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/2 Hb +mH2b b2 /2MQKBM +QM+HmbBƦMc Hb Qi`b b2 /2MQKBMM T`2KBbbX

.2 +m2`/Q  H /2}MB+BƦM Mi2`BQ`  i`pûb /2 Hb T`2KBbb b2 HH2;  H +QM@

+HmbBƦMX lM `;mK2MiQ `2H+BQM Hb T`2KBbb +QM H +QM+HmbBƦMX 1M 2bi2 b2MiB/Q
mM `;mK2MiQ 2b p€HB/Q +mM/Q TQ/2KQb KQbi`` [m2 H +QM+HmbBƦM b2 /2/m+2
/2 Hb T`2KBbb 2M mM +QMi2tiQ /2i2`KBM/QX *mM/Q MQ ?v `2;Hb +H`b T`
/2i2`KBM` H pHB/2x /2 mM `;mK2MiQ `2+m``BKQb H HHK/Q dzb2MiB/Q +QKȹMǴ- 2H
+mH b2 +QMbi`mv2 +QM #b2  Mm2bi`b pBp2M+Bb- 2b /2+B` 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 T`€+iB+b-
b#2`2b v 2tT2`B2M+Bb T2`bQMH2bX aBM 2K#`;Q- HQb b2`2b ?mKMQb bQKQb /Bp2`bQb
+QM 2tT2`B2M+Bb /Bp2`bb v 2bQ ?+2 [m2 2H b2MiB/Q +QKȹM MQ b2 iM +QKȹM +QKQ
b2 +`22X SQ` 2D2KTHQ mM 2bim/BMi2 Tm2/2 `;mK2Mi`H2 H T`Q72bQ` 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2
b2MiB/Q,

Ĭ1biBK/Q S`Q72bQ`5 H +HB}++BƦM [m2 mbi2/ K2 ? +QMbB;M/Q MQ 2b

/2+m/- Tm2biQ [m2 i`#DQ iQ/Q 2H /ő KM2DM/Q mM itB v Hm2;Q
/2#Q i2M/2`  KB M+BM K/`2 v  /Qb ?2`KMb [m2 .BQb [mBxQ [m2
[m2/`M BMpHB/b 2M mM ++B/2Mi2 v- +QKQ mbi2/- 2Mi2M/2`€- i2M;Q
Kmv TQ+Q iB2KTQ T` ?+2` H i`2b [m2 mbi2/ T`QTQM2X

*QKQ TQ/2KQb Q#b2`p`- 2H TmMiQ /2 pBbi 2b Kmv /B72`2Mi2 H /2H /Q+2Mi2X a2@
;m`K2Mi2 [m2 Hb `xQM2b [m2 H2 /`€ H 2bim/BMi2 pM  i2M2` 2M +QMbB/2`+BƦM
mMb T`2KBbb /B72`2Mi2bX
.2 2bi 7Q`K- 2M H;mMb +QMi2tiQb- +QKQ 2H /2 H Ki2K€iB+ Q 2H /2 H
Dm`BbT`m/2M+B- 2b M2+2b`BQ i2M2` Kmv +H`b Hb `2;Hb [m2 /2}M2M H pHB/@
+BƦM /2 `;mK2MiQbX 1bQ b2 +QMbB;m2 7Q`KHBxM/Q H KM2` +QKQ b2 pHB/M HQb
`;mK2MiQbX

RXk GƦ;B+ S`QTQbB+BQMH

1M Ki2K€iB+b M2+2bBiKQb miBHBx` mM H2M;mD2 [m2 MQ i2M; Hb K#B;Ƀ2/@
/2b /2H H2M;mD2 +QiB/BMQ- 2M 2H b2MiB/Q /2 [m2 iQ/Q THMi2KB2MiQ Tm2/ b2`
BMi2`T`2i/Q /2 H KBbK KM2` TQ` iQ/Qb HQb mbm`BQbX 1M 2bi2 b2MiB/Q- KM2@
D`2KQb 2MmM+B/Qb [m2 bƦHQ Tm2/2M iQK` /Qb pHQ`2b, o2`//2`Q Ʀ 6HbQX 1biQb
2MmM+B/Qb bQM HHK/Qb T`QTQbB+BQM2bX
GƦ;B+ S`QTQbB+BQMH 8

RXkXR .2}MB+BƦMX US`QTQbB+BƦMV

lM T`QTQbB+BƦM 2b mM 2MmM+B/Q /2+H`iBpQ [m2- 2tT`2b/Q 2M mM +QMi2tiQ
T`iB+mH`- Tm2/2 b2` +HB}+/Q +QKQ 7HbQ Q p2`//2`QX

+iBpB// RXkXR,
1tKBM` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2tT`2bBQM2b /2H H2M;mD2 +QiB/BMQ v +`+i2`Bx`
H +Hb2 /2 Q`+BQM2b [m2 `2T`2b2MiM, 2t+HKiBpb- /2+H`iBpb- /2bB/2`@
iBpb U2tT`2bM /2b2QV- BKT2`iBpb U2tT`2bM Ʀ`/2M2bV v /2i2`KBM +m€H2b
bQM T`QTQbB+BQM2b,

RX G +TBiH /2 *QHQK#B 2b *`i;2MX

√
kX 4 = 2X

jX ZmB2`Q b2` Ki2K€iB+QX

9X aB 2x + 5 = 0- 2MiQM+2b x = 0X

8X x + 7 = 0X

eX 11 < 4X

dX ǯHHQp2`€ 2H b€#/Q\X

3X 1M mM ;HtB- /B72`2Mi2 /2 H oő G€+i2- ?v pB/ BMi2HB;2Mi2X

Gb 7`b2b R v k bQM T`QTQbB+BQM2bc H T`BK2` 2b 7Hb v H b2;mM/ 2b p2`//2`X

G 7`b2 i`2b MQ 2b mM T`QTQbB+BƦM TQ`[m2 2bi€ 2tT`2bM/Q mM /2b2Q v MQ iB2M2
b2MiB/Q ?#H` /2 /2b2Qb p2`//2`Qb Q 7HbQbX G 7`b2 d iKTQ+Q 2b T`QTQbB+BƦM
TQ`[m2 2b mM BMi2``Q;+BƦM v MQ iB2M2 b2MiB/Q bB;M`H2 mM pHQ`+BƦMX G 7`b2
e 2b mM T`QTQbB+BƦM 7HbX G 7`b2 3 iK#BûM 2b mM T`QTQbB+BƦM- mM[m2 MQ b2
Tm2/2 /2+B/B` bB 2b 7Hb Q p2`//2`- Tm2b MQ b2 TQb22M HQb 2H2K2MiQb M2+2b`BQb
T` /`H2 bm bB;M+BƦMX G 7`b2 8 MQ 2b mM T`QTQbB+BƦM- T2`Q bB H2 /KQb mM
pHQ`  H p`B#H2 x- b2 pm2Hp2 mM T`QTQbB+BƦMX 1bi2 iBTQ /2 2MmM+B/Qb- [m2
+QMiB2M2M p`B#H2b- b2 +QMQ+2 +QKQ T`QTQbB+BQM2b #B2`ibX A;mH bm+2/2 +QM H
7`b2 eX

