SECTION C

Introduction to Multiple Access

In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to
send information simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while
receiving information from the base station to the mobile station.
A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to
be able to increase the capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as
possible in a given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.
There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes
mainly the following −

• Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)

• Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
• Space division multiple access (SDMA)
Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these techniques
can be classified as narrowband and wideband systems.
Narrowband Systems
Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the coherence
bandwidth are called as Narrow band systems. Narrow band TDMA allows users to
use the same channel but allocates a unique time slot to each user on the channel,
thus separating a small number of users in time on a single channel.
Wideband Systems
In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading doesn’t greatly
affect the received signal within a wideband channel, and frequency selective fades
occur only in a small fraction of the signal bandwidth.

FDMA Overview
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is one of the most common analogue multiple
access methods. The frequency band is divided into channels of equal bandwidth so that
each conversation is carried on a different frequency

In FDMA method, guard bands are used between the adjacent signal spectra to
minimize crosstalk between the channels. A specific frequency band is given to one
person, and it will received by identifying each of the frequency on the receiving end.
It is often used in the first generation of analog mobile phone.
Advantages of FDMA
As FDMA systems use low bit rates (large symbol time) compared to average delay
spread, it offers the following advantages −
• Reduces the bit rate information and the use of efficient numerical codes
increases the capacity.
• It reduces the cost and lowers the inter symbol interference (ISI)
• Equalization is not necessary.
• An FDMA system can be easily implemented. A system can be configured so
that the improvements in terms of speech encoder and bit rate reduction may
be easily incorporated.
• Since the transmission is continuous, less number of bits are required for
synchronization and framing.

Disadvantages of FDMA
Although FDMA offers several advantages, it has a few drawbacks as well, which are
listed below −
• It does not differ significantly from analog systems; improving the capacity
depends on the signal-to-interference reduction, or a signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR).
• The maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.
• Guard bands lead to a waste of capacity.
• Hardware implies narrowband filters, which cannot be realized in VLSI and
therefore increases the cost.

TDMA Overview
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone communication
technology. It facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference. Its
technology divides a signal into different timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires

an accurate synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. TDMA is used
in digital mobile radio systems. The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a
frequency for the exclusive use of a time interval.
In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not
assigned to a station. However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands,
and TDMA is used for the multiple access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known
as carrier frequencies. The mobile system that uses this technique is referred as
the multi-carrier systems.
In the following example, the frequency band has been shared by three users. Each
user is assigned definite timeslots to send and receive data. In this example,
user ‘B’ sends after user ‘A,’ and user ‘C’ sends thereafter. In this way, the peak
power becomes a problem and larger by the burst communication.

FDMA and TDMA

This is a multi-carrier TDMA system. A 25 MHz frequency range holds 124 single
chains (carrier frequencies 200) bandwidth of each kHz; each of these frequency
channels contains 8 TDMA conversation channels. Thus, the sequence of timeslots
and frequencies assigned to a mobile station is the physical channels of a TDMA
system. In each timeslot, the mobile station transmits a data packet.
The period of time assigned to a timeslot for a mobile station also determines the
number of TDMA channels on a carrier frequency. The period of timeslots are
combined in a so-called TDMA frame. TDMA signal transmitted on a carrier frequency
usually requires more bandwidth than FDMA signal. Due to the use of multiple times,
the gross data rate should be even higher.

Advantages of TDMA
Here is a list of few notable advantages of TDMA −
• Permits flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a user, for example,
each time interval translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per
frame).
• Can withstand gusty or variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a
user can be changed frame by frame (for example, two slots in the frame 1,
three slots in the frame 2, one slot in the frame 3, frame 0 of the notches 4,
etc.).
• No guard band required for the wideband system.
• No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.

Disadvantages of TDMA
The disadvantages of TDMA are as follow −
• High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.
• Due to the burst mode, a large number of additional bits are required for
synchronization and supervision.
 • Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to
clock instability).
• Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.
• Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.

