ECC405: Principles of Communication Engineering

Module No.1: Basics of Communication System

1.1A) Introduction
The word communication arises from the Latin word “commūnicāre”, which means “to share”.
Communication is the basic step for the exchange of information.
For example, a baby in a cradle, communicates with a cry that she needs her mother. A
cow moos loudly when it is in danger. A person communicates with the help of a language.
Communication is the bridge to share.
Communication can be defined as the process of exchange of information through means
such as words, actions, signs, etc., between two or more individuals.

Need for Communication:-

For any living being, while co-existing, there occurs the necessity of exchange of some
information. Whenever a need for exchange of information arises, some means of
communication should exist. While the means of communication, can be anything such as
gestures, signs, symbols, or a language, the need for communication is inevitable.
Language and gestures play an important role in human communication, while sounds and
actions are important for animal communication. However, when some message has to be
conveyed, a communication has to be established.

Parts of Communication System:-

Any system which provides communication, consists of the three important and basic parts
as shown in the following figure.

➢ The Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a transmitting station
from where the signal is transmitted.
➢ The Channel is the medium through which the message signals travel to reach the
destination.
➢ The Receiver is the person who receives the message. It could be a receiving
station where the signal transmitted is received.

What is a Signal?
Conveying an information by some means such as gestures, sounds, actions, etc., can be
termed as signaling. Hence, a signal can be a source of energy which transmits some
information. This signal helps to establish communication between a sender and a
receiver.
An electrical impulse or an electromagnetic wave which travels a distance to convey a
message, can be termed as a signal in communication systems.
Depending on their characteristics, signals are mainly classified into two types: Analog and

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Digital. Analog and Digital signals are further classified, as shown in the following figure.

Analog Signal:-
A continuous time varying signal, which represents a time varying quantity can be termed
as an Analog Signal. This signal keeps on varying with respect to time, according to the
instantaneous values of the quantity, which represents it.

Example- Let us consider, a tap that fills a tank of 100 liters capacity in an hour (6 am to 7 am).
The portion of filling the tank is varied by the varying time. Which means, after 15 mins (6:15
am) the quarter portion of the tank gets filled, whereas at 6:45 am, 3/4th of the tank is
filled. If you try to plot the varying portions of water in the tank, according to the varying time,
it would look like the following figure.

As the resultant shown in this image varies (increases) according to time, this time
varying quantity can be understood as Analog quantity. The signal which represents this
condition with an inclined line in the figure, is an Analog Signal. The communication
based on analog signals and analog values is called as Analog Communication.
Digital Signal:-
A signal which is discrete in nature or which is non-continuous in form can be termed as
a Digital signal. This signal has individual values, denoted separately, which are not
based on the previous values, as if they are derived at that particular instant of time.
Example- Let us consider a classroom having 20 students. If their attendance in a week is
plotted, it would look like the following figure.

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In this figure, the values are separately stated. For instance, the attendance of the class
on Wednesday is 20 whereas on Saturday is 15. These values can be considered
individually and separately or discretely, hence they are called as discrete values.
The binary digits which has only 1s and 0s are mostly termed as digital values. Hence,
the signals which represent 1s and 0s are also called as digital signals. The
communication based on digital signals and digital values is called as Digital
Communication.

Periodic Signal:-
Any analog or digital signal, that repeats its pattern over a period of time, is called as a
Periodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued repeatedly and is easy to be
assumed or to be calculated.
Example
If we consider a machinery in an industry, the process that takes place one after the other
is a continuous and repeat procedure. For example, procuring and grading the raw
material, processing the material in batches, packing a load of products one after the other
etc., follow a certain procedure repeatedly.
Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically represented as follows;

Aperiodic Signal:-
Any analog or digital signal, that doesn’t repeat its pattern over a period of time, is called
as Aperiodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued but the pattern is not repeated
and is not so easy to be assumed or to be calculated.

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Example-The daily routine of a person, if considered, consists of many types of works which
take different time intervals for different works. The time interval or the work doesn’t
continuously repeat. For example, a person will not continuously brush his teeth from
morning to night, that too with the same time period.
Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically represented as
follows;

In general, the signals which are used in communication systems are analog in nature,
which are transmitted in analog or converted to digital and then transmitted, depending
upon the requirement. But for a signal to get transmitted to a distance, without the effect of any
external interferences or noise addition and without getting faded away, it has to undergo a
process called as Modulation.