RXkXk .2}MB+BƦMX UGƦ;B+ T`QTQbB+BQMHV

G HƦ;B+ T`QTQbB+BQMH 2b mM iBTQ 2bT2+BH /2 HƦ;B+ 2M H +mH 2M HQb `;m@
K2MiQb bƦHQ b2 mbM T`QTQbB+BQM2bX

lM T`QTQbB+BƦM Tm2/2 b2` 2tT`2b/ TQ` /B72`2Mi2b 2MmM+B/Qbc TQ` 2D2KTHQ, dzCm@
HBQ *ûb` 7m2 b2bBM/Q TQ` "`miQǴ v dz"`miQ b2bBMƦ  CmHBQ *ûb`Ǵ 2tT`2bM HQ
e GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

KBbKQX J€b ȹM- mM 2MmM+B/Q Tm2/2 2tT`2b` /B72`2Mi2b T`QTQbB+BQM2b- /2 +m2`@

/Q H +QMi2tiQ /QM/2 b2 T`2b2Mi2c TQ` 2D2KTHQ H 7`b2 dz2bi2 ƢQ 2b #BbB2biQǴ Tm2/2
b2` 7Hb Q p2`//2`- /2T2M/B2M/Q /2H ƢQ 2M [m2 b2 2MmM+B2X 1M Ki2K€iB+b MQ
MQb BMi2`2bM 2bi2 iBTQ /2 T`QTQbB+BQM2b- MB [m2HHb [m2 p`őM /2 +m2`/Q  HQb
+K#BQb /2 Hm;` Q /2 i2KT2`im`X

+iBpB// RXkXk,
RX 6Q`KmH` /Qb 2D2KTHQb /2 2tT`2bBQM2b [m2 /2M +m2Mi /2 mM KBbK
T`QTQbB+BƦMX

kX 6Q`KmH` mM 2MmM+B/Q [m2 2M i`2b +QMi2tiQb /B72`2Mi2b /2 Hm;` 

i`2b T`QTQbB+BQM2b /BbiBMibX

jX MHBx` 2H 2MmM+B/Q, dz_2H J/`B/ 2b 2H K2DQ` 2[mBTQ /2H KmM/QǴX

ǯa2 Tm2/2 +QMbB/2`` +QKQ mM T`QTQbB+BƦM\

9X *QMbB/2`` [m2 2H 2MmM+B/Q, dz2H ûtBiQ /2H T`Q+2bQ /2 Tx 2M *QHQK#B

MQ bƦHQ /2T2M/2 /2 HQb M2;Q+B/Q`2b /2 H ;m2``BHH v 2H ;Q#B2`MQ bBMQ
/2 H 2tBbi2M+B v Tm2bi 2M T`€+iB+ /2 mMb TQHőiB+b /2 DmbiB+B
bQ+BHǴ ǯ2b mM T`QTQbB+BƦM\

*HbB}++BƦM /2 Hb T`QTQbB+BQM2b

1M HƦ;B+ /BbiBM;mBKQb /Qb iBTQb /2 T`QTQbB+BQM2b, bBKTH2b Q iƦKB+b v +QKTm2b@
ib Q KQH2+mH`2bX
Gb T`QTQbB+BQM2b iƦKB+b bQM [m2HHb [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2M  7`b2b bBKTH2bc 2M
H ;`K€iB+ iőTB+ +Q``2bTQM/2  Hb Q`+BQM2b [m2 iB2M2M mM bƦHQ p2`#QX

RXkXj 1D2KTHQX aQM T`QTQbB+BQM2b iƦKB+b,

RX 1H MȹK2`Q /Qb 2b K2MQ` [m2 2H MȹK2`Q i`2bX

kX 1H `őQ LBHQ i`pB2b S`BbX

jX a?F2bT2`2 2b+`B#BƦ *B2M ƢQb /2 bQH2//X

Gb T`QTQbB+BQM2b KQH2+mH`2b b2 +QKTQM2M /2 /Qb Q K€b T`QTQbB+BQM2b bBKTH2b-

HB;/b  i`pûb /2 +QM2+iBpQb HƦ;B+QbX 1M Mm2bi`Q +bQ miBHBx`2KQb HQb bB;mB2Mi2b
+QM2+iBpQb HƦ;B+QbX
GƦ;B+ S`QTQbB+BQMH d

*QM2+iBpQ hBTQ /2 1D2KTHQ

T`QTQbB+BƦM
Ŀ MQ 2b +B2`iQ [m2 ŀ L2;+BƦM *HB MQ 2b H +TBiH /2 *QHQK@
#B
Ŀvŀ *QMDmM+BƦM 1M p2`MQ ?+2 +HQ` v 2M BM@
pB2`MQ HHm2p2
ĿQŀ .BbvmM+BƦM _Q#2`iQ 2bi€ 2M H +b Q 2M 2H
+QH2;BQ
Ŀ bB XXX 2MiQM+2b ŀ *QM/B+BQMH aB ;MQ 2H ƢQ- 2MiQM+2b B`û 
*`i;2M
Ŀ bB v bƦHQ bB ŀ "B+QM/B+BQMH x = 1 bB v bƦHQ bB x + 1 = 2

+iBpB// RXkXj,
RX .2i2`KBM` bB H Q`+BƦM, dz:mbb /2b+`B#BƦ v /2KQbi`Ʀ 2H i2Q`2K
7mM/K2MiH /2 €H;2#`Ǵ 2b mM T`QTQbB+BƦM bBKTH2 Q +QKTm2biX

kX *HbB}+` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTQbB+BQM2b,

V aB HQb i`B€M;mHQb iB2M2M +mi`Q H/Qb- 2MiQM+2b HQb +m/`/Qb

iB2M2M i`2b H/QbX
#V 2 + x = 5- T` x = 4.
+V Kû`B+ 2b mM 2[mBTQ /2H oHH2 /2H *m+ v 2H /2TQ`iBpQ *HB
MQ 2b mM 2[mBTQ /2 *HBX
/V lM MȹK2`Q 2b T` bB v bƦHQ bB 2b /BpBbB#H2 TQ` /QbX
2V "Q;Qi€ 2b H +TBiH /2 *QHQK#B Q 2b H +TBiH /2 1bTƢX