What Does Spatial Division Multiple Access

(SDMA) Mean?
Spatial division multiple access (SDMA) is a channel access method used
in mobile communication systems which reuses the same set of cell phone
frequencies in a given service area. Two cells or two small regions can
make use of the same set of frequencies if they are separated by an
allowable distance (called the reuse distance).

SDMA increases the capacity of the system and transmission quality by

focusing the signal into narrow transmission beams. Through the use of
smart antennas with beams pointed at the direction of the mobile station,
SDMA serves different users within the same region.

Mobile stations operating outside the bounds of these directed beams

experience a near zero interference from other mobile stations operating
under the same base station with the same radio frequency.

Since the beams are focused, the radio energy frequency can have
increased base station range. This attribute of SDMA allows base stations
to have larger radio coverage with less radiated energy. This narrow
beam width also allows greater gain and clarity.

Under traditional mobile phone network systems, the base station

radiates radio signals in all directions within the cell without knowledge of
the location of the mobile station. SDMA technology channels radio
signals based on the location of the mobile station. Through this method,
the SDMA architecture saves on valuable network resources and prevents
redundant signal transmission in areas where mobile devices are currently
inactive.

The main advantage of SDMA is frequency reuse. Provided the reuse

distance is preserved in the network architecture, interference can be
near zero, even if mobile stations use the same allocated frequencies.

Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique which
is MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and
satellite communication. It has the following features.

• All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
• SDMA is completely free from interference.
• A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same
frequency.
• The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in
SDMA, can track a moving user.
• Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission
bandwidth whose magnitude is greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −

• Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)

• Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
This is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier frequencies of the
individual users are varied in a pseudo random fashion within a wideband channel.
The digital data is broken into uniform sized bursts which is then transmitted on
different carrier frequencies.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the message signal
is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. Each user is given his own code word
which is orthogonal to the codes of other users and in order to detect the user, the
receiver must know the code word used by the transmitter.
The combinational sequences called as hybrid are also used as another type of
spread spectrum. Time hopping is also another type which is rarely mentioned.
Since many users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without interfering
with one another, spread spectrum systems become bandwidth efficient in a
multiple user environment.
Difference between Fixed and Wireless Networks
The differences between Fixed and Wireless networks can be distinguished as that the
wireless networks do not require any cables to make a physical connection with the
device. It is easily assessable because it is a shared medium. On the other hand, in the
case of fixed networks, a physical configuration of devices is mandatory to perform
data transmission. In this medium, you have to connect every new device separately
and physically to the network. Let's consider and make a comparison between these
two technologies used in mobile computing.
Development of Wireless Networks
We have made very huge improvements in wireless communication and
have expanded the capabilities of our wireless communication system. We
all have seen various generations in our life. Let’s discuss them one by one.
1G (1st Generation) :
• First time calling was introduced in mobile systems.
• It used analog signals.
• It used FDD scheme and typically allocated bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
• Coverage area was small.
• No roaming support between various operators.
• Low sound quality.
• Speed :- 24 kbps.
2G (2nd Generation) :
• Shifted from analog to digital.
• It supported voice and SMS both.
• Supported all 4 sectors of wireless industry namely Digital cellular,
Mobile Data, PCS, WLAN,
• Moderate mobile data service.
• 2G WLAN provided high data rate & large area coverage.
• Speed :- 64 kbps.
2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also
introduced and mail services too.
Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in providing services then
2.5G. It gave faster internet speed upto 128kbps and also used edge
connection.
3G (3rd Generation) :
• Internet system was improved.
 • Better system and capacity.
• Offers high speed wireless internet.
• Connection used was UMTS and WCMA.
• Speed :- 2mbps.
4G (4th Generation) :
• IP based protocols.
• LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for internet.
• Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and internet.
• Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with
reasonable QOS.
• High usability.
• Supports multimedia service at low transmission cost.
• HD quality Streaming.
• Speed :-100mbps.
5G (5th Generation) :
It is yet to come in many countries but here are some notable points about
5G .
• Higher data rates rates.
• Connectivity will be more fast and secure,
• Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
• Massive network capacity.
• It is 30 times faster than 4G.
• There would be more flexibility in the network.
Common Channel Signaling
Common Channel Signaling uses a separate common channel for passing control
signals for a group of trunks or information paths as it does not use the speech or the
data path for signaling. The common channel signaling consists of two types of nodes
such as Signaling Transfer Points (STP) and Signaling Points (SP).
A Signaling point is capable of handling control messages directly addressed to it but
is incapable of routing messages. Signaling transfer point is capable of routing
messages and can perform the functions of SP.
This common channel signaling is implemented in two modes −

