hardware

There exists a fundamental distinction in the manner by which information is stored

on ordinary computers as compared to quantum computers. Qubits exploit some prin-
ciples of quantum mechanics, specifically the phenomenon known as superposition.
Figure 2.1 shows the layered quantum architecture.

Layer 4: Application and Programming Layer

To implement specific functionality, manipulation of virtual qubits and virtual gates, Quantum algorithms

Layer 3: Quantum Logical Layer

Qubit decoherence due to noise which causes quantum states to randomly change, Error correction

Layer 2: Noise mitigation and Error correction layer

Qubit decoherence due to noise which causes quantum states to randomly change, Error correction

Layer 1: Physical or Hardware layer

Quantum hardware containing physical Cubits and system controller for control operations

Figure 2.1: Layered quantum architecture.

2.4.2 Approaches for physically representing

and managing qubits

There are two main types of quantum computing: analogue and digital gate-based:
– Analogue quantum computing: In analogue quantum computing, quantum op-
erations smoothly change the quantum state so that the information recorded in
the end system probabilistically corresponds to the desired result.
– Digital gate-based quantum computing: In this quantum computing method,
digital gates change the qubit data. Digital gate-based quantum computers regu-
late and modify the quantum state activity, unlike analogue quantum computers,
which sample the natural evolution of quantum states to find the optimum low-
 2 An exploration of quantum computing 31

energy state. Thus, qubits’ state is actively modified, making them more adaptable
and enabling the solution of many problems.
– Noise mitigation and error correction layer: The system software layer orches-
trates the system’s operations to take advantage of the qubits’ potentials (super-
position and entanglement) on top of the hardware layer. The obstacles posed by
the thermodynamically unstable quantum states must be overcome by this layer.
The quantum system’s internal and external thermal noise are actively reduced,
and error-correcting techniques are carried out. In particular, digital gate-based
quantum computers are very susceptible to environmental changes like tempera-
ture and vibration [23].

2.5 Quantum logical layer

The primary goal of the logical layer is to construct a logical layer for logical quantum
computing using resources for fault tolerance from layer 2. Processing of error-
corrected gates should be carried out in order to obtain an arbitrary gate. The QEC
has been able to give a finite number of gates. The logical layer’s job is to separate the
quantum algorithm’s arbitrary gates into circuits that control the fundamental gates.
Circuits with logical layers make global quantum computation easier.

2.5.1 Application and programming layer

At the application layer, quantum programming is possible. Quantum algorithms run

here. Instead of novel algorithms, quantum computing resources for a certain applica-
tion are estimated. An engineer can immediately work in this layer with the necessary
skills. Examine QuDOS with Shor’s factoring method and quantum chemical model-
ing. A substrate-independent application layer relies on the fault-tolerant QEC circuit
for logical qubits. A standard approach for manipulating virtual qubits and gates is
used to measure and manipulate actual qubits.

2.6 Research gaps

There are various research gaps that need greater exploration and analysis as quan-
tum computing develops. To close these gaps and develop the science, further study is
required in the areas where the existing understanding is weak. For major advances
to be made and the full promise of quantum computing to be realized, these research
gaps must be filled. Some of the most significant research issues in the field of quan-
tum computing are described in this section:
32 Neera Batra et al.

– Scalable QEC: Construction of fault-tolerant quantum computers requires QEC.

There is still a need to create scalable codes that can effectively correct errors in large-
scale quantum systems despite the numerous QEC schemes that have been put out.
The resource overhead created by current error correction systems, which frequently
require a large number of physical qubits to secure a single logical qubit, prevents
practical scaling. In order to obtain improved fault tolerance with less additional qu-
bits and gates, research in this field should concentrate on developing novel error cor-
rection codes or optimizing current ones.

– Quantum software and algorithm development: Research is still being done on

the creation of quantum algorithms and software tools. Although substantial work
has been achieved in developing quantum algorithms for certain problems, further
methods and strategies need to be investigated in order to broaden the scope of issues
that can be effectively resolved by quantum computers. Further research is necessary
to maximize computing performance and efficiency when combining quantum algo-
rithms with classical computations in hybrid techniques.

– Quantum hardware improvement: The qubit coherence time, gate fidelity, and error
rates of quantum hardware are only a few of the difficulties it encounters. To create
more potent quantum processors, it is essential to enhance the performance of qubits
and quantum gates. To improve the coherence and accuracy of qubits and efficiently
minimize errors, researchers must investigate new materials, fabrication processes, and
control mechanisms. Researching different qubit technologies and architectures may
also result in platforms for quantum computing that are more stable and expandable.

– Quantum communication and networking: QKD methods promise to enable se-

cure communication channels in quantum communication. Long-distance quantum
communication still faces a practical implementation difficulty with the use of quan-
tum repeaters and networks. The development of effective and dependable quantum
communication protocols, as well as the investigation of novel techniques for long-
distance entanglement distribution and quantum repeater designs, should be the
main areas of research.

– Quantum–classical interface: The use of hybrid quantum–classical techniques,

which combine quantum processors and classical computations, has to be further inves-
tigated. Effectively tackling challenging real-world problems requires the development
of effective interfaces and algorithms that optimize the interaction between quantum
and conventional components. The ideal use cases for hybrid quantum–classical com-
puting should be determined, as well as concerns like reducing communication over-
head and improving hybrid processes.

– Quantum software standardization: The lack of standardization and interopera-

bility in quantum software tools and programming languages is a significant research
gap [24]. Standardizing quantum programming languages, interfaces, and software
 2 An exploration of quantum computing 33

stacks would facilitate collaboration, reproducibility, and the efficient utilization of

quantum computing resources. Researchers need to work together to develop a con-
sensus on quantum software standards and best practices.

– Quantum supremacy and quantum advantage: Even if quantum supremacy has

been confirmed in specific tests, the topic of how to define and achieve quantum ad-
vantage in real-world applications is still unanswered. For directing the development
and uptake of quantum computing technologies, it is essential to pinpoint the precise
point at which quantum algorithms start to outperform classical algorithms in a vari-
ety of applications.

– Quantum algorithms for real-world applications: Although quantum algorithms

have demonstrated promise in a number of fields, their practical usefulness is still
constrained by issues like noise, error rates, and resource needs. With a firm under-
standing of the benefits and drawbacks of quantum approaches in comparison to clas-
sical techniques, research should concentrate on inventing and optimizing quantum
algorithms for practical applications [25].

2.7 Challenges
There are many obstacles that must be overcome for quantum computing to reach its
full potential as technology moves closer to being used in practical applications. The
creation of large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computers that can continuously out-
perform their classical counterparts depends on overcoming these obstacles. The
most important obstacles facing the area of quantum computing today are discussed
in this section.

2.7.1 Quantum hardware challenges

Building and maintaining a stable quantum computer is a formidable engineering

task. Quantum processors are susceptible to thermal noise, control errors, and envi-
ronmental fluctuations. Creating qubits with long coherence times and high-fidelity
quantum gates is a significant challenge for various quantum computing platforms.
Different quantum computing models, such as superconducting qubits, trapped ions,
and topological qubits, face their unique technological challenges that must be over-
come to realize large-scale quantum processors.
Figure 2.2 shows quantum hardware challenges.
34 Neera Batra et al.

Hardware Susceptibility to thermal noise, control errors, and environmental

Challenges fluctuations, big size, complexity

Decoherence and Susceptibility to control errors, loss of quantum information,

Error Correction challenge to maintain the delicate quantum states for
computations

Communication
Distance limitations of quantum entanglement and the requirement
and Networking
for robust quantum repeaters.

Resource Distance limitations of quantum entanglement and the requirement

Overhead for robust quantum repeaters.

Hundreds or thousands of qubits are required for real-world

Scalability applications. Difficult to maintain coherence and error rates
such large-scale systems

Standardization Lack of standardization and interoperability, development of

and standardized quantum programming languages, interfaces,
Interoperability and software stacks is a challenge

Figure 2.2: Quantum hardware challenges.

2.7.2 Quantum decoherence and error correction

Quantum systems are highly sensitive to their surrounding environment, leading to

decoherence – the loss of quantum information due to interactions with external
noise. Decoherence restricts the coherence time of qubits, which is the amount of
time during which quantum information can be reliably stored and manipulated. As
quantum computers increase in size, their susceptibility to noise and errors increases,
making it difficult to preserve the delicate quantum states required for computations.
QEC techniques are employed to secure quantum information from errors in
order to address this issue. However, implementing QEC introduces additional over-
head in terms of qubits and quantum gates, necessitating an even greater number of
physical qubits for dependable quantum computing. The difficulty lies in developing
error correction codes that are both efficient and scalable and can effectively reduce
errors without compromising the computational advantage of quantum algorithms.
 2 An exploration of quantum computing 35

2.7.3 Quantum communication and networking

Quantum communication protocols such as QKD hold promise for securing channels
of communication. However, practical implementation and widespread deployment
of quantum communication networks face numerous obstacles, such as the distance
limitations of quantum entanglement and the need for robust quantum repeaters.

2.7.4 Resource overhead

Quantum algorithms are frequently exponentially faster than classical algorithms for
certain problems. However, this benefit incurs a cost in terms of the quantity of qu-
bits and quantum gates required. Determining the point at which quantum algo-
rithms become practically superior to classical algorithms for a variety of tasks
remains a matter of debate.

2.7.5 Scalability

Quantum computing has demonstrated remarkable results in small-scale experiments,

but scaling quantum systems to the point where they consistently outperform classical
computers remains a significant challenge. Quantum computers with a few dozen qu-
bits are already difficult to simulate classically, but hundreds or thousands of qubits
are required for quantum advantage in real-world applications. Maintaining coherence
and error rates in systems of this magnitude presents significant challenges.

2.7.6 Standardization and interoperability

The lack of standardization and interoperability presents a challenge for the quantum
computing community as multiple quantum computing platforms and programming
languages emerge. Standards for quantum programming languages, interfaces, and
software frameworks are essential for cooperation, reproducibility, and quantum
computing resource efficiency.
Quantum computing must overcome these limitations to reach its full potential.
Quantum computing success and adoption will depend on tackling quantum decoher-
ence, error correction, scalability, hardware limits, algorithm development, quantum
communication, resource overhead, and standardization. The scientific community is
making advancement on these problems, but more has to be done to fully harness
quantum computing’s transformative promise in practical applications.
36 Neera Batra et al.