1H H2M;mD2 bBK#ƦHB+Q
1M H HƦ;B+ T`QTQbB+BQMH- Hb T`QTQbB+BQM2b b2 bBK#QHBxM TQ` K2/BQ /2 H2i`b /2
+mH[mB2` H7#2iQ- v b2M KBMȹb+mHb Q Kvȹb+mHbX Gb T`QTQbB+BQM2b bBKTH2b
b2 HHKM T`QTQbB+BQM2b iƦKB+bX

aBMitBb /2 H HƦ;B+ T`QTQbB+BQMH

1H H2M;mD2 /2 H HƦ;B+ T`QTQbB+BQMH 2bi€ +QM7Q`K/Q TQ` p`BQb bőK#QHQb- H;m@
MQb /2 HQb +mH2b T`2+2M  +QMiBMm+BƦM,
3 GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

aőK#QHQX LQK#`2X P#b2`p+BQM2bX

( S`ûMi2bBb Bx[mB2`/QX
) S`ûMi2bBb /2`2+?QX
∼ L2;+BƦMX 1bTƢQH, MQX
∨ .BbvmM+BƦMX 1bTƢQH, QX
∧ *QMDmM+BƦMX 1bTƢQH, vX
−→ *QM/B+BQMHX 1bTƢQH, bBXXX - 2MiQM+2bX
←→ "B+QM/B+BQMHX 1bTƢQH, bB v bƦHQ bBX
p, q, . . . aőK#QHQb T`QTQbB+BQMH2bX

RXkX9 .2}MB+BƦMX USH#`V

lM TH#` /2H H2M;mD2 /2 H HƦ;B+ T`QTQbB+BQMH 2b mM bm+2bBƦM +mH@
[mB2` /2 H2i`b T`QTQbB+BQMH2b- bőK#QHQb HƦ;B+Qb v /2 TmMim+BƦMX

6Ʀ`KmH #B2M 7Q`K/, 7#7

RX Gb 7Ʀ`KmHb iƦKB+b bQM 7Ʀ`KHb #B2M 7Q`K/bX
kX aB P 2b mM 7#7- iK#BûM HQ 2b ∼ (P ) X
jX aB P v Q bQM 7#7- 2MiQM+2b iK#BûM HQ bQM
(P ) ∧ (Q), (P ) ∨ (Q), (P ) → (Q), (P ) ↔ (Q).

9X hQ/b Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb #B2M 7Q`K/b b2 Q#iB2M2M THB+M/Q R- k v jX

RXkX8 1D2KTHQX Gb bB;mB2Mi2b bQM 7Ʀ`KmHb #B2M 7Q`K/b,

RX (r ∨ (p ∧ q)) → (∼ q → r)X

kX p ∧ (∼ r ∨ q)

lM T`BK2` TbQ T` H 7Q`K+BƦM /2 T2MbKB2MiQ HƦ;B+Q 7Q`KH +QMbBbi2 2M HH2p`

`;mK2MiQb /2 H2M;mD2 `2iƦ`B+Q  H2M;mD2 7Q`KHX

RXkXe 1D2KTHQX aB T`iBKQb /2 Hb bBK#QHBx+BQM2b T` Hb Q`+BQM2b

iƦKB+b,

T, G2QM`/Q .B*T`BQ T`Qi;QMBxƦ 2H hBiMB+X

[, G2QM`/Q . oBM+B TBMiƦ H JQM GBbX

`, "22i?Qp2M +QKTmbQ 2H >BKMQ  H H2;`őX

1MiQM+2b b2 Tm2/2M 2bi#H2+2` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b bBK#QHBx+BQM2bX

GƦ;B+ S`QTQbB+BQMH N

RX aB G2QM`/Q .B*T`BQ T`Qi;QMBxƦ 2H hBiMB+ Q G2QM`/Q / oBM+B

TBMiƦ H JQM HBb- 2MiQM+2b "22i?Qp2M MQ +QKTmbQ 2H >BKMQ  H
H2;`ő,
(p ∨ q) →∼ r.

kX aB G2QM`/Q / oBM+B TBMiƦ H JQM HBb v G2QM`/Q .B*T`BQ T`Qi@

;QMBxƦ 2H hBiMB+- 2MiQM+2b "22i?Qp2M +QKTmbQ 2H >BKMQ  H H2;`ő,

(q ∧ p) → r.

jX aB G2QM`/Q .B*T`BQ T`Qi;QMBxƦ 2H hBiMB+- 2MiQM+2b G2QM`/Q /

oBM+B MQ TBMiƦ H JQM HBb,

p → (∼ q).

9X P "22i?Qp2M MQ +QKTmbQ 2H >BKMQ  H H2;`ő Q G2QM`/Q .B*T`BQ

T`Qi;QMBxƦ 2H hBiMB+,
∼ r  p.

8X aB "22i?Qp2M +QKTmbQ 2H >BKMQ  H H2;`ő- 2MiQM+2b G2QM`/Q /

oBM+B MQ TBMiƦ H JQM HBb v G2QM`/Q .B*T`BQ T`Qi;QMBxƦ 2H
hBiMB+,
r → (∼ q ∧ p).

eX aB G2QM`/Q .B*T`BQ T`Qi;QMBxƦ 2H hBiMB+ v G2QM`/Q / oBM@

+B TBMiƦ H JQM HBb- 2MiQM+2b "22i?Qp2M +QKTmbQ 2H >BKMQ  H
H2;`ő,
(p ∧ q) → r.
Ry GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

+iBpB// RXkX9,
aBK#QHBx` HQb bB;mB2Mi2b `xQMKB2MiQbX

RX aB JMm2H 2b /Q+2Mi2 MQ 2b B;MQ`Mi2X P JMm2H 2b TQbi/Q` Q 2b

B;MQ`Mi2X JMm2H 2b /Q+2Mi2X Gm2;Q JMm2H MQ 2b TQbi/Q`X

kX aB MQ 2b +B2`iQ [m2 Hb 2bi`2HHb 2KBi2M Hmx v [m2 HQb THM2ib H

`2~2DM- 2MiQM+2b ûbiQb MQ ;B`M H`2/2/Q` /2 2HHbX

jX aB 2H ?m`+€M :mbipQ Tb TQ` *m#- HH2;`€  H 6HQ`B/X 1H ?m`+€M

:mbipQ MQ HH2;`€  H 6HQ`B/X P 2H ?m`+€M :mbipQ b2`€ /2 ;`/Q
/Qb Q MQ b2 +QMp2`iB`€ 2M iQ`K2MiX Lm2p P`H2Mb /2bT`2+2`€ bB 2H
?m`+€M :mbipQ MQ Tb TQ` *m#X Lm2p P`H2Mb MQ /2bT`2+2`€ Q
2H ?m`+€M :mbipQ b2 +QMp2`iB`€ 2M iQ`K2MiX SQ` HQ iMiQ 2H ?m`+€M
:mbipQ b2`€ /2 ;`/Q /QbX

a2K€MiB+ /2 H HƦ;B+ T`QTQbB+BQMH

1M Hb Ki2K€iB+b +H€bB+b miBHBxKQb H HƦ;B+ 2bi€M/`- 2M H +mH b2 +QMpB2M2M
/Qb pHQ`2b Hi2`MiBpQbX V - HHK/Q p2`//2`Q- v F - HHK/Q 7HbQX