1.1B) Block diagram of basic communication engineering:-

Information Source and Input Transducer

➢ The physical form of information is represented by a message that is originated by an
information source.
➢ For example, a sentence or paragraph spoken by a person is a message that contains some
information. The person, in this case, acts as information source.
➢ If the information produced by the source is not in an electrical form, it has to be
converted into an electrical form using a transducer. Eg. Microphone.
➢ The electrical signal produced by transducer is called the baseband signal. It is also called
a message signal, an information signal and is usually designated by s(t).

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 ➢ There are two types of signals: Analog signal and Digital signal.

Transmitter:
➢ Transmitter processes the base band signal received from transducer prior transmission.

➢ There are two following options for processing signals prior transmission:

➢ The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is translated to a higher
frequency spectrum (Carrier communication system).
➢ The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher frequency spectrum
(Baseband communication system).
➢ The carrier communication system is based on the principle of translating a low
frequency baseband signal to high frequency spectrum. This process is modulation.

Channel or Medium:-
➢ After the required processing, the transmitter section passes the signal to the transmission
medium. The signal propagates through the transmission medium and is received at the
other side by the receiver section.
➢ The transmission medium between the transmitter and the receiver is called a channel.

➢ Most of the noise is added to the signal during its transmission through the channel.

Depending on physical implementations, channels can be classified into two groups:

➢ Hardware Channels: These channels are manmade structure. The three possible
implementations of the hardware channels are: Transmission lines, Waveguides, and
Optical Fiber Cables (OFC)
➢ Software Channels: These are certain natural resources. The natural resources that can
be used as software channels are: air or open space and sea water.

Noise:-
➢ Noise is defined as unwanted electrical energy of random and unpredictable nature.
➢ Noise is an electrical disturbance, which does not contain any useful information.
➢ Noise is a highly undesirable part of a communication system, and has to be minimized.
➢ When noise is mixed with transmitted signal, it rides over it & deteriorates it waveform
➢ This results in alteration of original information so that wrong information is received.
➢ The designer provides adequate signal strength at the time of transmission so that a high
SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio) is available at the receiver.

Receiver:-
➢ The function of the receiver section is to separate the noise from the received signal, and
then recover the original baseband signal by performing demodulation process.
➢ A voltage amplifier first amplifies the received signal so that it becomes strong enough
for further processing, and then recovers the original information.
➢ The demodulation process removes the high frequency carrier from the received signal
and retrieves the original baseband.

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Output Transducer & Final Destination:-
➢ The recovered baseband signal is handed over to the final destination, which uses a
transducer to convert this electrical signal to its original form.
➢ Prior to handing over the recovered baseband signal to its final destination, the voltage
and power are amplified by the amplifier stages.

1.1C) Electromagnetic spectrum, Signal bandwidth and Power:-

The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of frequencies, wavelengths and photon energies
covering frequencies from below 1 hertz to above 10 25 Hz, corresponding to wavelengths which
are a few kilometers to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus in the spectrum of
electromagnetic waves. Generally, in a vacuum, electromagnetic waves tend to travel at speeds
which is similar to that of light. However, they do so at a wide range of wavelengths, frequencies
and photon energies.
The entire range (electromagnetic spectrum) is given by radio waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation, visible light, ultra-violet radiation, X-rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays in the
increasing order of frequency and decreasing order of wavelength. The type of radiation and
their frequency and wavelength ranges are as follows:

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Let us look into the uses of electromagnetic waves in our daily life.
Radio: A radio basically captures radio waves that are transmitted by radio stations. Radio
waves can also be emitted by gases and stars in space. Radio waves are mainly used for
TV/mobile communication.
Microwave: This type of radiation is found in microwaves and helps in cooking at home/office.
It is also used by astronomers to determine and understand the structure of nearby galaxies and
stars.
Infrared: It is used widely in night vision goggles. These devices can read and capture the
infrared light emitted by our skin and objects with heat. In space, infrared light helps to map
interstellar dust.
X-ray: X-rays can be used in many instances. For example, a doctor can use an X-ray machine
to take an image of our bones or teeth. Airport security personnel use it to see through and check
bags. X-rays are also given out by hot gases in the universe.
Gamma-ray: It has a wide application in the medical field. Gamma-ray imaging is used to see
inside our bodies. Interestingly, the universe is the biggest gamma-ray generator of all.
Ultraviolet: The Sun is the main source of ultraviolet radiation. It causes skin tanning and burns.
Hot materials that are in space also emit UV radiation.
Visible: Visible light can be detected by our eyes. Light bulbs, stars, etc., emit visible light.
Spectroscopy: Spectroscopy is used to study the way different electromagnetic waves interact
with matter.
We can learn about a substance by analysing the EM spectrum given by it. When light scatters or
passes through matter, it tends to interact with molecules and atoms. Since atoms and molecules
have resonance frequencies, they directly interact with those light waves having the exact
frequencies. When collisions occur in an excited state, the atoms and molecules emit light with a
certain set of characteristic frequencies. This further results in a line spectrum. Here, only light
with detached wavelengths is produced. The spectrum is also not continuous, but it consists of a
set of emission lines.
In cases where light with continuous wavelengths passes through a low-density material, the
atoms and molecules of the material will absorb light waves with the same set of characteristic
frequencies. This results in the production of the absorption spectrum, which is a nearly
continuous spectrum with missing lines.
Significance of the Electromagnetic Spectrum:-
The electromagnetic waves in these different bands have different characteristics depending
upon how they are produced, how they interact with matter and their practical applications.
Maxwell’s equations predicted the existence of an infinite number of frequencies of
electromagnetic waves, all travelling with the speed of light. This is the first indication of the
existence of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

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Nonetheless, the main significance of the electromagnetic spectrum is that it can be used to
classify electromagnetic waves and arrange them according to their different frequencies or
wavelengths.
Practical Applications of Electromagnetic Waves:-
● The radio waves and microwaves discovered by Hertz paved the way for wireless television,
radio and mobile communication.
● The visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is the reason for all visual aids in
daily life. This is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that helps us to see all objects,
including colours.
● The X-rays discovered by Roentgen proved to be useful in medicine for detecting many
ailments or deformities in bones.
● The high ultraviolet radiation has energies to ionise the atoms causing chemical reactions.
● The gamma rays discovered by Paul Villard are useful for ionisation purposes and nuclear
medicine.

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Formulas for the Electromagnetic Radiation:-
The frequency(f), speed(c), energy(E) and wavelength(λ) of electromagnetic waves are related as

Where,
c = 299792458 m/s is the speed of light in a vacuum,
h = 6.62607015×10−34 J·s = 4.13566733(10)×10−15 eV·s is Planck’s constant.

Signal bandwidth:-Bandwidth is a range of frequencies within a continuous set of frequencies.

It is measured in Hertz. The purpose of a communication system is to transfer information from
the transmitter which is located in one place to a receiver which is usually far away from the
transmitter.

The bandwidth of a signal is defined as the difference between the upper and lower frequencies of a
signal generated. As seen from the above representation, Bandwidth (B) of the signal is equal to the
difference between the higher or upper-frequency (fH) and the lower frequency (fL). It is measured
in terms of Hertz(Hz) i.e. the unit of frequency.
Let’s understand this better with the help of an example. Whenever you tune into a radio you find
various stations at varying particular frequencies. The bandwidth of FM radio is 200 KHz from 88.1
MHz to 101.1 MHz for most places. As you tune, the radio you find various stations at various
frequencies.
Neither do all the channel occupy all the frequencies nor is there no channel at every frequency, but
every channel has its own unique frequency like an ID.
Given above is a diagram representing various bandwidths of electromagnetic waves and it goes a
long way in helping identify the type of wave on basis of its frequency and thus determining its
applications. Thus we see that bandwidths exist for all kinds of waves in both the visual and audio
spectrums and well beyond them as well.
The audible bandwidth of human ear ranges from 20 Hz to 20,000Hz. Sounds below 20Hz are
known as Infrasonic and sounds above 20000Hz are known as ultrasonic. Dogs can hear ultrasonic
sounds. Whereas Blue whales can produce infrasonic sounds. So let us now study some applications
of various signals in various bandwidths.

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Applications of Signal Bandwidth
Ultrasound- Medical uses of sound signals with a frequency of more than 20000Hz is done to
determine the health and condition of internal organs or during a pregnancy to determine the growth
of a foetus.
Radar- An acronym for “Radio Detection And Ranging”; RADAR uses sounds of very high
frequencies typically of the order of 1 to 3 MHz and is used in applications related to space, defense,
engineering, metal studies etc.