2.7.7 Innovative applications of quantum computing

Although quantum computing is still in its infancy, researchers and industry execu-
tives have identified a number of advantageous applications for quantum algorithms:
– Optimization: Quantum algorithms, such as the quantum approximate optimiza-
tion algorithm, have the potential to solve complex optimization problems with
applications in logistics, finance, and operations research.
– Drug discovery: Quantum computers can mimic chemical interactions more effi-
ciently than classical computers, speeding drug discovery and enabling the design
of novel materials with desired features.
– Cryptography: Shor’s algorithm has the potential to disrupt commonly used
cryptographic schemes, such as Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA), its a public key
cryptography algorithm. Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), on quantum com-
puters. This menace is being countered by the development of quantum-resistant
cryptographic algorithms, such as those based on lattice cryptography.
– Cryptanalysis: The possibility that quantum computation could break crypto-
graphic algorithms raises concerns and motivates research into postquantum
cryptography.
– Optimization problems: Quantum algorithms offer potential accelerations for opti-
mization tasks, influencing sectors such as logistics and supply chain management.
– Materials science: Quantum computing aids in simulating complex quantum ma-
terials and comprehending their properties.
– Quantum communication: Quantum key distribution protocols allow for secure
communication, ensuring that any attempt to eavesdrop disrupts the communica-
tion channel and laying the groundwork for future quantum-safe communication
networks.

2.8 Challenges and future directions

Quantum computing has significant hurdles despite its rapid growth. Incoherence and
errors in quantum systems endanger computer reliability. Qubit coherence, error cor-
rection, and fault-tolerant quantum processing are being researched. Overcoming these
hurdles and exploring unknown area would enable quantum computing alter other
fields. In order to develop and implement quantum computers, academia, industry, and
government must work together. Quantum computing researchers and industry may
produce a quantum-enhanced future despite hurdles. The future is uncertain but
bright. Quantum computing could boost the processing power and change science and
technology.
 2 An exploration of quantum computing 37

2.9 Conclusion
Finally, this study examined quantum computing’s underlying concepts, architectural
principles, and creative applications. It has been shown in this chapter how quantum
computing may transform problem-solving across domains. Qubits, quantum comput-
ing, and the structure of the quantum circuit architecture have been explored to un-
derstand how quantum computers differ from classical computers. The discussion of
quantum computing highlighted quantum cryptography, optimization issues, and AI
and also the need for global collaboration among scientists and engineers. Quantum
computing’s potential for real-world applications is also explored.

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[18] Kanamori, Y., Yoo, S., Pan, W., & Sheldon, F. (2006). A short survey on quantum computers.
International Journal of Computers and Applications, 28(3).
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identification to avoid traffic. In 2020 Fourth International Conference on I-SMAC (IoT in Social, Mobile,
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Dankan Gowda V✶, Avinash Kumar, Belsam Jeba Ananth M,
Vasanthakumar G U and Mandeep Singh
3 Quantum machine learning in healthcare:
diagnostics and drug discovery
Abstract: The awareness of quantum machine learning (QML) as a possible catalyst
for redefining the healthcare industry is fast increasing. This chapter provides an
analysis of the transformational potential of QML in the context of healthcare diag-
nostics and drug development. The confluence of quantum computing with machine
learning in the field of diagnostics offers significant prospects for the analysis of ex-
tensive and intricate biological datasets at unparalleled velocities. This has the poten-
tial to improve the precision and promptness of illness diagnosis and monitoring. This
chapter explores the ways in which quantum algorithms might augment imaging
methodologies, hence facilitating more accurate and noninvasive diagnostic proce-
dures. QML presents a transformative change within the domain of drug discovery.
The considerable computing capabilities of quantum systems have the potential to
greatly expedite the process of drug creation and screening. These systems can effi-
ciently navigate extensive chemical databases in a substantially shorter timeframe
compared to conventional systems. Through the examination of intricate molecular
structures and their interactions on a quantum scale, novel therapeutic interventions
might be discerned for illnesses that now lack efficacious remedies. This chapter ex-
amines the promising prospects of QML in the medical field while also highlighting
the current challenges and limitations it faces upon integration. Key points of consid-
eration include the vulnerability of quantum computing devices to environmental in-
terference and the nascent stage of quantum algorithms tailored for healthcare data.
The merging of quantum computing with the healthcare industry is poised to have
profound effects on patient treatment, medical investigations, and the drug develop-
ment industry. The content herein provides a comprehensive review of the current
state, potential benefits, and challenges of employing QML within healthcare diagnos-

✶
Corresponding author: Dankan Gowda V, Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, BMS Institute of Technology and Management, Bangalore, Karnataka, India,
e-mail: [email protected]
Avinash Kumar, Maya Industries Corp, Gurugram, India, e-mail: [email protected]
Belsam Jeba Ananth M, Department of Mechatronics Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and
Technology, Kattankulathur, India, e-mail: [email protected]
Vasanthakumar G U, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Nitte Meenakshi Institute of
Technology, Bengaluru, India, e-mail: [email protected]
Mandeep Singh, University Institute of Computing, Chandigarh University, Mohali, India,
e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111342276-003
40 Dankan Gowda V et al.

tics and pharmaceutical innovation. Moreover, it charts an optimistic trajectory for

the evolution of medical research going forward.

Keywords: Healthcare diagnostics, quantum machine learning (QML), biological data,

pharmaceutical industry, disease monitoring and patient care

3.1 Introduction
The fusion of quantum computing and machine learning (ML) is creating ground-
breaking opportunities across various fields, with the healthcare industry at the cusp
of a major transformation. The advent of quantum ML (QML) presents a revolution-
ary methodology with the capacity to transform diagnostic processes and expedite the
discovery of new medications [1]. With its proficiency in processing vast and intricate
datasets rapidly, QML promises to enhance the precision and speed of healthcare de-
livery and medical responses.
At the heart of QML lies a transformative integration of quantum computing’s
foundational principles with the advanced methodologies of ML. Quantum computers
leverage the phenomena of quantum mechanics, utilizing qubits to conduct calcula-
tions far beyond the scope of traditional computers. This formidable computing
strength [2, 3], when harnessed for ML, allows for the creation of algorithms capable
of learning from data with incredible velocity quantum speeds. Such advancements
carry significant promise for healthcare, particularly in the intricate analysis of bio-
logical data and the innovation of new medical treatments, potentially surpassing ex-
isting technological limits.
The prospective applications of QML in healthcare are diverse and potentially
revolutionary. Diagnostically, QML has the capacity to innovate imaging technologies,
refine predictive models for the course of illnesses [4], and craft personalized treat-
ment plans based on individual genetic profiles. Within the realm of pharmaceuticals,
it holds the promise of more efficient exploration of chemical compositions, enhanced
precision in forecasting molecular behaviors, and a marked decrease in time and fi-
nancial outlay required to introduce new medications to the marketplace [5].
This segment delves into the core technologies that form the backbone of quan-
tum computing, enabling the creation of state-of-the-art quantum computing infra-
structures [6]. The exposition categorizes the various aspects of quantum computing
technology, encompassing hardware architecture, control processor systems, quan-
tum information management, the central processing unit’s role, the interfaces for
quantum control and measurement, as well as the technologies behind qubits. Each
category is critical to the overall functionality and advancement of quantum comput-
ing systems [7]. Quantum computers differ from standard computers in their funda-
mental units of operation, known as quantum bits or “qubits.” These units can occupy
 3 Quantum machine learning in healthcare: diagnostics and drug discovery 41

two states simultaneously, thus enabling them to represent both “1” and “0” at the
same time.
Quantum computing systems exploit the unique properties of quantum physics,
such as the orientation of photons or the spin of electrons, to generate qubits. It is
observed that quantum systems can vary, ranging from single-qubit systems to those
with two qubits, and further to configurations with an even greater number of qubits
[8]. Significant progress in quantum computing was achieved in the early 2000s with
the creation of the first five-qubit system. Subsequent advancements have led to nota-
ble developments [9, 10], with IBM’s latest quantum computing chip featuring 433 qu-
bits being among the most advanced in the field. Current scholarly consensus posits
that achieving quantum supremacy condition where a quantum device solves a prob-
lem that is impractical for classical computers to solve in a reasonable time frame
requires at least 50 qubits. The characteristics of qubits are intrinsically linked to the
behaviors observed in quantum phenomena like the spin of an electron around an
atomic nucleus [11], encompassing three fundamental quantum features: superposi-
tion, entanglement, and interference.
Exploration of four critical attributes that distinguish classical computing from
quantum computing reveals significant contrasts:
– Computational basis: Classical computing is founded on bits as the primary unit
of information, which exist exclusively in a state of 0 or 1. Conversely, quantum
computing utilizes qubits that [12], due to the quantum phenomenon of superpo-
sition, can represent a 0, 1, or any quantum superposition of these states.
– Data processing: Processing information in classical computers is deterministic,
following the binary logic of Boolean algebra. In the realm of quantum computing
[13, 14], operations are probabilistic because of the nature of qubits, which can
result in multiple potential outcomes simultaneously.
– Problem-solving approach: Classical computers tackle problems in a sequential
manner, processing one bit at a time. Quantum computers, on the other hand,
leverage the entanglement property of qubits, enabling them to process multiple
possibilities in parallel [15], which can exponentially speed up certain computa-
tions like factoring large numbers or searching unsorted databases.
– Complexity and resources: Classical computers, when dealing with complex
problems, often require a linear increase in resources as the problem size grows.
Quantum computers have the potential to handle complex problems more effi-
ciently [16], potentially reducing the resources needed for certain computations
due to their parallel processing capabilities and the dense coding of information
within qubits.