RXkXd .2}MB+BƦMX Ua2K€MiB+V

1H T`Q+2bQ K2/BMi2 2H +mH  +/ T`QTQbB+BƦM b2 H2 / mM bB;M+BƦM /2
7Hb UF V Q p2`//2` UV V- +QMQ+B2M/Q Hb bB;M+BQM2b //b  Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb
iƦKB+b- b2 /2MQKBM b2K€MiB+ /2 H HƦ;B+ T`QTQbB+BQMHX

 T`iB` /2 H bB;M+BƦM /2 pHQ`2b /2 p2`//- //Qb  HQb bőK#QHQb T`QTQbB+BQ@

MH2b- BM+Q`TQ`KQb mMb `2;Hb T` H M2;+BƦM- H /BbvmM+BƦM- H +QMDmM+BƦM- 2H
+QM/B+BQMH v 2H #B+QM/B+BQMH- [m2 MQb T2`KBi bB;M`H2b mM ȹMB+Q pHQ`  +/
T`QTQbB+BƦMX
.2 +m2`/Q  H /2}MB+BƦM Mi2`BQ`- bB ȹMB+K2Mi2 +QMiKQb +QM mM T`QTQbB@
+BƦM bBKTH2 +QM mM H2i` T`QTQbB+BQMH- bƦHQ ?#`ő /Qb U21 V bB;M+BQM2b, H [m2
H2 bB;M 2H pHQ` o v H [m2 H2 bB;M 2H pHQ` 6X S` T`QTQbB+BQM2b +QKTm2b@
ib [m2 +QMiB2M2M bƦHQ /Qb H2i`b T`QTQbB+BQMH2b 2H MȹK2`Q /2 bB;M+BQM2b b2`€
+mi`Q U22 V- Tm2biQ [m2 mM H2i` Tm2/2 iQK` /Qb pHQ`2b TQ` +/ mMQ /2 HQb
[m2 iQK H Qi`X .2 2bi 7Q`K- bB b2 iB2M2M T`QTQbB+BQM2b +QM i`2b H2i`b T`Q@
TQbB+BQMH2b- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 bB;M+BQM2b b2`€ Q+?Q U23 V- v bő bm+2bBpK2Mi2X 1M
;2M2`H- Hb bB;M+BQM2b b2 T`2b2MiM 2M 7Q`K /2 i#HX *QKTH2i H bB;mB2Mi2
i#H +QM H bB;M+BƦM /2 p2`// T` T`QTQbB+BQM2b +QKTm2bib +QM i`2b H2i`b
T`QTQbB+BQMH2bX
GƦ;B+ S`QTQbB+BQMH RR

p q r

.2bTmûb /2 bB;M` HQb pHQ`2b o v 6  +/ mM /2 Hb H2i`b T`QTQbB+BQMH2b

/2 mM T`QTQbB+BƦM +QKTm2bi- b2 2bi#H2+2 2H pHQ` /2 p2`// /2 H 7Ʀ`KmHX 1biQ
b2 ?+2 iQKM/Q +QKQ `272`2M+B Hb `2;Hb T` H M2;+BƦM- H /BbvmM+BƦM- H
+QMDmM+BƦM- 2H +QM/B+BQMH v 2H #B+QM/B+BQMHX

P#b2`p+BƦM RX 1bib bB;M+BQM2b MQ 2t+Hmv2M +B2`i `#Bi``B2//- Tm2biQ [m2

H HƦ;B+ T`QTQbB+BQMH bƦHQ 2b mM KQ/2HQ T` +B2`iQ iBTQ /2 `;mK2MiQb v MQ
iB2M2 [m2 /` +m2Mi /2 iQ/b Hb BM72`2M+Bb TQbB#H2bc bBM 2K#`;Q- +QMbiBimv2
mM ?2``KB2Mi 7mM/K2MiH 2M H 7Q`KHBx+BƦM /2 Hb Ki2K€iB+bX

S` H pBbmHBx+BƦM /2 Hb `2;Hb #€bB+b b2 miBHBxM Hb i#Hb /2 p2`//X 

+QMiBMm+BƦM T`2b2MiKQb Hb i#Hb #€bB+b,

G M2;+BƦM
aB p 2b p2`//2` 2MiQM+2b ∼ p 2b 7HbX aB p 2b 7Hb- ∼ p 2b p2`//2`X

p ∼p
V F
F V

G +QMDmM+BƦM G /BbvmM+BƦM

p q p∧q p q p∨q
V V V V V V
V F F V F V
F V F F V V
F F F F F F
Rk GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

1H +QM/B+BQMH 1H #B+QM/B+BQMH

p q p −→ q p q p ←→ q
V V V V V V
V F F V F F
F V V F V F
F F V F F V

RXkX3 1D2KTHQX a2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 H2i`b T`QTQbB+BQMH2b, {p, q, r, s}c b2

H bB;M+BƦM p = V - q = F - r = F v s = V. S` Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb,

α = (∼ p −→ r) ∨ (p ∧ s) v β = (q ∧ ∼ s) ←→ p,

i2M2KQb [m2 α = V v β = F X

RXkXN .2}MB+BƦMX U_2+őT`Q+V

 H T`QTQbB+BƦM q −→ p b2 H2 HHK H `2+őT`Q+ /2 H T`QTQbB+BƦM p −→ qX

*QKTH2K2Mi imb +QMQ@ P#b2`p+BƦM kX P#bû`p2b2 [m2 H p2`+B//

+BKB2MiQb bQ#`2 Hb i@ p −→ q MQ ;`MiBx H /2 q −→ pc +QKQ HQ
#Hb /2 p2`// `2pBbM@ Km2bi` 2H bB;mB2Mi2 +bQX
/Q 2H bB;mB2Mi2 pB/2QX
RXkXRy 1D2KTHQX G T`QTQbB+BƦM

x = 3 −→ x2 = 9,

2b p2`//2`- KB2Mi`b [m2 H `2+őT`Q+,

x2 = 9 −→ x = 3, 2b 7Hb TQ`[m2 +mM/Q
x iQK 2H pHQ` /2 −3- (−3)2 = 9 v bBM
2K#`;Q 3 = −3X
?iiTb,ffvQmimX#2f
:8j.n;xbty