• Channel associated mode

• Channel non-associated mode
Channel-associated Mode
In the channel-associated mode, the channel closely tracks the trunk groups along
the entire length of the connection. Here, the signaling is done on a separate channel;
the signaling path passes through the same set of switches, as does the speech path.
The following figure shows the associated mode of operation in common channel
signalling

The signaling paths for the speech paths A-B, A-C-B and B-D are A-B, A-C-B and B-
D respectively. The advantages of this signaling are −
• The implementation is economic
• The assignment of trunk groups is simple
Channel Non-associated Mode
In the channel non-associated mode, there is no close or simple assignment of the
control channels to trunk groups. It follows a different path from that of the speech
signal as shown in the following figure.
The signaling paths for the speech paths A-B and B-C are A-C-D-B and B-D-C
respectively. The network topologies are different for signaling and speech networks.
Though this scheme offers flexibility as there is no switching center, it is a bit complex,
as the signal messages may be transferred between the two end switching systems
via any available path in the common channel signaling network according to its own
routing principles.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

These are a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital
transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the
traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network.
Before Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the telephone system
was seen as a way to transmit voice, with some special services available for
data. The main feature of ISDN is that it can integrate speech and data on
the same lines, which were not available in the classic telephone system.
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also provides
access to packet-switched networks that allows digital transmission of voice
and data. This results in potentially better voice or data quality than an
analog phone can provide. It provides a packet-switched connection for data
in increments of 64 kilobit/s. It provided a maximum of 128 kbit/s bandwidth
in both upstream and downstream directions. A greater data rate was
achieved through channel bonding. Generally, ISDN B-channels of three or
four BRIs (six to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.
In the context of the OSI model, ISDN is employed as the network in data-
link and physical layers but commonly ISDN is often limited to usage to
Q.931 and related protocols. These protocols introduced in 1986 are a set of
signaling protocols establishing and breaking circuit-switched connections,
and for advanced calling features for the user. ISDN provides simultaneous
voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop
videoconferencing systems and group videoconferencing systems.
ISDN Interfaces:
The following are the interfaces of ISDN:

1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI) –

There are two data-bearing channels (‘B’ channels) and one
signaling channel (‘D’ channel) in BRI to initiate connections. The B
channels operate at a maximum of 64 Kbps while the D channel
operates at a maximum of 16 Kbps. The two channels are
independent of each other. For example, one channel is used as a
TCP/IP connection to a location while the other channel is used to
send a fax to a remote location. In iSeries ISDN supports a basic
rate interface (BRl).
The basic rate interface (BRl) specifies a digital pipe consisting of
two B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D channel of 16 Kbps.
This equals a speed of 144 Kbps. In addition, the BRl service itself
requires an operating overhead of 48 Kbps. Therefore a digital pipe
of 192 Kbps is required.

2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) –

Primary Rate Interface service consists of a D channel and either
23 or 30 B channels depending on the country you are in. PRI is not
supported on the iSeries. A digital pipe with 23 B channels and one
64 Kbps D channel is present in the usual Primary Rate Interface
(PRI). Twenty-three B channels of 64 Kbps each and one D
 channel of 64 Kbps equals 1.536 Mbps. The PRI service uses 8
Kbps of overhead also. Therefore PRI requires a digital pipe of
1.544 Mbps.

3. Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN) –
Narrowband ISDN has been designed to operate over the current
communications infrastructure, which is heavily dependent on the
copper cable however B-ISDN relies mainly on the evolution of fiber
optics. According to CCITT B-ISDN is best described as ‘a service
requiring transmission channels capable of supporting rates greater
than the primary rate.

ISDN Services:
ISDN provides a fully integrated digital service to users. These services fall
into 3 categories- bearer services, teleservices, and supplementary
services.