Yet, as is typical for emerging technologies, quantum computing faces significant chal-
lenges. The hardware, being in its developmental infancy, is particularly susceptible
to environmental interference and computational errors [17]. The algorithms must
also be intricately designed to manage the complexities and inherent variability of bi-
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philosophical subjects. The magnificent ruins, which subsist up to
this day in that locality, have been minutely examined, measured,
and described by several visitors. The great temple must, in the
opinion of A. Cunningham, have been built in the sixth century of
our era.
14. Kootheinaron is the place in the neighbourhood of which
Buddha entered into the state of Neibban, or died. Some
antiquarians, laying much stress on the name of a village up to this
day called Kushia, have placed the position of Kootheinaron on the
road between Betiah and Goruckpore. On that spot is to be seen a
pyramidical-looking mound of bricks, over which spreads a large
banyan tree. But, from the narrative of the legend, we must look for
the site of Kootheinaron nearer to the river Higniarati or Gunduck,
since the spot where Gaudama died was near to the city, and is
described as surrounded on three sides by the river. Kootheinaron
was situated a little north or north-west of Betiah, on or near the
banks of the Gunduck. There too ruins are to be seen, which
doubtless will prove to be those of Kootheinaron. The name may
have subsequently migrated to the locality above mentioned.
15. Papilawana, the capital of the Mauria princes, was situated
between the Rapti and the Gunduck, nearly east of Goruckpore.
South of that place Fa-Hian visited the dzedi of the coals. The Mauria
princes, agreeably to the text of the legend, having come too late for
sharing in the partition of the relics, took with them the coals that
remained after the cremation of Buddha’s remains, carried them into
their country, and built a dzedi over them. It was not far from that
place that the Brahmin Dauna built another dzedi over the vessel
that had contained Buddha’s relics.
16. The village of Rama is the same as the Ramaganio of the
Cingalese collection. The two Chinese pilgrims in their relations call
that place Lan-mo. Can it be that the modern Ramnagar is indicative
of the ancient Ramaganio? At all events we would not be far from
the truth if we place it between the Gogra and the Rapti, but nearer
to the latter, almost due west of Goruckpore.
 17. The Pawa town is supposed by A. Cunningham to have
occupied the same site as the large village of Padarawana, twelve
miles to the west of the river Gunduck, and forty miles north-north-
east of Goruckpore. A large mound of more than 200 feet in length
by 120 in breadth exists in that locality. From the excavations made
on the place, it is supposed that there was a courtyard, with cells for
monks, on each side, the centre being, as was often the case,
occupied by a dzedi. The people of Pawa obtained one-eighth of the
relics, after the cremation of Buddha’s remains, and built one dzedi
over them.
18. Kapilawot, or Kapilawastu, was situated between Fyzabad and
Goruckpore, but a little nearer to the latter place. It was on or near
the banks of the Gogra. The small river Rohini formed the boundary
between the territory of Kapilawot and that of Kaulia.
19. Gaya and Buddha-Gaya are two distinct places. The first is well
known as the town of Gaya. The second lies six miles southward,
and is famous as the locality of the Pipal or Bodi tree, under which
Gaudama obtained the Buddhahood. A tree of the same description
is still to be seen on the same spot. The present one was in full
vigour in 1811, when Dr. Buchanan saw it. He describes it as not
being more than a hundred years old. A. Cunningham says that it is
now much decayed. One large stem with three branches on the
westward side are still green; but the other branches are barkless
and rotten. Hwen Thsang, in his itinerary, speaks of an early renewal
of that tree by King Purna Varmma, after its destruction by King
Sasangka, who, with a true Brahminical and inimical feeling, dug up
the very ground on which it had stood, and moistened the earth with
sugar-cane juice, to prevent its renewal. The same eminent
archæologist describes a massive brick temple, standing east of the
Bodi tree, and with great plausibility maintains that it is the same
which has been described by the above-named Chinese pilgrim. As
Fa-Hian is silent respecting that temple, A. Cunningham concludes
that it was erected during the sixth century of the Christian era,
when Buddhism, under the favour of King Amara-sinha and some of
his successors, regained a vigorous ascendancy at least in Magatha.
It is probable that all the temples, the ruins of which have been
examined at Buddha-Gaya, Nalanda, and Behar, having a similarity in
architectural plans and ornaments, were erected during the sixth
and a part of the seventh century of our era. The inference
therefrom is that Buddhism was flourishing in Magatha at that
period. Hwen Thsang, who has visited and described those
monuments in or about 625, speaks of them in the highest terms.
How long lasted the prosperous days of Buddhism in those parts? It
is difficult to state with any degree of accuracy. But it seems
probable that it maintained itself in a satisfactory condition until the
beginning of the tenth century. It had then to give way before the
irresistible and triumphant ascendancy of Brahminism.
To the south-east of the great temple is a small tank which is
probably that of the Naga, who protected Buddha during one of the
several stations that he made round the Bodi tree.
20. Anawadat is the name of a lake famous in Buddhist sacred
history. Its etymological meaning is, agreeably to some savans,
exempt of tumult, and, according to others, not brightened. This last
appellation is owing probably to the high peaks that surround it and
prevent its being brightened by the rays of the sun. This is certainly
the famous and extensive lake, which covers a portion of the high
table-land of Pamir. It has been visited and described by Lieutenant
Wood. What he states from a careful observation on the spot agrees
well with what is found in the itineraries of the Chinese travellers.
From that high plateau which embosoms the lake flows in an eastern
direction one of those small streams that form the river Ganges;
whilst, in an opposite direction, the Oxus, issuing from the western
slope, shapes its course nearly towards the west.
21. Udiana is a country the position of which is fixed on the banks
of the Indus, between Cabul and Cashmere, west of the latter
country. Gandara is, it appears, the country called Candahar by the
Mussulmans, lying between the Swat and the Indus. The Burmese
author mentions always Kashmera along with Gandara. This would
indicate that the two places are in the vicinity of each other, and that
they formed primitively one and the same state. Yaunaka is perhaps
the peninsula of Guzerat. But the writer entertains serious doubts on
this subject. It might be the countries situated west of the Hindu
Kush, that is to say, the ancient Bactriana. The Burmese author
states that Yaunaka was inhabited by a people called Pantsays. What
people were they? Is it an allusion to the Greeks that had settled in
Bactriana? It is not without interest to hear our Chinese traveller
stating that religion was flourishing in the above-mentioned
countries, whilst in the Punjaub he met with religious with whom he
declined holding intercourse, and of whom he speaks in rather
unfavourable terms. Hence we may conclude that heretical opinions
were then prevailing in that country, and that doctrines at variance
with those of Buddha had already taken a deep root, and in their
growth almost choked genuine Buddhism, if it had ever been the
prevailing creed in the land of the five rivers.
22. On his way down the Ganges, our pilgrim does not appear to
have left his boat for any considerable time; he contents himself
with mentioning a fact that to some may appear somewhat doubtful,
viz., the flourishing condition of the Buddhist religion as far as the
neighbourhood of the present metropolis of India. He speaks of the
kingdom of Champa. Campapuri, or Karnapura, was the capital of
that state. It was situated on the site of the present Bhagulpore, or
not far from it. Thence Fa-Hian came to the state of Tamaralipti. The
town which bore that name is the modern Tumlook, on the right
bank of the Hoogly, not far from Calcutta. It was at that port that he
embarked on board of a ship bound to Ceylon. Tamaralipti must
have been a famous sea-port several centuries before Fa-Hian’s
days. We are informed that Maheinda and his companions, who
were appointed to proceed to Ceylon to preach Buddhism to the
people of that island, embarked at the same place.
 THE SEVEN WAYS TO NEIBBAN.
This is an abridgment of all the principles that constitute the
system of Buddhism. In the Legend of Buddha the reader has become
acquainted with the life of the founder of Buddhism, the
establishment of his religion, and the promulgation of his chief
doctrine. In the following pages he will find compressed within
narrow limits the several observances to be attended to in order to
reach the goal of quiescence. As it is chiefly and principally by the
help of meditation and contemplation that such a point can ever be
attained, the reader must be prepared to wade up to his very chin in
the somewhat muddy waters of metaphysics if he has a wish to
penetrate into the very sanctuary of Buddhism.
To encourage the reader, and console him in the midst of his
fatiguing journey through such dreary tracts, the writer would
remind him that he has first borne up the fatigues of such a journey,
and that, impelled by friendly feelings, he has endeavoured to
smooth the rugged path in behalf of those that would follow him on
the same errand. How far he has succeeded in his well-meant efforts
he will not presume to state. But he will say this much, that if his
success be commensurate with his exertions he may entertain a
well-founded hope that he will not be altogether disappointed in his
anticipation, and feel somewhat confident that he has afforded to
the uninitiated some help to go over the difficult ground of
metaphysics.
Following, in this instance, the line of conduct he has adopted
through the foregoing pages of this book, the writer will allow the
Buddhist author to speak for himself and explain his own views on
the different subjects under consideration. His sole aim will ever be
to convey as faithfully and as succinctly as possible the meaning of
the original he has under his eyes. The task, however simple it may
appear, is far from being an easy one, as the Burmese are utterly
incapable of fully understanding the metaphysical portion of their
religious system. Their ignorance is calculated to render even more
obscure what is per se almost beyond the range of comprehension,
because they must have frequently put an erroneous interpretation
on many Pali words, the meaning of which is far from being
accurately determined.
Our Buddhist doctor begins his work with enumerating the
advantages to be derived from a serious and constant application to
the earnest study of these seven ways. “Such an exercise,” says he,
“has the virtue to free us from all evils; it expands the intelligence in
the highest degree, and leads straight to Neibban. Man, through it,
is delivered from all errors, is happy, and becomes during his life an
honour to the holy religion of Buddha.”
The various subjects he intends to treat of in this work are
arranged under seven heads, which are laid down in his own original
way as follows:—The observance of the precepts and the practice of
meditation are the two-fold foundation of the spiritual edifice. The
consideration of the nature and form of matter shall be the right foot
of the sage; the investigation about the causes and principles of
living beings shall be as his left foot; the application of the mind to
find out the four high-roads to perfection, and the obtaining the
freedom from all passions, shall be as his right and left hands; and
the possession of the perfect science or knowledge shall be as his
head. The happy man who shall have reached so far will be certain
to obtain the deliverance.
This summary is thus divided by our guide into seven distinct
parts, which will be condensed into six articles.
It is as well to add that this work, an abridged translation of which
is now set before the reader, was composed at first in the Siamese
language at Bangkok, and has been subsequently translated into
Burmese. We find, therefore, that all the principles expounded
throughout are received as genuine on the banks of the Irrawaddy
as well as on those of the Meinam, and may be looked upon as a
faithful exposition of the highest tenets of Buddhism, such as they
are held in both countries. This observation confirms a notion which
has been denied by many, viz., that the chief doctrines of Buddhism
are pretty nearly the same in all the places where it has become the
dominant creed. The discrepancies to be met here and there relate
principally to practices and observances which present to the eyes of
the observer an infinite variety of hues and forms. When Buddhism
was established in several countries, it did not destroy many
observances and practices that were found deeply engrafted on the
customs and manners of the people; it tolerated them, and made
with them a tacit compromise. As, for instance, the worship of Nats
existed among the tribes of the Irrawaddy valley long before the
introduction of Buddhism. Most of the superstitious rites now
prevailing in Burmah originate from that belief. With the Chinese the
worship of ancestors continues to subsist side by side with
Buddhism, though the latter creed has nothing to do with it. In
Nepaul and at Ceylon, Hindu superstitions obtrude themselves on
the view of the observer to such an extent that it is not easy to state
which of the two creeds obtains the preference.