RXkXRR .2}MB+BƦMX U*QMi``2+őT`Q+V

 H T`QTQbB+BƦM ∼ q −→ ∼ p b2 H2 HHK H +QMi``2+őT`Q+ /2 H T`QTQbB+BƦM
p −→ qX
GƦ;B+ S`QTQbB+BQMH Rj

RXkXRk 1D2KTHQX G T`QTQbB+BƦM ∼ (x2 = 9) −→∼ (x = 3)- 2[mBpH2Mi2

 x2 = 9 −→ x = 3- 2b H +QMi``2+őT`Q+ /2 H T`BK2` T`QTQbB+BƦM
T`2b2Mi/ 2M 2H 2D2KTHQ Mi2`BQ`X P#bû`p2b2 [m2 2bi T`QTQbB+BƦM iK#BûM
2b p2`//2`X

+iBpB// RXkX8,
.2i2`KBM` 2H pHQ` /2 p2`// /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 T`QTQbB+BƦM,

dzaB H HmM 2b /2 [m2bQ v HQb ;B`bQH2b bQM K`BHHQb- 2MiQM+2b 2H ;m /2H
K` 2b /mH+2ǴX

6Ʀ`KmHb 2bT2+BH2b
hmiQHQ;ő

RXkXRj .2}MB+BƦMX UhmiQHQ;őV

lM 7Ʀ`KmH T`QTQbB+BQMH 2b mM imiQHQ;ő bB 2b p2`//2` T` iQ/b Hb
bB;M+BQM2b /2 p2`// /2 Hb H2i`b T`QTQbB+BQMH2b [m2 H +QKTQM2MX

RXkXR9 1D2KTHQX

RX G /Q#H2 M2;+BƦM, p ←→ ∼ (∼ p),

p ∼p ∼ (∼ p) p ←→ ∼ (∼ p)
V F V V
F V F V

kX G T`QTQbB+BƦM (p −→ q) ←→ (∼ p ∨ qV 2b mM imiQHQ;ő- +QKQ b2

Km2bi` 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 i#H /2 p2`//X

p q ∼p ∼p∨q p −→ q (p −→ q) ←→ (∼ p ∨ q)
V V F V V V
V F F F F V
F V V V V V
F F V V V V

M€HQ;K2Mi2 H T`QTQbB+BƦM ∼ (p −→ q) ←→ (p ∧ ∼ q) 2b mM imiQHQ;őX 1M

2bi2 +bQ /B`2KQb [m2 Hb T`QTQbB+BQM2b ∼ (p −→ q) v (p ∧ ∼ q) bQM HƦ;B+K2Mi2
R9 GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

2[mBpH2Mi2b- T` HQ +mH miBHBxKQb H /2bB;M+BƦM

∼ (p −→ q) ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q).

RXkXR8 .2}MB+BƦMX U1[mBpH2M+B HƦ;B+V

.Qb T`QTQbB+BQM2b- α v β- bQM HƦ;B+K2Mi2 2[mBpH2Mi2b +mM/Q iB2M2M H
KBbK i#H /2 p2`//X .B+?Q /2 Qi` 7Q`K- +mM/Q α ↔ β 2b mM imiQ@
HQ;őX aB α v β bQM HƦ;B+K2Mi2 2[mBpH2Mi2b b2 2b+`B#2

α ≡ β.

RXkXRe 1D2KTHQX  T`iB` /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 i#H /2 p2`// TQ/2KQb /2@

i2`KBM` [m2 Hb T`QTQbB+BQM2b p −→ q v ∼ q −→ ∼ p bQM HƦ;B+K2Mi2
2[mBpH2Mi2bX

p q ∼p ∼q p −→ q ∼ q −→ ∼ p (p −→ q) ←→ (∼ q −→ ∼ p)
V V F F V V V
V F F V F F V
F V V F V V V
F F V V V V V

.2KQbi`` [m2 mM T`QTQbB+BƦM 2b mM imiQHQ;ő  i`pûb /2 Hb i#Hb /2 p2`//
Tm2/2 `2bmHi` #biMi2 /BbT2M/BQbQ- 2bT2+BHK2Mi2 bB b2 iB2M2M Km+?Qb bőK#QHQb
T`QTQbB+BQMH2bX 1M 2H 7QM/Q MQ b2 M2+2bBi /` iQ/b Hb bB;M+BQM2bc #bi +QM
i2M2` 2M +m2Mi +B2`iQb +bQbX SQ` HQ K2MQb T` /2KQbi`` [m2 mM T`QTQbB+BƦM
MQ 2b mM imiQHQ;ő 2b bm}+B2Mi2 KQbi`` mM bB;M+BƦM [m2 H ?; 7HbX

RXkXRd 1D2KTHQX
 
RX G T`QTQbB+BƦM- (p −→ q) ∧ r −→ (q ∧ r) MQ 2b mM imiQHQ;ő
TQ`[m2 T` H bB;M+BƦM p = F - q = F v r = V - 2HH 2b 7HbX

p q r p⇒q (p −→ q) ∧ r q∧r ((p −→ q) ∧ r) −→ (q ∧ r)

F F V V V F F

kX S` KQbi`` [m2 H T`QTQbB+BƦM (p −→ q) −→ (∼ p ∨ qV 2b mM

imiQHQ;ő- bmTQM;KQb [m2 T` mM bB;M+BƦM 2HH 2b 7HbX
.2 +m2`/Q  Hb `2;Hb /2 bB;M+BƦM 2tTm2bib Mi2b- i2M/`őKQb
[m2 (p −→ q) b2`ő p2`//2` v (∼ p ∨ q) 7HbX
(∼ p ∨ q) 2b 7Hb +mM/Q ∼ p 2b 7Hb v q 7Hb- Q b2- +mM/Q p 2b
p2`//2` v q 7HbX S2`Q 2bQ bB;MB}+ [m2 p −→ q b2`ő 7Hbc HQ +mH
GƦ;B+ S`QTQbB+BQMH R8

MQ Tm2/2 /`b2 TQ`[m2 ?#őKQb T`iB/Q /2 [m2 2` p2`//2`X SQ`

HQ iMiQ- MQ ?v bB;M+BQM2b T` H +mH2b H T`QTQbB+BƦM 2b 7Hb-
bBMQ iQ/Q HQ +QMi``BQX 1bQ bB;MB}+ [m2 2b mM imiQHQ;őX