Question: A given signal has frequencies of 3125 MHz, 635 MHz, 2000MHz and 7000Mhz.
Determine the bandwidth of the signal?
Answer: The bandwidth of a signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies.
For the given system the bandwidth
is 7000 – 635 = 6365MHz. Therefore the bandwidth of the signal is 6365MHz

1.1D)Types of communication channels

The Channel provides the electrical connection between the source and destination(the physical
medium used to transfer signals carrying the encoded information from the transmitter to the
receiver). It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver.

A transmission medium (plural transmission media) is a material (solid, liquid or gas) which can
propagate energy waves. For example, the transmission medium for sound received by the ears is
air.
The quality of transmission is determined by both the characteristics of the medium and the
characteristics of the signal.
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 Transmission medium is a:
▪ Path between two telephones
▪ Path between two computers
▪ Path between the satellite and the ground station in satellite communication systems

There are two physical ways to transmit data: guided and unguided.
Guided media consists of physical connection between source and destination via a wire or a
cable. In guided media, the signals are confined within the wire and guided along a physical
path. Examples are twisted pair, coaxial cable and optical fiber.
Unguided media transport electromagnetic (EM) waves without using a physical conductor. This
type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Examples are atmosphere
and outer space (Radio waves, microwaves, infrared) and satellite channels.
Unguided (wireless) transmission is used in geographically disadvantaged places like: desert,
forest, hills, mountains, oceans etc., where installing wires, cables is difficult.

Twisted Pair cable- Wire pairs are commonly used in local telephone communication and for
short distance digital data communication. They are usually made up of copper and the pair of
wires is twisted together. Data transmission speed is normally 9600 bits per second in a distance
of 100 meter.
This is commonly used medium and is quite cheaper than any other transmission media. A
twisted pair consists of two insulated conductors twisted together as shown in following figure.

Twisting is used to decrease interference from other wires. It can be shielded (cover for extra
protection) or unshielded. The unshielded twisted pairs are very cheap and easy to install, but
badly affected by noise and interference.

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 Coaxial cable- Coaxial cable consists of a central copper wire surrounded by an insulation over
which copper mesh is placed. Coaxial cable is like a pipe with wire suspended in the middle of it.
Due to its construction, coaxial cable is less susceptible to interference than twisted pair. Coaxial
cable is capable of supporting a much higher frequency range than twisted pair.
One of the most popular use of co-axial cable is in cable TV (CATV) for the distribution of TV
programmes. Another importance use of co-axial cable is in LAN and for long distance
telephone communication.
Coaxial cable Features-
▪ Two types of cables having 75 ohm and 50 ohm impedance are available
▪ Because of shielding, this cable has excellent noise immunity
▪ It has a large bandwidth and low losses
▪ Most widely used medium for Local Area Networks (LANs)
▪ These cables are costlier than twisted pair cables, but cheaper than optical fibre cables

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 Fibre Optic cable- An optical fiber is constructed from a very thin stand of glass or ultra-pure
plastic that is placed in a cladding of glass or plastic. Information is transmitted in the form of
light, therefore no electrical interference and it supports long distance communication. Note that
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable transport signals in the form of electric signals (whereas fibre
optic cable transport signals in the form of light). Fibre optic operates at optical frequencies
(1014 to 1015 Hz). A fiber optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads. The main
disadvantage of fiber optics is that the cables are expensive to install.
Because of greater bandwidth (2Gbps), smaller diameter, lighter weight, low attenuation,
immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and longer repeater spacing, optical fiber cables
are finding widespread use in long-distance telecommunications.
▪ Fibre optic carries information in the form of light
▪ Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means that they can
carry more data.
▪ Fiber optic cables are less susceptible to interference than other transmission medium.
▪ Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than wires

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a) Guided Channel (Wired):-
Transmission media in which the connection between two devices is established through a
physical method, such as a cable or wire, is referred to as wired transmission media or guided
media. Wired media is also known as bounded media because it has a specific limit. Guided
media enables the fast and secure transmission of data over short distances.

Advantages of Guided Media:-

* Guided media facilitates the transmission of data at high speeds.
* Setting up and installing guided media is very easy.
* The cost of guided media is relatively low, and it is readily available.
* It is highly flexible and lightweight.

Disadvantages of Guided Media:-

* Bandwidth is quite limited in guided media.
* Its maintenance and installation are expensive.