ARTICLE I.
OF THE PRECEPTS.

Our author, in a truly philosophical spirit, at first puts to himself

the three following questions: What is the origin of the law? What is
man, the subject of the law? What is the individual who is the
promulgator of the law? The three questions he answers in the
following manner: 1st. All that exists is divided into two distinct
parts, the things which are liable to change and obey the principle of
mutability, such as matter, its modifications, and all beings which
have a cause;[45] and those which are eternal and immutable, that is
to say, the precepts of the law and Neibban. These have neither
author nor cause; they are self-existing, eternal, and placed far
beyond the reach of the influence that causes mutability. 2d. As to
the publisher of the law, Buddha, he is a mere man, who during
myriads of centuries has accumulated merits on merits, until he has
obtained the Neibban of Kiletha, or the deliverance from all passions.
From that moment till his death this eminent personage is
constituted the master of religion and the doctor of the law. Owing
to his perfect science he finds out and discovers all the precepts that
constitute the body of the law. Impelled by his matchless
benevolence towards all beings, he promulgates them for the
salvation of all. He is not the inventor of those precepts; he merely
discovers them by the power of the supreme intelligence, in the
same manner as we perceive clearly during the night, by the help of
a light, objects hitherto wrapped in utter darkness. 3d. Man, who is
to be subjected to the observance of the law, is distinguished by the
following characteristics. He possesses more knowledge than the
animals and other beings, except the Nats and Brahmas; his
intelligence and thoughts reach farther than those of other beings;
he is capable of reflecting, comparing, drawing inferences, and
observing freely the rules of life;[46] despite the allurement of his
passions, he can free himself from the three great passions,
concupiscence, anger, and ignorance; finally, he is a descendant
from those Brahmas who, in the beginning of this world, came from
their seat, lived on earth, and, by their eating the rice Tsale, lost all
their glorious privileges, and became beings similar to those who are
known to us under the denomination of men.
The great end to be aimed at in the observance of the precepts of
the law and the exercise of meditation is the obtaining of a state of
complete indifference to all things. The state of indifference alluded
to does not consist in a stupid carelessness about the things of this
world. It is the result of a knowledge acquired with much labour and
pain. The wise man who has possessed himself of such science is no
longer liable to the influence of that vulgar illusion which makes
people believe in the real existence of things that have no reality
about them, but subsist only on an ephemeral basis, which
incessantly changes and finally vanishes away. He sees things as
they truly are. He is full of contempt for things which are at best a
mere illusion. This contempt generates a complete indifference for
all that exists, even for his own being. He longs for the moment
when it shall be given to him to cast away his own body, that he
may no longer move within the circle of endless and miserable forms
of existence. In this sense must be understood the state of perfect
quietism or indifference, which is the last stage the wise man may
reach by the help of the science he possesses. The religious of the
Brahminical creed have professed the same indifference for all the
accidents of life. Hence our Buddha, when he became a perfected
being, looked on the wicked Dewadat with the same feelings as he
did on the great Maia, his mother. Numberless Rathees or anchorites
have ever been eulogised for having allowed themselves to be
devoured by ferocious beasts or bit by venomous snakes, rather
than offer the least resistance that could exhibit a sign of non-
indifference. Entire was their unconcern towards their very body,
which they knew well is, as everything else, a compound of the four
elements, a mere illusion, totally distinct from self.
Five commandments constitute the very basis whereupon stand all
morals, and are obligatory on all men without exception. They
include five prohibitions. (It is not a little surprising that the five
precepts obligatory on all men are merely five prohibitions designed
not to teach men what they have to do, but warning them not to do
such things as are interdicted to them. This supposes that man is
prone to do certain acts which are sinful. The Buddhist law of the
five precepts forbids him to yield to such propensities, but it does
not teach him particular duties to perform. It does not elevate man
above his original level, but it aims at preventing him from falling
lower.) The five prohibitions are: Not to destroy the life of any being;
not to steal; not to commit adultery; not to tell lies; not to drink any
intoxicating liquors or beverages.
Our author seems to be a perfect master in casuistry, as he shows
the greatest nicety and exactness in explaining all the requisite
conditions that constitute a trespassing of those precepts. We will
give here but a few samples of his uncommon proficiency in this
science. As regards the first prohibition, he says, five things are
necessary to constitute an offence against the first commandment,
viz., a being that has life, the intention and will of killing that being,
an act which is capable of inflicting death, and the loss of life of that
being consequent on the inflicting of that action. Should but one of
these conditions be wanting, the sin could not be said to have taken
place, and therefore no complete trespassing of the first prohibition.
Again, as regards the second precept, five circumstances or
conditions are necessary to constitute a trespassing, viz., an object
belonging to another person, who neither by words nor signs
showed any intention to part with it; the knowing that the owner
intends to keep possession of it; having the actual intention to take
away secretly or forcibly that object; an effort to become possessed
of the thing by deceiving, injuring, or by mal-practices causing the
owner or keeper of the thing to fall asleep; and, finally, removing the
thing from its place, however short may be the distance, should it be
but that of the length of a hair of the head.
For the infraction of the third precept the following conditions are
required: the intention and will of sinning with any person of another
sex, which comes within the denomination of Akamani-jathan, that is
to say, persons whom it is forbidden to touch; acting up to that
intention and the consummating of such an act. Women that fall
under the above denomination are divided into twenty classes. The
eight first classes include those that are under the guardianship of
their parents or relatives; the ninth class comprises those affianced
before they be of age; the tenth, those reserved for the king. Within
the ten other classes come all those who, owing to their having been
slaves, or from any other cause, have become concubines to their
masters, or married their seducers, &c.
The fourth prohibition extends not only to lies, but likewise to
slander, coarse and abusive expressions, and vain and useless
words. The four following conditions constitute a lie, viz., saying a
thing that is untrue; the intention of saying such a thing; making
manifest such an intention by saying the thing; and some one’s
hearing and clearly understanding the thing that is uttered. That the
sin of medisance may be said to exist, it is required that the author
of it should speak with the intention of causing parties to hate each
other or quarrel with each other, and that the words spoken to that
end should be heard and understood by the parties alluded to.
The fifth precept forbids the drinking of Sura and Meria, that is to
say, of distilled liquors and of intoxicating juices extracted from fruits
and flowers. The mere act of putting the liquor in the mouth does
not constitute a sin; the swallowing of it is implied.
Besides these five general precepts, obligatory on all the faithful
without exception, there are three other precepts, or rather
counsels, that are strongly recommended to the Upasakas, or pious
laymen. They are designed as barriers against the great propensity
inherent in nature which causes men to exceed in all that is used,
through the senses of taste, hearing, seeing, smelling, and feeling.
They are so many means that help to obtain a sober moderation in
the daily use of the things of the world.
The first counsel regulates all that regards eating. It forbids using
any comestible from noon to daybreak of the following morning. The
second interdicts the assisting at plays, comedies, and the use of
flowers and essences with the intention of fondly handling and
smelling them. The third prescribes the form and size of beds, which
ought never to be more than one cubit high, plain and without
ornaments. The use of mattresses and pillows, filled with cotton or
other soft substances, is positively prohibited. The very intention of
lying upon these enervating superfluities, and a fortiori reclining on
them, constitutes the breaking of such a command.
These three latter precepts are to be observed chiefly in the
following days, on the 5th, 8th, 14th, and 15th of the waxing moon,
and on the 5th, 8th, and 14th of the waning moon, as well as on the
new moon. The pious Upasakas sometimes observe them during the
three consecutive months of the season of Lent.
In the opinion of our author those men and women are deserving
of the respectable title of Upasakas who have the greatest respect
for and entertain a pious affection towards the three precious things,
Buddha, the law, and the assembly of the perfect. They must ever
view them as the haven of salvation and the securest asylums. They
must be ready to sacrifice everything, their very life, for the sake of
these three perfect things. During their lifetime, under all
circumstances, they must aim at following scrupulously the
instructions of Buddha, such as they are embodied in the law and
preached by the Rahans.
Five offences disqualify a man for the honourable title of Upasaka,
viz., the want of belief and confidence in the three precious things,
the non-observance of the eight precepts, the believing in lucky and
unlucky days,[47] or in good and bad fortune, the belief in omens
and signs, and keeping company with the impious, who have no
faith in Buddha.
We now come to the rules which are prescribed to all the Buddhist
religious. They are 227 in number, and are found in a book called
Patimauk. This book is the vade mecum of all religious. They study it
and often learn it by heart. On certain days of each month the
religious assemble in the Thein. The Patimauk is then read,
explained, and commented upon by one of the elders of the
fraternity. It is an abridgment of the Wini, the great book of
discipline. It teaches the various rules respecting the four articles
offered by the faithful to the religious; that is to say, vestments,
food, mats, and the ingredients for mastication. These rules likewise
regulate all that relates to the mode of making prayers, devotions,
walking, sitting, reclining, travelling, &c. Everything is described with
a minute particularity.
Here, if any interest could be awakened, would be the place to
enter into the system of casuistry carried by Buddhist religious to a
point of nicety and refinement truly astonishing. Suffice it to state
that they have gone over the boundless field of speculative
conjectures respecting all the possible ways of fulfilling or
trespassing the precepts and regulations that concern the body of
religious.
 Every law and precept must have a sanction. This essential
requisite is not wanting in the Buddhist system. Let us examine in
what consists the reward attending a regular and correct observance
of the precepts, and what is the punishment inflicted on the
transgressors of these ordinances. As usual, we will follow our
author and allow him to make known his own opinions on this
important subject. It is often inquired of us, says he, why some
individuals live here during many years, whilst others appear but for
a short time on the scene of this world. The reason of the difference
in the respective condition of these persons is obvious and evident.
The first, during their former existence, have faithfully observed the
first command and refrained from killing beings, hence their long
life; the second, on the contrary, have been guilty of some
trespassings of this precept, and therefore the influence of their
former crimes causes the shortness of their life. In a similar manner
we account for all the differences that exist in the conditions of all
beings. The observance or trespassing of one or several precepts
creates the positions of happiness and unhappiness, of riches and
poverty, of beauty and ugliness, that chequer the lives and positions
of mortals in this world.
In addition to the rewards bestowed immediately in this world,
there are the six seats of Nats, where all sorts of recompenses are
allotted, during immense periods, to those who have correctly
attended to the ordinances of the law. There are likewise places of
punishment in the several hells, reserved to the transgressors of the
precepts. The conditions of animal, Athoorikes and Preittas, are
other states of punishment.
A lengthened account of all that relates to the blissful regions of
Nats and the gloomy abodes of hell is found in one of the great
Dzats, or accounts of the former existences of Gaudama, given by
himself to his disciples, when he was a prince under the name of
Nemi. The writer has read and partly translated this work, which
delightfully reminded him of the fine episodes on similar subjects he
had read in the sixth book of the Æneid. The wildest, most fertile,
and inventive imagination seems to have exhausted its descriptive
powers, on the one hand, in multiplying the pleasures enjoyed in the
seats of Nats, and beautifying and adorning those delightful regions;
and, on the other, in representing with a dark and bloody pencil the
frightful picture of the numberless and horrid torments of the
regions of desolation, despair, and agony.
All that is so abundantly related of the fortunate abodes of Nats in
their sacred writings supplies the Buddhist religious with agreeable
and inexhaustible topics of sermons which they deliver to their
hearers, to excite them more effectually to bestow on them
abundant alms. The credulous hearers are always told that the most
conspicuous places in those regions are allotted to those who have
distinguished themselves by their great liberalities. We think it idle
and superfluous, uninteresting and fatiguing to repeat those
fabulous accounts of the seats of Nats and abodes of hell, as given
at great length by Buddhist authors. The only particulars deserving
to be attended to are these: the reward is always proportionate to
the sum of merits, and punishment to that of demerit. There is no
eternity of reward or of punishment.[48]
This first article shall be concluded by an important remark
bearing upon the system under consideration. The seats of
happiness, as already mentioned, are divided into two great classes;
the one including the superior, and the other the inferior seats. The
latter are the six seats of Nats, and are tenanted by beings as yet
under the influence of concupiscence and other passions. Those who
observe the five general precepts have placed, and, as it were,
established themselves on the basis whereupon stands perfection,
but not yet in perfection itself; they have just crossed the threshold
thereof. They are as yet imperfect; but they have prepared
themselves for entering the way that leads towards perfection; that
is to say, meditation, or the science of Dzan. The very reward
enjoyed in those seats is, therefore, as yet an imperfection. The
superior seats can only be reached by those who apply themselves
to mental exercises. These exercises are the real foundation of the
lofty structure of perfection and the high-road to it.
 ARTICLE II.
OF MEDITATION AND ITS VARIOUS DEGREES.