*QMi`/B++BƦM

RXkXR3 .2}MB+BƦMX U*QMi`/B++BƦM v *QMiBM;2M+BV

RX lM 7Ʀ`KmH T`QTQbB+BQMH 2b mM +QMi`/B++BƦM bB 2b 7Hb T` iQ@

/b Hb bB;M+BQM2b /2 p2`// /2 Hb H2i`b T`QTQbB+BQMH2b [m2 H
+QKTQM2MX

kX lM 7Ʀ`KmH T`QTQbB+BQMH 2b mM +QMiBM;2M+B bB 2b 7Hb T` H;mMb

bB;M+BQM2b /2 Hb H2i`b T`QTQbB+BQMH2b v 2b p2`//2` T` Qi`b
bB;M+BQM2bX

RXkXRN 1D2KTHQX aB +QMbB/2`KQb H i#H /2 p2`// /2 H T`QTQbB+BƦM

p ∧ ∼ p i2M2KQb mM +QMi`/B++BƦMX

p ∼p p∧ ∼ p
V F F
F V F

P#b2`p+BƦM jX 1M ;2M2`H 2b BMK2/BiQ p2` [m2 bB mM T`QTQbB+BƦM α 2b mM

imiQHQ;ő- 2MiQM+2b bm M2;+BƦM ∼ α 2b mM +QMi`/B++BƦM Uv pB+2p2`bVX

+iBpB// RXkXe,
RX *HbB}+` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTQbB+BQM2b 2M imiQHQ;őb- +QMi`/B++BQM2b
Q +QMiBM;2M+Bb,

V ∼ (p ∨ q) ←→ (p ∧ q).
#V ∼ (p ∧ q) ←→ (∼ p∧ ∼ q).
+V (∼ p → q) ←→ (∼ p ∨ q).
/V (∼ p ∧ p) ∧ q.
Re GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

k .2KQbi`` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2[mBpH2M+Bb HƦ;B+b,

V ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p U.Q#H2 M2;+BƦMVX
#V ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡∼ p∨ ∼ q UG2v /2 .2 JQ`;MVX
+V ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡∼ p∧ ∼ q UG2v /2 .2 JQ`;MVX
/V p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p UG2v +QMKmiiBpVX
2V p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p UG2v +QMKmiiBpVX

jX JQbi`` [m2 H T`QTQbB+BƦM (p ∨ q → r) ∧ (p∨ ∼ s) ∧ s → r 2b mM

imiQHQ;őX

9X 1M+QMi`` Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb α v β T` [m2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2[mBpH2M+Bb b2

+mKTHM,

V ∼ α ∨ β ≡ α → β.
#V α ∨ β ≡ α ∧ β.
_xQMKB2MiQb Rd

RXj _xQMKB2MiQb

RXjXR .2}MB+BƦMX U_xQMKB2MiQV

lM `xQMKB2MiQ 2bi€ //Q TQ` mM +/2M /2 T`QTQbB+BQM2b P1 - P2 -XXX- Pn
UT`2KBbbV- v C U+QM+HmbBƦMVX :2M2`HK2Mi2- mM `xQMKB2MiQ b2 T`2b2Mi
2b+`B#B2M/Q /2 KM2` ?Q`BxQMiH Hb T`2KBbb 2 B/2MiB}+M/Q H +QM+Hm@
bBƦMX,

P1 -
P2 -
XX
X
Pn -
C-

RXjXk 1D2KTHQX 1H bB;mB2Mi2 2b[m2K 2b mM `xQMKB2MiQ,

p −→ q
∼p
q
∼ qX

1bi2 `xQMKB2MiQ +QMbi /2 i`2b T`2KBbb, p −→ q- ∼ p- qc H

+QM+HmbBƦM 2b, ∼ qX

RXjXj .2}MB+BƦMX U_xQMKB2MiQ o€HB/QV

.2+BKQb [m2 2H `xQMKB2MiQ

P1 , P2 , ..., Pn , C
2b p€HB/Q U+Q``2+iQV bB H BKTHB++BƦM- P1 ∧ P2 ∧ . . . ∧ Pn −→ C 2b mM
imiQHQ;őX 1M +bQ +QMi``BQ b2 /B+2 [m2 2H `xQMKB2MiQ MQ 2b p€HB/Q
UBM+Q``2+iQVX

:2M2`HK2Mi2- mM `xQMKB2MiQ b2 T`2b2Mi 2b+`B#B2M/Q /2 KM2` ?Q`BxQMiH

Hb T`2KBbb 2 B/2MiB}+M/Q H +QM+HmbBƦMX

RXjX9 1D2KTHQX 1H `xQMKB2MiQ

R3 GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

p −→ q-
p-
q-

+QMbi /2 /Qb T`2KBbb, Hb T`QTQbB+BQM2b p −→ q v H T`QTQbB+BƦM


pc H
+QM+HmbBƦM 2b qX 1b mM `xQMKB2MiQ p€HB/Q Tm2biQ [m2 (p −→ q)∧p −→ q
2b mM imiQHQ;őX a2 /2MQKBM JQ/mb TQM2M/Q TQM2MbX

RXjX8 1D2KTHQX 1H `xQMKB2MiQ

p −→ r-
∼ p-
∼ r-
 
MQ 2b p€HB/Q- Tm2biQ [m2 (p −→ r)∧ ∼ p −→ ∼ r MQ 2b mM imiQHQ;őX 
2bi2 `xQMKB2MiQ b2 H2 HHK 7H+B TQ` M2;+BƦM /2H Mi2+2/2Mi2

_2;Hb /2 BM72`2M+B
S` 272+iQb /2 pHB/` `xQMKB2MiQb- 2b T2`iBM2Mi2 }D` mMb `2;Hb /2 BM72`2M+B-
Hb +mH2b b2 iQKM +QKQ TmMiQ /2 T`iB/ T` /2KQbi`` Ʀ `27mi` H pHB/2x /2
+mH[mB2` `xQMKB2MiQX  +QMiBMm+BƦM b2 2MmM+BM Hb K€b miBHBx/b,

JQ/mb SQM2M/Q SQM2Mb USSV JQ/mb hQHH2M/Q hQHH2Mb UhhV

p −→ q- p −→ q-
p- ∼ q-
qX ∼ pX
_xQMKB2MiQb RN

.Q#H2 L2;+BƦM U.LV G2v /2 /DmM+BƦM UV

∼ (∼ p)- p-
pX p ∨ qX

JQ/mb hQHH2M/Q SQ@ aBKTHB}++BƦM UaV aBHQ;BbKQ >B@

M2Mb UhSV TQiûiB+Q Ua>V

p ∨ q- p ∨ q- p −→ q-
∼ p- ∼ q- p ∧ q- p ∧ q- q −→ r-
qX pX pX qX p −→ rX

G2v2b /2 .2 JQ`;M G2v2b *QMKmiiBpb

∼ (p ∧ q)- ∼ (p ∨ q)- p ∧ q- p ∨ q-
∼ p ∨ ∼ qX ∼ p ∧ ∼ qX q ∧ pX q ∨ pX

G2v /2 *QMDmM+BƦM U*V aBKTHB}++BƦM .BbvmMiBp

Ua.V

p- q-
q- p- p ∨ p-
p ∧ qX q ∧ pX pX

RXjXe 1D2KTHQX .2KQbi`` H pHB/2x /2H bB;mB2Mi2 `xQMKB2MiQ,

S2/`Q 2bim/B Ki2K€iB+b Q BM;2MB2`őX

S2/`Q MQ 2bim/B Ki2K€iB+bX
aB S2/`Q 2bim/B BM;2MB2`ő- [mB2`2 Hb Ki2K€iB+bX
S2/`Q [mB2`2 Hb Ki2K€iB+bX