1. Bearer Services –
Transfer of information (voice, data, and video) between users
without the network manipulating the content of that information is
provided by the bearer network. There is no need for the network to
process the information and therefore does not change the content.
Bearer services belong to the first three layers of the OSI model.
They are well defined in the ISDN standard. They can be provided
using circuit-switched, packet-switched, frame-switched, or cell-
switched networks.

2. Teleservices –
In this, the network may change or process the contents of the
data. These services correspond to layers 4-7 of the OSI model.
Teleservices rely on the facilities of the bearer services and are
designed to accommodate complex user needs. The user need not
be aware of the details of the process. Teleservices include
telephony, teletex, telefax, videotex, telex, and teleconferencing.
Though the ISDN defines these services by name yet they have not
yet become standards.

3. Supplementary Service –
Additional functionality to the bearer services and teleservices are
provided by supplementary services. Reverse charging, call
waiting, and message handling are examples of supplementary
services which are all familiar with today’s telephone company
services.

Principle of ISDN:
The ISDN works based on the standards defined by ITU-T (formerly CCITT).
The Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) coordinates
standards for telecommunications on behalf of the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The
various principles of ISDN as per ITU-T recommendation are:
 • To support switched and non-switched applications

• To support voice and non-voice applications

• Reliance on 64-kbps connections

• Intelligence in the network

• Layered protocol architecture

• Variety of configurations

Advantages of ISDN:

• ISDN channels have a reliable connection.

• ISDN is used to facilitate the user with multiple digital channels.
• It has faster data transfer rate.

Disadvantages of ISDN:

• ISDN lines costlier than the other telephone system.

• It requires specialized digital devices.
• It is less flexible.

What is the Advanced Intelligent Network?

The Advanced Intelligent Network (AIN) is a type
of telecommunications system that layers computer intelligence on top
of traditional telephone switching equipment, thereby enabling advanced
services without major network upgrades. It can be used on both wired
and wireless networks, and relies on massive computer databases to
manage and route calls to the appropriate service. Telecommunications
providers may use the technology to provide a value-added service such
as conference calling or call screening. Development of the Advanced
Intelligent Network was primarily carried out by Bell Communications
Research (Bellcore), a research and development firm established
following the breakup of American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) in
1982. Bellcore supported the “Baby Bells” established after the AT&T
divestiture, and as a result its AIN technology emerged as a North
American standard for advanced telecommunications networks. Similar,
somewhat compatible technologies were developed outside of North
America. Advanced Intelligent Network technology is implemented on
the “service layer,” meaning all of the advanced functions and
intelligence operate in a realm above the electrical switches and other
equipment in a telecommunications network. This is important
because it means an AIN can be established or upgraded without
investing in large amounts of new networking equipment. It also means
the technology will work on many different types of networks, i.e., from
traditional wired telephone networks to wireless mobilephone networks.
One potential drawback to Advanced Intelligent Network technology is
that it was designed in a time when traditional voice-only analog
telephone networks were dominant. As communications networks have
grown to include cellular, digital, and Voice Over Internet Protocol
(VoIP) technology, telecommunications companies have expressed
growing interest in network architectures designed for voice, data, and
multimedia. New technologies like the Internet Protocol Multimedia
Subsystem (IMS) are expected to make up the Next Generation
Intelligent Network (NGIN), a paradigm that will blur the distinction
between telecommunications and computer networks.

SECTION D
Intelligent Cell Concept And Application
An increase in system capacity can be achieved in wireless PCS(personal
communication service) systems by applying the intelligent cell concept. There are two
means by which intelligence in a cell can reduce interference. First it can use
intelligence to deliver the signal to the mobile unit, in which cell isolates the signal with
multiple zones. Second it can tolerate a great deal of interference while receiving the
signal in which the signal resides with the interference but retains its processing gain

The intelligent PCS cell Types:

• Power-delivery Intelligent cell

• Processing-gain intelligent cell

The intelligent cell may be a large-sized cell such as a macrocell or a small-sized cell
such as a microcell

Power-Delivery Intelligent Cells:

Figure 9.1