This and the following articles contain subjects of so abstruse and

refined a nature, that it would require one to possess the science of
a Buddha to come to a right understanding of them. The difficulties
arising from this study are due to the confused and very
unsatisfactory ideas of the Buddhist philosophers respecting the soul
and its spirituality, and perhaps to the inability of the writer to
understand the vague and undefined terms employed to convey
their ideas on these matters. The field of Buddhist metaphysics is, to
a European, in a great measure a new one; the meaning of the
terms is half-understood by the Burmese translators; definitions of
terms do not convey explanations such as we anticipate, and ideas
seem to run in a new channel; they assume, if we may say so,
strange forms: divisions and subdivisions of the various topics have
no resemblance to what a European is used to in the study of
philosophy. The student feels himself ushered into a new region; he
is doomed to find his way by groping. Finally, the false position
assumed by the Indian philosophers, and the false conclusions they
arrive at, contribute to render more complicated the task of
elucidating this portion of the Buddhist system. That the difficulties
may be somewhat lessened, and the pathway rendered less rugged
and a little smooth, the writer proposes to avoid as much as it is in
his power overcharging with Pali terms the explanations he is about
to afford, under the guidance of the Buddhist author.
In the preceding article we have treated of meritorious actions
that are purely exterior, and briefly alluded to the nature of the
rewards bestowed on earth and in the six seats of Nats upon those
who have performed these good actions. Now we leave behind all
the exterior good deeds, and turn the attention of our mind to
something more excellent, to those acts that are purely interior, and
are performed solely by the soul and the right exercise of its
faculties; that is to say, by meditation and contemplation.
 The root of all human miseries is ignorance. It is the generating
principle of concupiscence and other passions. It is the dark but lofty
barrier that encircles all beings and retains them within the vortex of
endless existences; it is the cause of all existences, and of all those
illusions to which beings are miserably subjected; it causes those
continual changes which take place in the production of all beings.
This great cause once found and proclaimed by Buddha, it was
necessary to procure a remedy to counteract the action of
ignorance, and successfully oppose its progress. Another
antagonistic and opposite principle had to be found, adequate to
resist the baneful agency of ignorance and stem its sad and
misfortune-creating influence. That principle is science or
knowledge. Ignorance is but a negative agent: it is only the absence
of science. Let knowledge be, and ignorance shall vanish away in the
same manner as darkness is noiselessly but irresistibly dissipated by
the presence of light.
All beings in this universe, says our author, are doomed to be born
and die. We quit this place to go and live in another; we die here to
be born elsewhere. We can never be freed from pain, old age, and
death. Whether we like it or not, we must suffer and always suffer.
But why is it so? Because we do not possess the perfect science.
Were we blessed with it, we would infallibly look towards Neibban,
and then, escaping from the pursuit of pain and miseries, we would
infallibly obtain the deliverance from those evils which now
incessantly press upon us. It rests with us only to perfect our
intelligence, so that we might gradually attain to the perfect science,
the source of all good. But by what means is so desirable an end to
be obtained? By the exercise of meditation, answers, with a decided
tone, our philosopher. This word implies, besides, our intellectual
operations of a superior order, such as contemplation, visions,
ecstasy, union, &c., which are the more or less complete results of
that intellectual exercise.
The act of meditating can take place but in the heart, where
resides the mano, or the faculty of knowing. Its object can never be
but the nam-damma, literally the name of the thing; or, in other
terms, the things of a purely intellectual nature. But it can by no
means happen in the seats of the other senses or organs, such as
the eyes, the ears, &c., which are only channels to communicate
impressions to the faculty of mano.
The constitutive parts of meditation are five in number. Witteka,
the action of raising the mind to an object; Witzara, the attentive
consideration of that object; Piti, the bringing of the soul and body
to a state of satisfaction; Suka, the pleasure enjoyed in the thing
considered; Ekatta, the perseverance or stability of the mind in that
object. There is also Upekka, which implies a greater and more
intense degree of fixity of the mind, extending not only to one object
in particular, but to all things.
It may be called the absolute quietism of the soul, and the net
result of a complete course of general meditation on the universality
of things. It is the last and highest point that can ever be reached.
To explain more fully the nature and definitions of the two first
parts, our philosopher has recourse to the following comparison. Let
us suppose a man that has to cleanse a rusty copper vessel. With
one hand he grasps the vessel, and with the other he rubs it up and
down, right and left. This is exactly what is done by the means of
Witteka and Witzara. The first gets hold of the object of meditation,
and the second causes the mind to pass and repass over it, until it
has perfectly seen it in all its particulars.
The third stage in the exercise of meditation is that of Piti, which
consists in a sort of transitory delectation, experienced by him who
has reached that third step of mental labour. It produces on the
whole frame the following effects:—It seems to him that is engaged
in that exercise that the hairs of his head stand on an end, so strong
is the sensation he then feels; at other times it produces in the soul
sensations similar to that of the lightning that rends the atmosphere.
Sometimes it is in a commotion resembling that of mighty waves
breaking on the shore; at other times the subject is, as it were,
carried through the air, or only raised above the ground, and
occasionally it causes a chill running throughout all the limbs. When
these results have been, through persevering efforts, repeatedly
experienced with an ever-increasing degree of intensity, the
following effects are attained:—The body and the soul are
completely restrained, subdued, and composed; they are almost
beyond the influence of concupiscence. Both acquire a remarkable
lightness, so that the exercise of meditation offers no further trouble
or labour; the natural repugnance or opposition to self-recollection is
done away with, then the exercise of meditation becomes pleasing
from the pleasurable state of the soul and body, and finally both
parts are in a true and genuine condition, so that what there was
previously in them either vicious or opposed to truth disappears at
once and vanishes away. Such are the various effects experienced by
the soul that has reached the degree of Piti, or mental satisfaction.
When the soul and body have thus been perfectly subdued, and
freed from all that could wrongly affect them, the soul then reaches
the state of Suka, that is to say, of perfect and permanent pleasure
and inward delight. The effects or results thereof are called Samati,
or peace or quiescence of the soul. As a matter of course, that state
of inward peace has several degrees both as regards the time it lasts
and the intensity of the affection. It lasts sometimes for a moment,
or for a period of uncertain duration, as it happens when we reflect
on some subject, or we listen to a sermon. At other times its
duration is longer; when, for instance, we are about to enter into
contemplation or ecstasy, and it lasts as long as we are in one of
these states.
From Piti originates the Samati-tseit, the idea or consciousness of
inward quiescence. It is the secondary cause of the real joy and
delight, and is followed by an unshaken resolution to adhere to all
the precepts of the law. It produces in the soul a certain freshness,
expansion, and ravishment in the practice of virtue. Such a state is
illustrated by the following comparison. A traveller has to go over a
very difficult road; he is exposed to an intense heat, and tormented
with a burning thirst. Let us imagine the intensity of his delight when
he finds himself on the brink of a rivulet of clear and cool water;
such is precisely the state of the soul under the influence of Piti. The
state of Suka follows it very soon. It is exemplified by the condition
of the traveller who has been perfectly refreshed and relieved from
thirst and fatigue, and enjoys the delightful and pleasurable effects
resulting therefrom.
The last state or the crowning point to be arrived at by the means
of meditation is that of Upekka, or perfect fixity, whence originates
an entire indifference to love or hatred, pleasure or pain. Passions
can no more affect the soul in that happy condition. But in this, as
well in the preceding states, there are several degrees, according to
the various objects it refers to. In the Upekka, relating to the five
senses, man is no more affected by beautiful or unseemly objects,
by harsh or melodious sounds, &c. As to what refers to creatures,
man has neither love nor dislike for them. Man obtains the state of
Upekka, relating to science or knowledge, by examining and
considering all things through the medium of the three great
principles, aneitsa, duka, anatta, that is to say, change, pain, and
illusion. There is also the uirya upekka; as when a man, after great
