Introduction to MEC245

Mechatronics

Lecture [1]

SIGNAL
CONDITIONING

Dr. Ahmed M. Saleh

Signal Conditioning

2
Signal Conditioning

3
Signal Conditioning

4
Signal Conditioning

5
Signal Conditioning

6
Signal conditioning is the operation performed on the signal to convert it to a form
suitable for interfacing with other elements in the system.

Example of signal conditioning:

❑ Signal-range and offset changes

i.e. amplification and zero adjustment
❑ Conversions
e.g. current to voltage and voltage to current
❑ Filtering
removing unwanted frequencies
Signal-Level and Bias Changes

One of the most common types of signal conditioning involves adjusting the level 7
(magnitude) and bias (zero value) of some voltage representing a process
variable. For example, some sensor output voltage may vary from 0.2 to 0.6 V as a
process variable changes over a measurement range. However, equipment to
which this sensor output must be connected perhaps requires a voltage that varies
from 0 to 5 V for the same variation of the process variable.
We perform the required signal conditioning by first changing the zero to occur
when the sensor output is 0.2 V. This can be done by simply subtracting 0.2 from
the sensor output, which is called a zero shift, or a bias adjustment.
Now we have a voltage that varies from 0 to 0.4 V, so we need to make the voltage
larger. If we multiply the voltage by 12.5, the new output will vary from 0 to 5 V as
required. This is called amplification, and 12.5 is called the gain. In some cases, we
need to make a sensor output smaller, which is called attenuation.
Signal-Level and Bias Changes

https://www.electronics-tutorial.net/analog-integrated-
circuits/
Types of Signal Conditioning

9
Types of Signal Conditioning

10
Linearization

For example, suppose a sensor output varied nonlinearly with a process 11

variable. A linearization circuit indicated symbolically, would ideally be one
that conditioned the sensor output so that a voltage was produced which was
linear with the process variable. The modern approach to this problem is to
provide the nonlinear signal as input to a computer and perform the
linearization using software. Virtually any nonlinearity can be handled in this
manner and, with the speed of modern computers, in nearly real time.
Filtering and Impedance Matching

12
Two other common signal-conditioning requirements are filtering and matching
impedance.
Often, spurious signals of considerable strength are present in the industrial
environment, such as the 60-Hz line frequency signals. Motor start transients may
also cause pulses and other unwanted signals in the process-control loop. In many
cases, it is necessary to use high-pass, low-pass, or notch filters to eliminate
unwanted signals from the loop. Such filtering can be accomplished by passive filters,
using only resistors, capacitors, and inductors, or active filters, using gain and
feedback. Impedance matching is an important element of signal conditioning when
transducer internal impedance or line impedance can cause errors in measurement
of a dynamic variable. Both active and passive networks are employed to provide
such matching.
Types of Signal Conditioning

13
Types of Signal Conditioning

Excitation in signal conditioning refers to the external energy or stimulus 14

required to activate a sensor or transducer so that it can produce an output
signal proportional to the measured physical quantity. Many sensors, such
as strain gauges, load cells, and thermocouples, require an external power
source or excitation to function properly. This excitation is typically a voltage
or current that enables the sensor to convert a physical parameter (e.g.,
force, temperature, pressure) into an electrical signal.
Signal Conditioning

15
Before discussing signal conditioning, it is important to examine the
following topics:

❑ the loading effect.

❑ the buffer circuit.
❑ the difference amplifier.
❑ the instrumentation amplifier.
Effect of Loading

16
Measurement systems are made up of many components. Ideally, the
gain of the whole system is found by multiplying the gains of the
individual components together.
However, this will only give the correct result if very little current flows
through the connection circuits.
In reality some current flows. This results in a much more complicated
expression for determining the gain for the entire measurement system.
This problem is called loading. We use operational amplifier circuits to
help stop this loading problem.
Effect of Loading

17
Connecting a sensor or circuit to a load introduces uncertainty in the measurement
(i.e. in the amplitude of the output voltage) as shown below.

without load: Vy = Vx with load: Vy < Vx

Effect of Loading

18
The output voltage is calculated using voltage division as
RL
Vy = Vx
RL + Rx

The output voltage is reduced by the voltage drop over the internal resistance of the
sensor RX.

To reduce the uncertainty (i.e. to keep Vy ≈ Vx), the internal resistance (the sensor
output resistance), Rx, should be much smaller than the load resistance
RL  Rx
Example 1

19
An amplifier outputs a voltage that is 10 times the voltage on its input terminals. It
has an input resistance of 10 kΩ. A sensor outputs a voltage proportional to
temperature with a transfer function of 20 mV/°C. The sensor has an output
resistance of 5.0 k Ω. If the temperature is 50 °C, find the amplifier output.

50 °C Sensor Amplification ?V
(20 mV/°C) (gain =10)
Answer

20
The sensor output VT = (50°C)*(20 mV/°C) = 1V.
Due to non-zero sensor output resistance (5kΩ) and finite amplifier input resistance
(10kΩ), the sensor delivers only

10 10
Vin =  VT = 1 = 0.667
5 + 10 5 + 10

This is amplified 10 times to give Vout = 6.67V.

Note: if the sensor o/p impedance is zero or the amplifier i/p impedance is infinite,
Vout = 10V.
The Buffer circuit

21
To minimize the loading effect, we must look for a circuit that has very large input
impedance to obtain the whole sensor output voltage.
Furthermore, as this circuit is probably going to drive other circuits, it should have
very small output impedance.
A device having these two properties is called a buffer. One example of buffer is the
voltage follower:

Vout = Vin
The instrumentation amplifier

• The input impedances of the difference amplifier can be relatively low 22

and, hence, tend to load the sensor output.
• To have high input impedance, the difference amplifier is preceded by
two voltage follower circuits to form the so-called instrumentation
amplifier.