1H T`BK2` TbQ 2b bBK#QHBx` Hb T`QTQbB+BQM2b iƦKB+b,

p : S2/`Q 2bim/B Ki2K€iB+bX

q : S2/`Q 2bim/B BM;2MB2`őX

s : S2/`Q [mB2`2 Hb Ki2K€iB+bX

bő 2H `xQMKB2MiQ [m2/`€,

ky GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

p ∨ q-
∼ p-
q −→ s-
sX
?Q` B/2MiB}[m2KQb Hb T`2KBbb v H +QM+HmbBƦMc mb`2KQb Hb #`2pB@
+BQM2b Pi - i = 1, 2, 3 T` Hb T`2KBbb v C T` H +QM+HmbBƦMX

P1 : p ∨ q-
P2 : ∼ p-
P3 : q −→ s-
C : sX
lM KM2` /2 pHB/` 2bi2 `2bmHi/Q 2b /2KQbi`` [m2 7Ʀ`KmH
 
(p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p) ∧ (q −→ s) −→ s,

2b mM imiQHQ;őX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2bi2 T`Q+2bQ `2bmHi- +QKQ v b2 ? b2@

ƢH/Q- mM TQ+Q #bi`mbQ- /2#B/Q  [m2 /2#2KQb KM2D` i`2b p`B#H2b
v +QK#BM` pHQ`+BQM2bX 1M 2bi2 +bQ pKQb  pHB/` 2H `xQMKB2MiQ-
/2b+QKTQMB2M/Q 2M TbQb bBKTH2b H BM72`2M+B- T` /2bTmûb mMB`HQbX
SbQ RX

P1 : p ∨ q-
P2 : ∼ p-
C1 : qX
_2bmHi/Q [m2 b2 Q#iB2M2 THB+M/Q H `2;H j UiTVX

SbQ kX

C1 : q-
P3 : q −→ s-
C : sX

1H +mH b2 Q#iB2M2 THB+M/Q H `2;H R UTTVX

1M ;2M2`H- +/ TbQ MQ b2 ?+2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2 bBMQ [m2 b2 T`2b2Mi BMi2@
;`/Q- 2b+`B#B2M/Q H H/Q H 2tTHB++BƦM T2`iBM2Mi2,

P1 : p ∨ q-
P2 : ∼ p-
P3 : q −→ s-
P4 : q- iT P1 - P2 -
C : s- TT P3 - P4 X
_xQMKB2MiQb kR

RXjXd 1D2KTHQX G2 +QM +mB//Q 2H bB;mB2Mi2 `xQMKB2MiQX 1H Q#D2iBpQ

2b KQbi`` [m2 H +QM+HmbBƦM 2b +QMb2+m2M+B HƦ;B+ /2 Hb T`2KBbb USVX
THB[m2 H;mMb /2 Hb `2;Hb /2 BM72`2M+BbX

aB CmM iB2M2 17 ƢQb- 2MiQM+2b CmM iB2M2 H KBbK 2// /2 J`őX

aB *`HQb MQ iB2M2 H KBbK 2// /2 CmM- 2MiQM+2b *`HQb iB2M2 2//
/B72`2Mi2 /2 H /2 J`őX CmM iB2M2 17 ƢQb v *`HQb iB2M2 H KBbK
2// [m2 J`őX SQ` HQ iMiQ- *`HQb iB2M2 H KBbK 2// [m2 CmM
v CmM iB2M2 H KBbK 2// [m2 J`őX

aBK#QHBxM/Q +QMp2MB2Mi2K2Mi2 Q#i2M2KQb,

p, CmM iB2M2 Rd ƢQb
q, CmM iB2M2 H KBbK 2// /2 J`BX
r, *`HQb iB2M2 H KBbK 2// /2 CmMX
s, *`HQb iB2M2 H KBbK 2// /2 J`BX

1H `xQMKB2MiQ b2 pHB/ bő,

P1 : p −→ q- S`2KBbX
P2 : ∼ r −→ ∼ s- S`2KBbX
P3 : p ∧ s- S`2KBbX
P4 : p-  P3 X
P5 : q- TT P4 v P1 X
P6 : s- b P3 X
P7 : r- ii P2 v P6 X
C : r ∧ q- + P7 v P5 X

*QKQ b2 Tm2/2 Q#b2`p`- ?2KQb HH2;/Q  H +QM+HmbBƦM [m2 [m2`őKQbX

kk GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

+iBpB// RXjXR,
RX 1M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 `xQMKB2MiQ /2KQbi`` [m2 H +QM+HmbBƦM 2b +QMb2@
+m2M+B HƦ;B+ /2 Hb T`2KBbb //bX
ǴaB CQbû 2b K€b HiQ [m2 S2/`Q- 2MiQM+2b J`ő 2b K€b #D [m2
CmMX J`ő MQ 2b K€b #D [m2 CmMX aB CQbû v GmBb iB2M2M H
KBbK 2biim` 2MiQM+2b CQbû 2b K€b HiQ [m2 S2/`QX SQ` HQ iMiQ
CQbû v GmBb MQ iB2M2M H KBbK 2biim`ǴX

kX 1M HQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2D2`+B+BQb Hb T`2KBbb 2bi€M //b 2M 7Q`K bBK@

#ƦHB+X .û mM /2/m++BƦM +QKTH2i /2 H T`QTQbB+BƦM [m2 b2 [mB2`2
/2KQbi``X

P1 : q- P1 : ∼ s −→ (t −→ u)-
P2 : q −→ ∼ s- P2 : s ∨ (∼ r ∨ t)-
#V
V P3 : ∼ s −→ t- P3 : ∼ sX
P4 : ∼ t ∨ pX C : ∼ r∨u
C : p∧q

RX9 S`2/B+/Qb
*QMbB/2` HQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2MmM+B/Qb,

x + 5 = 12, y 2b ?mKMQ-

x 2b KKő72`Q- x + y < 4.