struggles and efforts to obtain a certain object, sees that he cannot
reach it, he becomes indifferent to it, and without trouble or the
least disquiet gives up the undertaking. There are many other
effects of the Upekka mentioned by our author, the enumeration of
which would prove tedious. What has been just stated is sufficient to
afford a correct idea of the nature of the highest state of meditation
that the human mind can ever reach. The last and most
transcendent result of the condition of Upekka is this: when an
individual, by successful exertions, has ascended to the top of the
spiritual ladder, there is a certain virtue that attracts everything to
him. He becomes a centre to which all appear to converge. He is like
the central point of our planet, that ever remains distinct from the
bodies it incessantly draws to itself. Seated in the centre of the most
complete quietism, the sage contemplates, without the least effort,
the unclouded truth that indefinitely unfolds itself before him. Hence,
as our author observes, the sage that has reached the state of
Upekka has no more to pass successively through the four preceding
stages to be enabled to meditate; that is to say, he no more requires
the help of thought, reflection, satisfaction, and pleasure. He is in
the middle of the cloudless atmosphere of truth which he enjoys,
and therein remains as unmoved as truth itself.
As stated in the previous article, the observance of the precepts,
or the performance of exterior good actions, draws abundant
rewards upon those who faithfully comply with them. These rewards
are bestowed either in the seat of man or in the six abodes of Nats,
which we will agree to call the six inferior heavens, where
concupiscence as yet holds its empire.
The inward good deeds produced by the operation of the
intellectual faculties of the soul being of an incomparably greater
value than the external ones, the recompense of the former is of a
higher order than that of the latter. Hence there are twenty superior
heavens reserved to the sages that have made progress in
meditation.[49] The accounts of the Buddhists respecting the extent
of these seats, their respective distance in a perpendicular direction,
the myriads of centuries to stay in each of them, &c., are puerilities
not worth attending to, and in no way belonging to the genuine and
original Buddhism. They are the inventions in subsequent ages of
individuals who wished to emulate their neighbours and rivals, the
Hindus, at a time when the latter substituted the gross and revolting
idolatry of the Puranas for the purer doctrines of the Vedas. But
what is directly to our purpose is the distinction of these twenty
seats into two classes. The first comprises sixteen seats, under the
designation of Rupa, or matter; the second includes four seats,
called Arupa, or immaterial abodes or conditions. Here are located
on a grand and immense scale, according to their respective
proficiency in science and meditation, the beings that have striven to
advance in knowledge by the exertion of the mental faculties. The
general appellation given to each class bears a great meaning, and
therefore deserves explanation. In the sixteen seats of Rupa are
placed the contemplatives who have as yet a body, and have not
been hitherto able to disengage themselves from some affection to
matter. The subjects of their meditations are still the beings
inhabiting this material world, together with some of the Kathain, or
coarser portion of their being. But in the four seats called Arupa,
which terminate the series of Buddhist heavens, the contemplatives
are destitute of shape and body; they are almost brought to the
condition of pure spirits. In their sublime and lofty flight in the
regions of spiritualism, they seem to have bid a last farewell to this
world, and to be no longer concerned with material things.
Let us glance rapidly over these various seats, and pay a visit to
the beings that have been rewarded with a place in them, owing to
their great proficiency in the mental exercise of meditation. We will
begin with the lowest seat, and from it successively ascend to the
loftiest. We must bear in remembrance that there are, as above
stated, five degrees of meditation or five parts, viz., perception,
reflection, satisfaction, happiness, and fixity. He who has been much
exercised in the first degree shall inhabit one of the three first seats
of Rupa. Those who, leaving aside the first degree, shall delight in
the second and third, shall inhabit, according to their respective
progress, one of the three following seats. Those who take delight
only in the fourth degree, having no further aid of the three first
parts, perception, consideration, and satisfaction, shall be located in
the seventh, eighth, and ninth seats. When the fifth degree of Dzan,
or meditation, has been attained, that is to say, when a privileged
contemplative is able to meditate and contemplate, without having
recourse to the representation and consideration of the object,
without allowing himself to be influenced by pleasures or joy, then
he has attained to the state of fixity and indifference; he occupies
the tenth and eleventh seats. The five remaining seats bear the
collective name of Thoodawata, or abodes of the pure or perfect,
that is to say, the dwelling-place of those who have entered into the
current of perfection. They are inhabited by the Kaliana Putadzans,
and the four sorts of contemplatives called Thautapan, Thakadagan,
Anagan, and Rahandas. The latter have entered into the Thoda, or
current of perfection. The Thautapans and Thakadagans are pure
and exempt from all influence of demerits; the Anagans are
delivered from the five concupiscences. The Rahandas are enjoying
a perfect indifference for all. They are strangers to such language as
this: I am great, I am greater, I am greatest. Such terms of
comparison are but mere illusions; they are deceitful sounds that
confuse, distract, and bewilder the ignorant.
Above the Thoodawata seats are the four called Arupa, or
immaterial. The denizens of these places first recognise that the
miseries attending man in this world have their origin in the body.
They then conceive the utmost disgust and horror for it; they long
for the dissolution of this agent to all wickedness. So great is their
horror for bodies and matter, that they no longer select them for
subjects of meditation; they endeavour to cross beyond the limits of
materiality, and launch forth into the boundless space, where this
material world does not seem to reach. The inhabitants of the first
seat have assumed for their subject of meditation the Akasa, the air,
the fluid of the atmosphere, or the space. Those of the second
meditate on the Winiana, or the spirit, or life of beings, taken in an
abstract sense; those of the third contemplate the Akintzi, or
immensity; those of the fourth, Newathagnia, lose themselves in the
infinity.
By what mental process has the sage to pass in order to reach the
first degree of sublime contemplation? He will have to begin with the
consideration of the form of some material object, say one of the
four elements. Let him afterwards set aside those Kathain, or
material portions of the element brought under consideration, and
occupy his mind with the ether, or fluid, or space; the former, that is
to say, the kathain, shall disappear to give place to something
divested of all those coarser forms, and the mind shall be fixed only
on the akatha. The sage then shall repeat ten hundred thousand
times these words,—The space or air is infinite, until there will
appear at last the first tseit, or idea of arupa. In a similar manner,
the tseit akan, or the idea of conformity with purpose, disappears;
then begins the science of upekka, or indifference, with its four
degrees; the idea that then succeeds is precisely that of akasa
ananda, or infinite ether, or space. This unintelligible mental process
is explained by a comparison. If they shut with a white cloth the
opening of a window, the persons inside the room, turning their eyes
in the direction of the opening, see nothing but the white cloth.
Should the cloth be suddenly removed, they perceive nothing but
that portion of the space corresponding with the extent of the
window. The piece of cloth represents the material forms, that are
the subjects of meditation, or contemplation, of those living in the
seats of Rupa; the free opening of the window exemplifies the
subjects of contemplation reserved to the first class of arupa. Having
reached so far, the contemplative soon feels the utmost disgust for
all material forms, and is entirely delivered from the three Thagnia,
or false persuasions, supplied by matter, by the action of the senses,
and by the result of merits and demerits. He is displeased with all
the coarser forms of beings. The action of the contemplative has its
sphere in the mano, or seat of knowledge. The ideas originating
from the action of the senses have no share in that purely
intellectual labour. In that state, the sage has fallen into a condition
of so perfect abstraction, that all the accidents on the part of the
elements can produce no effect over him. The action of the senses is
completely suspended during all the time that the contemplation
lasts. In fact this is nothing else but thamabat, or ecstasy.
The same course of meditation must be followed by the sages
inhabiting the other three seats; only the object to be contemplated
will be different.
Having explained the important subject of meditation,
endeavoured to show the different parts or degrees of that
intellectual exercise, and given a faint outline of the recompenses
bestowed on those that have distinguished themselves by
proficiency in that exercise, we have now to follow our author, and,
with him, make ourselves acquainted with the principal subjects that
attract the attention of the contemplative.