There are following types of guided media;

i) Twisted Pair Cable -

A Twisted Pair Cable is a type of wire in which two wires are twisted
together. This cable contains 4 pairs of wires encased in plastic, with each pair consisting of two
wires twisted around each other. Each pair has a distinct color code. Twisted Pair Cable is the
most widely used cable in LAN networks.

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UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) - This is an Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable, which means it does
not have any separate shielding or cover, as you can see in the image. This cable can typically
transfer data from 1 Gbps to 10 Gbps over distances up to 100 meters.

STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) - This is a Shielded Twisted Pair Cable. It includes an additional
shield that enhances data security and increases data transfer speed.

ii)The Coaxial Cable-

The Coaxial Cable is made from copper wire. It has insulation on top of the
copper wire, and above that, there is a copper mesh made of brass. The data transmission range
for this cable is up to 185 meters. Installing Coaxial Cable is easy, but it is quite flexible and
relatively fragile, making it more prone to breakage. Coaxial cable is used for Cable TV, analog
TV networks, and CCTV applications.
Generally, two types of coaxial cables are commonly used. One is the 50-ohm cable, which is
used for digital transmission. The other is the 75-ohm cable, which is used for analog
transmission. Coaxial cables are heavy in weight and, compared to other cables, they are the
most expensive.

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c) The Optical Fiber Cable-

The Optical Fiber Cable is the fastest data- transferring medium. It is made from pure silica
glass and was developed in 1970. Fiber optic cables have brought revolutionary changes to the
world of the Internet. Today, all countries are interconnected through the Internet, where fiber
optic cables play a significant role. Fiber optic cable is an advanced transmission medium used
for high- speed and long-distance transmission of data.
Until now, it remains the fastest cable in
the world of networking for transferring data at high speeds. Another major feature of this cable
is that it can transmit data at a 90- degree angle. The construction of this cable is such that it has
a plastic jacket on the outside, and inside it, there are three different insulators: strength member,
coating, and cladding. Inside these layers, there is high- quality glass or plastic that sends the
signal to the destination, known as the core.

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 In this cable, data travels in the form of a light
signal, and upon reaching the data destination, the light signal is converted into a digital signal. It
is extensively used in submarine communications, meaning that Fiber Optic Cable is employed
to connect the network of one country with that of another country, facilitating international
network connectivity.

b) Unguided Channel (Wireless):-

In this type no cable or wire is used for connection

between two devices, meaning data is sent wirelessly from one device to another, is called
unguided or wireless media. Wireless media is commonly used to send signals in all directions. It
broadcasts electromagnetic waves without the use of any physical medium. It does not have any
specific range, so it is also called unbounded transmission media.
In unguided transmission,
electromagnetic energy easily flows through the medium of air. Signals can be sent over long
distances using this method, but the signal sent through it is less secure.

i) Radio Waves:-
Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of
free space. Radio waves are Omni directional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions. In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned,
i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
Its frequency range is typically 3KHz to 1GHz. Signals of this type are used in radio and
wireless phones. An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves:

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 o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

ii) Micro Waves:-

This type of signal is used in mobile phone communication and TV networks. The frequency
range of microwave signals is up to 1GHz to 300GHz. The range of its signals also depends on
the height of the antenna used in it. In microwaves, it is necessary to align the sender and
receiver signals properly so that the signal can be transmitted correctly.
Microwaves are of two types:

o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a

radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz
to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e.,
the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which
is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the
direct sight of each other.
Characteristics of Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-
23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions
and antenna size.
Advantages Of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of
cables.

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 o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of
cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user

can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather
condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the
signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable
and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
How Does Satellite work?
The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the
signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of the
coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains in
orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the
satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

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iii) Infrared Waves:-
An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges, but
the signal is hindered if there is any obstruction between two devices. The frequency of the
infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz. It is used for short-range communication such as
data transfer between two cell phones, TV remote operation, wireless mouse, wireless keyboard,
wireless printer, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.
Characteristics of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in one
room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves.