R2
Vout = (V2 − V1 )
R1

22
The instrumentation amplifier
• One disadvantage of the previous differential circuit is that in order to 23
change the gain, 2 pairs of resistors need to be changed.
• A more common differential amplifier in which the gain can be adjusted
using one resistor (RG) is shown below.

 2 R1  R3 
Vout = 1 +  (V2 − V1 )
 RG  R2 

23
Signal conditioning

Now, let us discuss the following signal conditioning categories: 24

❑ Signal-range and offset changes
i.e. amplification and zero adjustment

❑ Conversions
e.g. current to voltage and voltage to current

Filtering will be discussed in the next lecture.

24
Signal-range and offset (bias)

25
Example 2

Design a circuit to achieve the following voltage conversion.

0.2 V – 0.7 V 0V–5V

Signal conditioning circuit

25
Signal-range and offset (bias)

Answer 26
• It is clear that we need to subtract 0.2V, then multiply the signal by 10.

0.2 V – 0.7 V 0 V – 0.5 V 0V–5V

Zero shift Amplification

• This looks like a differential amplifier with a gain of 10 and a fixed input of 0.2
volts to the inverting side. The following circuit shows how this could be done
using an instrumentation amplifier.

26
Signal-range and offset (bias)

27

Note that a voltage divider is used to provide the 0.2V offset. The zener diode
is used to keep the bias voltage (i.e. the 0.2V) constant against changes of the
supply.
Signal-range and offset (bias)

Example 3 28
A sensor outputs a voltage in the range of 20 to 250 mV. Develop signal
conditioning so that this become 0 to 5 V. The circuit must have very high
input impedance.

Answer
Let us develop an linear equation for the output in terms of the input

Vout = aVin + b

where a and b are to be found.

28
Signal-range and offset (bias)
• For the given two conditions we can write
29
0 = a (0.020) + b 
  a = 21.7, b = −0.434
5 = a (0.250) + b 
• Hence, the required equation is

Vout = 21.7Vin − 0.434

= 21.7(Vin − 0.02)
• Therefore we need a differential amplifier with a gain of 21.7 and a fixed
input of 0.02V to the inverting side. The following circuit shows how this
could be done using an instrumentation amplifier.

29
Signal-range and offset (bias)

30

30
Signal-range and offset (bias)

Example 4 31
A bridge circuit for which R4 varies from 100 to 102 is shown below. Show how
this bridge could be connected to the given instrumentation amplifier to provide an
output of 0 to 2.5V for that change in R4. Assume that, in the instrumentation
amplifier circuit, R2 = R3 = 1 k and R1 = 100 k.

31
The Buffer circuit
Answer
32
• Clearly, the bridge nulls when R4=100 Ω. So, we do not need zero adjustment.
• When R4 = 102Ω the bridge offset voltage is found as

 102 100 
V = Vb − Va = 5 −  = 24.75 mV.
 100 + 102 100 + 100 
• To get an output of 2.5V at 102Ω we need a differential gain of (2.5 V/24.75 mV) = 101.
• For the given instrumentation amplifier we have

 2 R1  R3   2(100)  1 
Vout = 1 +  (V2 − V1 )  101 = 1 +  
 RG  R2   RG  1 
 RG = 2k
32
The Buffer circuit

33

33
Conversions
Conversion 34
❑ In many situations it is required to convert one form of signal or physical
value into another form such as
o resistance to voltage
o voltage-to-current
o current-to-voltage

❑ For example, a typical standard in process control systems is to use current

signals in the range 4 to 20 mA for transmission. This requires conversion
from voltage to current at the sending end and a conversion from current to
voltage at the receiving end.

34
Conversions
Often, signal conditioning is used to convert one type of electrical variation into another. Thus, a large
class of sensors exhibit changes of resistance with changes in a dynamic variable. In these cases, it is 35
necessary to provide a circuit to convert this resistance change either to a voltage or a current signal.
Bridges generally accomplish this when the fractional resistance change is small and/or by amplifiers
whose gain varies with resistance.

Signal Transmission An important type of conversion is associated with the process-control standard
of transmitting signals as 4- to 20-mA current levels in wire. This gives rise to the need for converting
resistance and voltage levels to an appropriate current level at the transmitting end and for converting
the current back to voltage at the receiving end. Of course, current transmission is used because such a
signal is independent of load variations other than accidental shunt conditions that may draw off some
current. Thus, voltage-to-current and current-to-voltage converters are often required.

Digital Interface The use of computers in process control requires the conversion of analog data into a
digital format by integrated circuit devices called analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). Analog signal
conversion is usually required to adjust the analog measurement signal to match the input
requirements of the ADC. For example, the ADC may need a voltage that varies between 0 and 5 V, but
the sensor provides a signal that varies from 30 to 80 mV. Signal conversion circuits can be developed
to interface the output to the required ADC input.
Conversions

Current to voltage converter 36

Vout = − R1 I IN
36
Conversions
Voltage to current converter 37
In the following circuit, the current through the load
resistor RLoad is equal to Vin/(250Ω). No matter what
value of RLoad is, the current through it will be function of
Vin only.

37
potentiometer as position sensor

38
potentiometer as position sensor

39