ARTICLE III.
OF THE NATURE OF BEINGS.
 The Buddhist philosopher, in his earnest prosecution after the
antidote of ignorance, that is, science, rightly states that all beings,
and man, in particular, must ever be the first and most interesting
subject the sage has to study. The knowledge of man in particular
constitutes a most important portion of the science he must acquire,
ere he can become a perfect being, and be deemed worthy to be
admitted to the state of Neibban. In the very limited sketch of this
part of the work under consideration, the attention of the reader will
be directed on man as the most interesting of all beings. With our
Buddhist author, therefore, he will take human beings as the subject
of his investigations. Provided with the philosophical dissecting knife,
he will anatomise all the component parts of that extraordinary
being, whose nature has ever presented an insoluble problem to
ancient sages. What is to be said on this subject will be sufficient to
convey a correct idea of the mode of reasoning and arguing followed
by Buddhist philosophers, when they analyse other beings and select
them for the subjects of their meditations.
At the very beginning, our author proclaims this great maxim: All
beings living in the three worlds, heaven, earth, and hell, have in
themselves but two things or attributes, Rupa and Nam, form and
name. Accustomed as we are to a language that expresses clear and
distinct notions, we would like to hear him say, in nature there are
but two things, matter and spirit. But such is not the language of
Buddhists, and I apprehend that were we giving up their somewhat
extraordinary, and, to us, unusual way of expressing their ideas, we
could not come to a correct knowledge of the notions they entertain
respecting the nature of man. Let us allow our author to speak for
himself, and, as much as possible, express himself in his own way.
By rupa, we understand form and matter; that is to say, all that is
liable per se to be destroyed by the agency of secondary causes.
Nam, or nama, is the thing, the nature of which is known to the
mind by the instrumentality of mano, or the knowing principle. In
the five aggregates constituting man, viz., materiality or form, the
organs of sensation, of perception, of consciousness, and those of
intellect, there is nothing else to be found but form and name. We
are at once brought to this materialist conclusion, that in man we
can discover no other element but that of form and that of name.
To convey a sort of explanation of this subject, our author gives
here a few notions respecting the six senses. I say six senses,
because with him, besides the five ordinary senses, he mentions the
mano, or the knowing principle that resides in the heart, as one of
the senses. The organs or faculties of seeing, hearing, feeling,
tasting, smelling, and knowing, he calls the inward senses. These
same organs, as they come in contact with exterior objects, are
called exterior senses. The faculty inherent in each of the senses
whereby is operated the action between the organ and its object is
designated by the appellation of the life of the senses, as, for
instance, the eye seeing, the ear hearing, &c. In this treble mode of
considering the senses, what do we meet with but form and name,
ideas and matter? Supposing the organ of seeing to exist, and an
object to be seen, there will necessarily result, as an essential
consequence, the perception or idea of such a thing. Even as
regards the mano, where there exists the heart on one side, and
truth on the other, there will follow immediately the idea or
perception of truth.
This materialist doctrine, if the meaning of our author be
accurately understood, is further confirmed by the method he
proposes for carrying on the investigation respecting the nature of
things. He who desires to penetrate deeply into such a sublime
science must have recourse to the help of meditation. Having
selected an object, he considers it by the means of witekka. He
passes successively through the ideas and impressions he derives
from the contemplation of such an object. He then says to himself:
the ideas obtained by means of witekka, or the first degree of dzan,
or meditation, are nothing but nam-damma, since their nature is to
offer themselves to the arom, as the thought to its object. But where
is the seat of that arom? It resides in the substance of the heart,
which, in reality, affords asylum both to it and to the nam-damma. It
is nowhere else to be found. But what is the heart? Whence does it
come? By what is it formed? To these three questions we answer,
that the heart is composed of the four elements. It is but one and
the same thing with them. This startling doctrine is explicit, and
excludes at once the idea of a spiritual substance.
Our author has now reached the elements of the parts
constituting all that exists with a form. He boldly asserts that all that
has an existence is but an aggregate of earth, water, fire, and air; all
the forms are but modifications and combinations of the four
elements. The bare enumeration of this general principle is not
sufficient to satisfy our philosopher. He wishes to know and explain
the reason of everything. Here begins an analysis entirely unknown
to our chemists and philosophers of the west. The body is divided
into thirty-two parts, which are often enumerated in formulas of
prayer by pious Buddhists. Each of these thirty-two parts is
subdivided into forty-four. The hair, how slender soever it appears, is
submitted to that minute analysis. The result of this subtle division is
to show what is the proportion of each element that enters into the
formation of these atomical parts. We have not the patience to write
down these uninteresting details, nor do we believe that the reader
will be displeased if we spare him the trouble of going over such
worthless nomenclature. There is another division of matter, or body,
into forty-two parts, called akan. This is based upon the distinction
of the four elements that enter unequally into the formation of the
body; twenty parts belong to the earth, twelve to water, six to fire,
and six to wind. Then again the body is divided into sixty parts; the
division is based upon the distinction of the ten constitutive parts
belonging to each of the senses, as it will be hereafter explained.
The object which Buddhist philosophers have in view in entering into
so many divisions and subdivisions of the forms of the body is to
prove, in their opinion to demonstration, that, by the nicest analysis
of every part of the body, we find in the end nothing but the primary
elements that are called the supports of all that exist.
We have now to follow our author through a path more difficult
than the preceding one, and hear him explain the theory of ideas
and their various modifications. These, says he, are known, not by
their forms, since they have none, but only by their name. Through
the practice of reflection and meditation we become acquainted with
them. We call them arupa damma, things without a form or shape.
They are designated under the name of tseit and tsedathit,[50] that
is to say, ideas and the result of ideas. Where are these ideas to be
met? Where have they their seat? In the six senses and nowhere
else, is the answer. Having already become acquainted with the
organs of the senses, it will be easy to find out the ideas that are as
the tenants of the senses.
All the tseits inhabiting the organs of sense are called loki tseit,
that is to say, ideas of the world, because they are to be met with in
all the beings as yet subjected to concupiscence. They are distinct
from lokoudra tseits, which belong properly to the beings free from
passions, and who have entered into the four megga, or ways to
perfection. The tseits of this world are eighty-one in number,
classified as follows: the perception of each of the five organs, and
the perception of the respective faculties of those organs. This gives
ten tseits. There are three for the sense of the heart, the perception
of the substance of the heart, of its faculty of knowing, and of the
object of its knowledge.
Each of the six senses has ten constitutive forms or parts, viz.:
earth, water, fire, air, colour, odour, taste, fluid, life, and the body
attached primitively thereto. Now there is an action from each of
these forms upon the subject. Thence ten tseits to each of the six
senses.
There are no words so ill defined and so ill understood by our
philosopher as the two words Tseit and Tsedathit. The first in a
moral sense means idea, thought, perception, etc.; in a physical
sense it means that secondary cause created by kan, producing the
living being, the senses wherein reside the moral tseit. Tsedathit,
being the result of ideas, must, of course, have likewise two
meanings. In the first place it will designate the impressions made
upon us by ideas; in the second, it will mean the secondary cause or
life in the body, or the modifications of the principles of corporeal
life.
 This being premised, we may a little understand our author when
he says: There are seven tsedathits existing at the same time as the
eighty-one above-mentioned tseits, viz.: pasa tsedathit, so called
because it is the real effect of the tsedathit to attain its object, and,
as it were, to touch it. We may call it the agreement between the
idea and its object. Wedana tsedathit, the feeling of the impression
of an idea; thagnia tsedathit, the comprehension of the object;
dzetana tsedathit, the inclination for the object; eketa tsedathit, the
fixity on the object; dziwi-teindre tsedathit, the observance of what
relates to form and name; and mana sikaramana tsedathit,
consciousness. It is evident, therefore, that the tsedathit is neither
the idea nor the object of the idea, but the result from the idea that
has come in contact with an object. These seven results are, if we
may say so, the third part of the idea. They do not give occasion to
modifications of ideas. But those which really give rise to the
greatest variety of results are the akuso tsedathit, or the results of
evil thoughts and ideas, and their opposite, or kuso tsedathit, or the
consequence of good and virtuous thoughts. To mention here all the
kuso and akuso tsedathit would be but a dry exposition of the
nomenclature of the vices and virtues, such as is met with in the
catalogues of Buddhist moralists. They are all enumerated in the
preceding note.

ARTICLE IV.
OF THE CAUSE OF THE FORM[51] AND OF THE NAME, OR OF MATTER
AND SPIRIT.