Difference between guided and unguided media

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1.1E) Introduction to time and frequency domain:
To analyze a signal, it has to be represented. This representation in communication
systems is of two types:
• Frequency domain representation, and
• Time domain representation.
Frequency domain is an analysis of signals or mathematical functions, in reference to frequency,
instead of time. As stated earlier, a time-domain graph displays the changes in a signal over a
span of time, and frequency domain displays how much of the signal exists within a given
frequency band concerning a range of frequencies. Also, a frequency-domain representation can
include information on the phase shift that must be applied to each sinusoid to be able to
recombine the frequency components to recover the original time signal.
Furthermore, you can convert a designated signal or function between the frequency and time
domains with a pair of operators called transforms. Moreover, a perfect example of a transform
is the Fourier transform. Which converts a time function into an integral of sine-waves of various
frequencies or sum, each of which symbolizes a frequency component. The so-called spectrum
of frequency components is the frequency-domain depiction of the signal. However, as the name
implies, the inverse Fourier transform converts the frequency-domain function back to the time
function.
Time domain analysis provides the transitory response of a system to be analyzed, and it permits
a better understanding of the flow of both mechanical and electrical energies. In general, this
includes wave propagation, the structural changes of a system, and electric potential generated
by external excitations.
Whereas for the frequency domain, visualization tools such as a spectrum analyzer are
commonly in use when visualizing electronic signals. Also, some specialized signal processing
techniques make use of transforms, and this results in a joint time-frequency domain. Moreover,
the instantaneous frequency is a critical link between the time domain and the frequency domain.
Time domain analysis is particularly useful for circuit designs with antennas where a designer
may encounter stray signals, reflections, or ground bounce signals. Time domain signal
processing enables an engineer to separate extraneous signals in time from the desired signal,
thereby identifying the contaminated signals.
In general, using a frequency domain will simplify analysis mathematically for the system
running it. Many prominent SPICE tools will primarily function through the frequency-domain
for this relevance, efficiency, and accuracy for their analytical functions.
Also, mathematical systems are an essential class of systems that have various practical
applicational uses. Furthermore, for a mathematical system regulated by linear differential
equations, it translates the depiction of a system from that of a time domain to a frequency
domain. Thereby changing the differential equation to an algebraic equation, which is
considerably less difficult to solve.
Seeing a system from the viewpoint of frequency will often provide an innate understanding of
the measured quality that encompasses the behavior of the system. The scientific community
now offers various terminology to describe such characteristic physical system behavior in
reference to time-varying inputs. This includes terms like frequency response, bandwidth, phase
shift, gain, and resonant frequencies, to name a few.
One of the most familiar and universal examples of frequency content in signals is perhaps audio
signals, such as music. In this case, the frequency-domain analysis gives a better understanding

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than time domain analysis because music is tacitly based on the breaking down of intricate
sounds into their separate component frequencies.
When considering a sinusoid as an audio signal, we must also consider the changes in air
pressure on our ears as a function of time. In summary, from the theory of operation of musical
instruments to the musical notation in use to record and discuss music itself requires the
separation of the component frequencies to gain an understanding of the audio in question.

Consider two signals with 1 kHz and 2 kHz frequencies. Both of them are represented in
time and frequency domain as shown in the following figure.

Time domain analysis, gives the signal behavior over a certain time period. In the
frequency domain, the signal is analyzed as a mathematical function with respect to the
frequency.
Frequency domain representation is needed where the signal processing such as filtering,
amplifying and mixing are done.
For instance, if a signal such as the following is considered, it is understood that noise is
present in it.

The frequency of the original signal may be 1 kHz, but the noise of certain frequency,
which corrupts this signal is unknown. However, when the same signal is represented in
the frequency domain, using a spectrum analyzer, it is plotted as shown in the following
figure.

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Here, we can observe few harmonics, which represent the noise introduced into the original
signal. Hence, the signal representation helps in analyzing the signals.
Frequency domain analysis helps in creating the desired wave patterns. For example, the
binary bit patterns in a computer, the Lissajous patterns in a CRO, etc. Time domain
analysis helps to understand such bit patterns.
The following methods are used to transform from the time domain
to the frequency domain.

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1.1F) Basic concepts of wave propagation:
A wave is a vibration or disturbance that travels from one point to another and carries energy.
The term wave propagation refers to the movement of waves. All waves have frequency,
amplitude, wavelength, and wave speed. Wave propagation speed quantifies how fast the wave
travels.
Wave propagation is the movement of waves through a medium or vacuum.
Wave propagation refers to the way in which waves travel through a medium or vacuum. Waves
can be classified as mechanical or electromagnetic, and they propagate differently depending on
their type. Mechanical waves, such as sound waves, require a medium to travel through, while
electromagnetic waves, such as light waves, can travel through a vacuum.
The speed of wave propagation depends on the properties of the medium through which the
wave is travelling. For example, sound waves travel faster through denser materials, while light
waves travel faster through less dense materials. Waves can also be affected by obstacles in their
path, such as reflections, refractions, and diffractions.
The study of wave propagation is important in many fields, including telecommunications,
seismology, and acoustics. Understanding how waves propagate can help engineers to design
more efficient communication systems, predict the behavior of earthquakes, and improve the
acoustics of concert halls and other spaces. Additionally, exploring the superposition
principle can enhance comprehension of how waves overlap and interact under various
conditions.
In space communication electromagnetic waves of different frequencies are used to
carry information through the physical space acting as the transmission medium.
EM waves with frequencies from about 10 kHz to 300 GHz are classed as radio waves.
On the basis of the mode of propagation, radio waves can be broadly classified as:
(i) Ground or Surface wave
(ii) Space or Tropospheric wave
(iii) Sky wave.

Accordingly, we have three types of propagation-

i) Ground wave propagation:-

In ground wave propagation, radio waves are guided by the earth and move along its curved
surface from the transmitter to the receiver.
As high frequency waves are strongly absorbed by ground, ground wave propagation is useful
only at low frequencies.
Below 500 kHz, ground waves can be used for communication within distances of about 1500
km from the transmitter.
AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local areas and take place primarily by
the ground wave.
The ground waves at higher frequencies employed by frequency modulation (FM) and television
(TV) are increasing absorbed and therefore become very weak beyond a distance of several
kilometres from the transmitter.
Ground wave transmission is very reliable whatever the atmospheric conditions be.

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ii) Space or Tropospheric wave propagation:-

When a radio wave transmitted from an antenna, travelling in a straight line directly reaches the
receiving antenna, it is termed as space or tropospheric wave.
In space wave or line of sight propagation, radio waves move in the earth's troposphere within
about 15 km over the surface of the earth.
The space wave is made up of two components:
➢ A direct or line-of sight wave form the transmitting to the receiving antenna
➢ The ground-reflected wave traversing form the transmitting antenna to ground and
reflected to the receiving antenna.
Television frequencies in the range 100-220 MHz are transmitted through this mode.

(iii) Sky wave propagation:-

In this mode of propagation, radio waves transmitted from the
transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna after reflection form the ionosphere.
Short wave transmission around the globe is possible through sky wave via successive
reflections at the ionosphere and the earth's surface.
The ionized region of the earth's upper atmosphere extending from about 40 km to the height of a
few earth radii above earth, is referred to as ionosphere.
The ionosphere is made up of electrons, and positive and negative ions in the background of
neutral particles of the atmosphere.
The propagation of radio wave through the ionosphere is affected by the electrons and ions in the
ionosphere.
Following figure shows three different modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves.

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1.2A) Types of noise:
Noise is any unwanted signal, random or deterministic, which interfere with the faithful
reproduction of the desired signal in a system. This interfering signal is usually noticed as
random fluctuations in voltage or current tending to obscure and mask the desired signals.
Noise is any unwanted disturbance of a useful signal that obscures its information content. Many
different types of noise in data communication exist, and managing noise successfully requires
the use of multiple techniques.
Noise is an unwanted signal which interferes with the original message signal and
corrupts the parameters of the message signal. This alteration in the communication
process, leads to the message getting altered. It is most likely to be entered at the channel
or the receiver.

Hence, it is understood that noise is some signal which has no pattern and no constant
frequency or amplitude. It is quite random and unpredictable. Measures are usually taken
to reduce it, though it can’t be completely eliminated.
Most common examples of noise are:
Hiss sound in radio receivers
Buzz sound amidst of telephone conversations
Flicker in television receivers, etc.

The effects of noise are:

Noise limits the operating range of the systems.
Noise indirectly places a limit on the weakest signal that can be amplified by an amplifier.
The oscillator in the mixer circuit may limit its frequency because of noise. A system’s
operation depends on the operation of its circuits. Noise limits the smallest signal that a
receiver is capable of processing.
Noise affects the sensitivity of receivers(receiver cannot function properly)
Sensitivity is the minimum amount of input signal necessary to obtain the specified quality
output.
The performance of the signal in both analogue and digital systems is degraded

Among the most common types of noise are electronic noise, thermal noise, intermodulation
noise, cross-talk, impulse noise, shot noise and transit-time noise. Acoustic noise is also a factor
for those working within networking office environments.