The duty of our intelligence is to investigate the cause of all the

modifications of forms and names. This being effected, we are
delivered from all doubts and disquietude. When we perceive such a
form, such an idea, &c., we are able forthwith to account for its
causes. In this study we must copy the conduct of the physician,
who, when attending a patient, sits by his bedside, closely examines
the nature of the distemper and the causes that have given rise to it,
in order to find out counteracting agents or remedies to check its
progress at first, and gradually to uproot it from the constitution. In
the moral order, the philosopher too has to examine the nature of all
moral distempers, ascertain the principles or causes they spring
from, and thereby become qualified to cure those disorders.
The beings that inhabit the three worlds, says our author, must
have a cause. To say that they exist of themselves and without a
cause is an absurdity. The very dissimilarity we observe among them
indicates that their mode of existence results from certain causes.
We, however, cannot agree with our antagonists, the Brahmins, who
maintain that Maha Brahma is the cause of all that exists. This being
is not out of the circle of Rupa and Nam; he is himself a compound
of Nam and Rupa, that is to say, effect but not cause. In vain our
opponents will add that all that is distinct of Maha Brahma is
subjected to a cause, but that the Rupa and Nam, constituting his
essence, are without a cause. This is removing the difficulty a little
further, without advancing a step towards its solution; our answer
must ever be the same.
Before expounding the opinions of our philosopher on this
important subject, it is necessary to state the views entertained by
that class of philosophers whose doctrines appear to have taken root
in these parts. It is easy to perceive that they are modifications of
the opinion of the Hindus on the same subject, and akin to that
respecting the Adi Buddha, or supreme Buddha.
Some doctors maintain that there is a first cause or being that has
made matter and spirit. Others, admitting the eternal co-existence of
matter and of the supreme being, say that he is the remote cause of
the organisation of matter, as we at present see it. But all agree in
this, that no one can ever come to the knowledge of that first cause,
and it is impossible ever to have an idea of it. Hence it is the height
of folly and rash presumption to attempt to come to the knowledge
of what is placed beyond the range of human investigation. It
behoves us to apply all the powers of the mind to discover the
immediate cause that certainly produces existence.
 The sage, to be worthy of his sublime calling, must remain
satisfied with striving to find out that immediate cause which brings
into action the form and name, and causes the appearance of all
those modifications which we call beings or forms of existence. He
ought to strive to account for the organisation of matter and all its
modifications, by discovering the hidden spring that effectually sets
all in motion, in action, in combination of existences.
Now, our author puts this important question: What thing is to be
considered as the mover of the forms and ideas? We know, says he,
that the human body has its beginning in the womb of the mother;
we are acquainted with its position in that fœtid and narrow prison;
its being surrounded with nerves, veins, &c., having above it the new
elements, and under it the old ones. The manner in which the body
originates in the womb much resembles the process by which worms
and insects are formed in rotten substances, and in putrid and
stagnant water. But this is not accounting for the real cause of living
bodies. The real causes, according to some doctors, are five in
number, viz., ignorance, concupiscence, desire, kan (the influence of
merits and demerits), and ahan (the aliments). They concur together
in the formation of the living body in the following manner.
Ignorance, concupiscence, and desire give asylum to the body, as
the mother supplies the infant with a refuge in her womb. Kan, like
the father, is the cause productive of the body. Ahan affords
nourishment to the body.
The ideas are but the result of the formation of the organs of
senses. Let us suppose, for instance, the organ of seeing. The
Tsekkou Wignian, that is to say, the life of the eyes, or the ideas
connected with the use of that sense, presupposes two things, the
organ and a form or an object on which the organ acts. These
existing, there necessarily result the idea of vision, the perception,
&c., in a word, all the ideas arising from the action of the eyes upon
various objects. The same mode of arguing is employed relatively to
the other five senses.
 Other philosophers argue in the following way. The primary causes
of all ideas and thoughts are disposed under two heads, that of
ideas which have a fixed place, and that of those that have no fixed
place. Under the first head are comprised the six Ayatana, or seats
of senses, and the six Arom, or the objects of senses. Thence flow
all the ideas and consequences that relate to merit and demerit.
Under the second head are placed the causes or agents that
produce ideas and thoughts, the exercise of the intellect holding the
first rank. He who applies his mind to the meditation of what is
good, such as the commands and other parts of the most excellent
law, and labours to find out that all that is in this world is subjected
to change, pain, and illusion, opens at once the door to the coming
in of the tseit, or ideas connected with merit. On the other hand, the
application of the mind to things bad and erroneous, contrary to the
prescriptions of the holy law, generates the idea of demerit. Such
are the causes of the ideas and thoughts. As to the cause of form,
they assert that kan, tseit, fire, and ahan are the sole agents in the
formation of the living body. Kan, as the workman, makes the body
and sets in it all that relates to its good and bad qualities. The tseit,
seventy-five in number, are also principles of the existence of the
body, of which forty-four are called Kamawatzara tseit; they relate to
the demerit and merit of those who are still under the influence of
concupiscence; fifteen rupa watzara tseit, relating to beings in the
seats of rupa; eight arupa watzara tseit, relating to those in the
seats of arupa; eight lokoudara tseit, relating to the beings that have
entered on the four ways of perfection. The Tedzo-dat, or the
element of fire, contributes its share by the head and rays of light,
and ahan by supplying the required aliments.
Some other philosophers account for the causes of form and ideas
following this course of argument. The form and ideas that
constitute all beings are liable to miseries, old age, and death,
because there is generation and death. Generation exists because
there are worlds, worlds exist because there is desire, desire exists
because there are organs, organs exist because there are form and
name, form and name exist because there are concepts, concepts
exist because there is merit and demerit, merit and demerit exist
because there is ignorance. The latter is, indeed, the real cause of all
forms and ideas. There is no doubt but this latter opinion is the
favourite one with our author. It is based upon the theory of the
twelve Nidanas, or causes and effects, and appears to be the
orthodox opinion, and bears the stamp of great antiquity.
Having thus accounted in the best way he could for the existence
of all that relates to the beings in the three worlds, our author fondly
dwells on the benefits that accrue from the knowledge of causes. It
dissipates all the doubts that had previously darkened the mind; it
quiets all the anxieties of the heart, and affords perfect peace. For
want of it, the impious fall from one error into another; the disciples
of Buddha are chiefly perfected by its help.
We read in the Buddhist scriptures that a Brahmin went to consult
Buddha on some points that much perplexed his mind. He said to
him, “I am beset with doubts respecting the past, the present, and
the future. Respecting the past, I ask myself, Have I passed through
former generations or not? What was my condition during those
existences? My answer is, I am ignorant on all those points. What
was my position previous to those generations? I know it not. As to
the present, is it true that I exist? or is my existence but an illusion?
Shall I have to be born again or not? What are those living beings
that surround me at present? Are they but so many illusions which
deceive me by their appearance of reality? On these points I am
sunk in complete ignorance. The future is likewise full of doubts and
most perplexing uncertainties. Shall I have other generations or not?
What shall be my condition during these coming existences? A thick
veil hides from my eyes all that concerns my future destiny. What
are the means to clear up all those doubts that encompass me on all
sides?”
Buddha said to him, “Reflect first on this main point, that what we
are wont to call self, or moi, is nothing but name and form—that is
to say, a compound of the four elements, which undergoes perpetual
changes under the action or influence of Kan. Having acquired the
conviction of the truth of this principle, it remains with you to
investigate carefully the causes which produce both name and form.
This simple examination will lead you at once to the perfect solution
of all your doubts. Behold the difference that exists between the
holders of false doctrines and the true believers. The former, whom
we may almost call animals, never take the trouble to examine the
nature of beings or the causes of their existence. They are
stubbornly attached to their false theories, and persist in saying that
what the ignorant, delivered up to illusion, are used to call an
animal, a king, a subject, a foot, and a hand, &c., is really an animal,
a king, a subject, a foot, and a hand, &c.; whilst all living beings and
their component parts are nothing else but name and form—that is
to say, a compound made up of the four elements. Those impious
are delivered up to error; hence it happens that they follow all
different ways. We reckon among them more than sixty different
sects, all at variance among themselves, but all uniting in a common
obstinacy to reject the true doctrine of Buddha. They are doomed to
move incessantly within the circle of endless and wretched
existences.
“How different is the condition of the true believers, our followers!
They know that the living beings inhabiting the world have a
beginning. But they are sensible of the folly of attempting to reach
this beginning or first cause. This is above the capacity of the loftiest
intelligence. It is evident, for instance, that the seeds of plants and
trees, which are continually in a state of reproduction, have a
beginning; but what that beginning is, no one presumes to
determine. So it is with man and all living beings. They know well,
too, that what is vulgarly called man, woman, eyes, mouth, are all
illusory distinctions, vanishing away in the presence of the sage, who
sees nothing in all that but name and form, the production of Kan
and Wibek, that is to say, of the first and second causes. These two
things are not the man and the woman, &c., but they are the
efficient causes of both. What we say respecting man and woman
may be applied to animals and to all other beings. They are all the
productions or results of Kan and Wibek, quite as distinct from these
two agents as effect is distinct from its cause. To explain this
doctrine, Buddhists have recourse to the comparison of a burning-
glass. When there is such an instrument in one hand, and the rays
of the sun pass through it to the other, fire is then produced; but fire
is quite distinct from the two causes that have concurred jointly in
producing it. Our disciples, too, are aware that the five khandas, or
aggregates constituting a living being, succeed each other at each
generation, but in such a way that the second generation partakes
or retains nothing of the khandas of the first. But the causes
producing them—such as Kan and Wibek—never change; they ever
remain the same. Let us suppose lamps lighted up. If they burn
always, it is owing to the action of individuals that supply them with
oil, and light them as soon as they are extinguished. Such is the
condition of the khandas. Those which belong to one existence have
no more in common with those of the following one than the fire of
the lamp just lighted anew has with that of the fire of the lamp that
has just died away. As to the way beings are reproduced, we say
that when a man is dying, the last tseit having appeared and soon
disappeared, it is succeeded forthwith by the patti tseit or the tseit
of the new existence; the interval between both is so short that it
can scarcely be appreciated. This first tseit has nothing in common
with the last one. It is, let it be well remembered, the production of
kan, or of the influence of merits and demerits, as well as the
khandas above alluded to.”
This article is by far the most important of all. The latter part, in
particular, elucidates in a distinct manner the genuine opinions of
Buddhism on points of the greatest concern. We may sum up the
whole as follows:—
1. There is a first cause that has acted in bringing into being all
that exists; but that first cause is unknown, nor can we ever come to
the knowledge of it.
2. The immediate causes of all the modifications of beings, or
states of being, are ignorance and kan.
 3. All beings are but compounds of the four elements. The
intellectual operations are carried on by the instrumentality of the
heart, in the same manner as vision is obtained by the means of the
eye and of an object to act upon.
4. Each succeeding existence is brought on and modified by the
action of Kan, or the influence of merits and demerits.
5. The component parts of a new being are in no way connected
with those of the previous being. This is the key to the difficulty
many persons find in accounting, in a Buddhistic sense, for the
process of metempsychosis. A new term ought to be coined to
express that doctrine.
6. The question respecting Neibban may be theoretically resolved
without difficulty, by application of the principles contained in this
and the preceding article. There is no doubt that the solution forced
upon the mind from what has been above stated is that the end of
the perfected being is annihilation. Horrifying as this conclusion is, it
is not, after all, worse than that which is the terminus of the theories
of some modern schools. What an abyss is the poor human mind
liable to fall into when it ceases to be guided by Revelation!

ARTICLE V.
OF THE TRUE MEGGAS OR WAYS TO PERFECTION.

The subject under consideration is a very important one. It

comprehends and comprises a summary of many particulars already
alluded to in the foregoing two articles. The reader will find the path
he has to follow less rugged, and the ground he will have to go over
not so arid.
Our author seems to lay great stress on this special point. The
sage, says he, who is desirous to arrive at the supreme perfection,
must apply all the powers of his mind to discern the true ways from
the false ones. Many are deceived in the midst of their researches
after wisdom. The real criterion between the true and false ways is
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