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Electronic noise- IT staff mainly deals with electronic noise, created in the radio or network
systems that transmit data, or in the medium -- such as wire and air -- through which signals are
transmitted.

Thermal noise- Thermal noise occurs in all transmission media and communication equipment,
including passive devices. It arises from random electron motion and is characterized by a
uniform distribution of energy over the frequency spectrum with a Gaussian distribution of
levels; the higher the temperature of the components or the medium, the greater the level of
thermal noise.

Intermodulation noise- Intermodulation (IM) effects result when two or more signals pass
through a nonlinear device or medium and interact with each other in ways that produce
additional signals, such as harmonics and subharmonics of input signal frequencies. These
resulting IM components may be inside or outside the frequency band of interest for a particular
device; it is only when they are inside the band of interest that IM effects become IM noise.
IM noise is a significant concern in radio communications, including cellular telephony and data
networks. Component manufacturers test for it -- it can result from either design characteristics
of a system, or from manufacturing defects. But it can become an issue post-manufacture due to
damage to a component, so field engineers need to watch for it, too.

Cross-talk- Cross-talk refers to signals interfering with each other electromagnetically. There
are essentially three causes of cross-talk:
• Electrical coupling between transmission media, like adjacent wires in a multilane serial
interface connection -- for example, Ethernet or Fibre Channel;
• Poor control of frequency response -- i.e., defective filters or poor filter design; and
• Nonlinear performance in analog multiplex systems. High levels of cross-talk increase bit-
error rates and degrade a digital path's performance.

Impulse noise- Impulse noise is a non continuous series of irregular pulses or noise spikes of
short duration, broad spectral density and of relatively high amplitude. Impulse noise can be
caused by positioning a communications cable near a source of intermittent but strong
electromagnetic pulses, such as an elevator motor. It degrades telephony only marginally, if at
all, but can seriously corrupt data transmissions.

Shot noise- Shot noise, also called quantum noise, is the variation in a signal that is caused by
the quantized nature of the light and electricity making up the signal. We tend to think of a
signal, whether a beam of light or a stream of electrons, as being uniform: a steady stream of
particles traversing a path. The physical reality, though, is not one of uniform and constant
movement, but of clumpy movement that only looks smooth on average across long, large flows
of light or electricity -- as measured by intensity of light or by electrical current density.
Shot noise has become a major concern, as circuits get smaller and faster, reducing the time over
which flows can be averaged down to -- and past -- the nanosecond level, and current flows

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down to a nano ampere or less. Chip and system designs increasingly need to account for shot
noise, as the drive to shrink components and increase component speeds continues.

Transit-time noise- Transit-time noise is a similar phenomenon to shot noise in that it affects
systems more as they get smaller due to the quantized nature of electricity. Transit-time noise
results when a signal frequency's period is the same as the time an electron takes to travel from
sender to receiver. The noise results from the statistical variations in actual electron flow.

Acoustic noise- All these types of electronic noise above are distinct from acoustic noise, which
encompasses sounds in an environment, including:
• Continuous noise that's steady in tone and volume, such as noise created by some machinery
in industrial environments, like conveyor belts or worm gears moving materials along a
production line; and retail environments, such as vent fans in a restaurant kitchen; as well as
by things like fluorescent lighting -- the 60-cycle hum -- and air-conditioning in all kinds of
environments.
• Low-frequency noise, also called infrasound, which is below the range of sounds normally
audible to humans -- i.e., at or below about 20 hertz -- but which can be very disturbing to
many people. Infrasound can be generated by machinery, and even by the vibration of
buildings in response to wind or other forces.
• Workplace noise, variable in volume and tone, such as what's typically heard in the
background in call centers and open-plan offices, or is experienced by workers in factories,
kitchens and other environments -- often in addition to continuous noise.

As far as networks are concerned, these types of noise are part of the signal -- the sound being
transmitted -- since they are not artifacts of the technology used to transmit the sound.

Acoustic noise is mitigated through a combination of workplace design principles, like breaking
up large open offices; and furnishings, such as using sound-damping coverings on walls and
incorporating plantings in a space; work practices, like staggering shift breaks in call centers, for
instance; and human interface technologies, such as noise-cancelling headphones, which help
people lower their voices, and directional microphones, which pick up less background noise.

1.2B) Signal to noise ratio

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1.2C) Noise figure
Consider the network shown below,

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32
1.2D) Noise temperature

1.2E) Friss formula

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Numerical 1)

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Numerical 2)

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