LQi [m2 2M 2biQb +bQb b2 BMpQHm+`M p`B#H2b v TQ` 2bi2 KQiBpQ- MQ H2b TQ/2KQb
/` mM bB;M+BƦM /2 p2`//2`Q Q 7HbQX 1bi2 iBTQ /2 2MmM+B/Qb b2 /2MQKBMM
T`2/B+/QbX

RX9XR .2}MB+BƦMX US`2/B+/QV

lM T`2/B+/Q 2b mM 2MmM+B/Q [m2 +QMiB2M2 p`B#H2b `2H+BQM/bX

S` bBK#QHBx` mM T`2/B+/Q- mb`2KQb mM H2i` v 2Mi`2 T`ûMi2bBb 2b+`B#BKQb

Hb p`B#H2b +QMbB/2`/bX S` 2H +bQ /2 HQb 2MmM+B/Qb Mi2`BQ`2b TQ/2KQb
2b+`B#B`,

P (x) : x + 5 = 12, S(y) : y 2b ?mKMQ-

Q(x) : x 2b KKő72`Q- R(x, y) : x + y < 4.

S`2/B+/Qb kj

GQb T`2/B+/Qb 2M bő KBbKQb MQ bQM T`QTQbB+BQM2b- T2`Q b2 +QMpB2`i2M 2M T`Q@

TQbB+BQM2b +mM/Q H2b bB;MKQb pHQ`2b T`iB+mH`2b  Hb p`B#H2b Q TQ` K2/BQ
/2 +mMiB}+/Q`2bX
P#b2`p+BƦM 9X Gb p`B#H2b /2 HQb T`2/B+/Qb T2`i2M2+2M  mMBp2`bQb [m2 b2
/2#2M 2bT2+B}+`X 1M HƦ;B+ +H€bB+ b2 miBHBxM /Qb +mMiB}+/Q`2b,
RX 1H +mMiB}+/Q` mMBp2`bH, ∀, [m2 bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM dzT` iQ/QǴX
kX 1H +mMiB}+/Q` 2tBbi2M+BH, ∃, [m2 bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM dz2tBbi2 H K2MQb
mMǴ Q dzT` H;ȹMǴ

RX9Xk 1D2KTHQX

RX amTQM;KQb 2H mMBp2`bQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b v 2H T`2/B+/Q-

P (x) : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`BKQX

G 2tT`2bBƦM ∀x P (x) bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM, dziQ/Qb HQb MȹK2`Qb bQM

T`BKQbǴX

kX a2M HQb bB;mB2Mi2b T`2/B+/Qb- /2}MB/Qb 2M 2H mMBp2`bQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb

Mim`H2b,

P (x) : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`X

Q(x) : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q BKT`X
R(x) : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`BKQX

V P (123) bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM dzRkj 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`Ǵ- H +mH

2b 7HbX
#V Q(35) bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM dzj8 2b mM MȹK2`Q BKT`Ǵ- H +mH
2b p2`//2`X
+V ∀x (P (x) ∨ Q(x)) bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM dziQ/Q MȹK2`Q 2b T` Q
BKT`Ǵ
/V ∃x (P (x) ∧ R(x)) bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM dz2tBbi2 mM MȹK2`Q [m2
2b T` v T`BKQǴ
2V ∀x (Q(x) → R(x)) bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM dzbB mM MȹK2`Q 2b BK@
T`- 2MiQM+2b 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`BKQǴX

jX hQKM/Q +QKQ mMBp2`bQ HQb b2`2b ?mKMQb- /2}MBKQb 2H T`2/B+/Q,

P (x, y) : x 2b 2H T/`2 /2 y; 2MiQM+2b-

V ∀y ∃x P (x, y) bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM dziQ/Q b2` ?mKMQ iB2M2 mM

T/`2Ǵ
k9 GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

#V ∃x ∀y P (x, y) bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM dz2tBbi2 H;mB2M [m2 2b T/`2

/2 iQ/Qb HQb b2`2b ?mKMQbǴX
+V P (*`HQb- GmBb) ∧ P (GmBb- CmM) bBK#QHBx H 2tT`2bBƦM dz*`HQb
2b 2H #m2HQ /2 CmMǴX

1M 2H 2D2KTHQ MȹK2`Q j- TQ/2KQb MQi` [m2 2M ;2M2`H- mM +mMiB}+/Q` mMBp2`@

bH MQ b2 Tm2/2 +QMKmi` +QM mM +mMiB}+/Q` 2tBbi2M+BHX 1b /2+B`- H 7Q`KmH
(∀y)(∃x)P (x, y) MQ bB2KT`2 iB2M2 2H KBbKQ bB;MB}+/Q [m2 (∃x)(∀y)P (x, y)X

RX9Xj .2}MB+BƦMX UL2;+BƦM /2 HQb +mMiB}+/Q`2bV

a2 P (x) mM T`2/B+/Q- 2MiQM+2b b2 /2}M2,

RX ∼ (∀x P (x)) ≡ ∃x (∼ P (x)) .

kX ∼ (∃x P (x)) ≡ ∀x (∼ P (x)) .

1H bőK#QHQ ≡ BM/B+ [m2 Hb /Qb 7Ʀ`KmHb +QM 2[mBpH2Mi2bX

RX9X9 1D2KTHQX

RX G M2;+BƦM /2 H T`QTQbB+BƦM dziQ/Q MȹK2`Q T`BKQ 2b BKT`Ǵ 2b H

T`QTQbB+BƦM dz2tBbi2 mM MȹK2`Q T`BKQ [m2 MQ 2b BKT`ǴX

kX ∼ ∀x(x + 1 = 5) ≡ ∃x ∼ (x + 1 = 5) ≡ ∃x(x + 1 = 5).

jX ∼ ∀x ∃y (x + y = 0) ≡ ∃x ∀y(x + y = 0)

RX8 JûiQ/Qb /2 /2KQbi`+BƦM

GQb Q`ő;2M2b /2 H HƦ;B+ b2 `2KQMiM  H MiB;Ƀ2// ;`B2;X `BbiƦi2H2b +QMbB@
/2`# H HƦ;B+ +QKQ mM T`QT2/ûmiB+ /2 H +B2M+Bc 2biQ 2b- mM /Bb+BTHBM [m2
/2#ő +mHiBp` 2H }HƦbQ7Q- 2H bi`ƦMQKQ v 2M 2bT2+BH- 2H Ki2K€iB+QX GQb T`BM+B@
TBQb HƦ;B+Qb +QMbiBimv2M H #b2 /2 mM /2KQbi`+BƦM Ki2K€iB+X  i`pûb /2 H
HƦ;B+ b2 #mb+ [m2 Hb /2KQbi`+BQM2b 2biûM HB#`2b /2 BM+Q?2`2M+Bb v bm#D2iBpB@
//2bX GQb T`Q+2bQb /2KQbi`iBpQb 2M Ki2K€iB+b MQ Tm2/2M /2T2M/2` /2H ;mbiQ
Q /2 b2MiBKB2MiQb BMi2`BQ`2bc b2 i`i /2 [m2 HQb `;mK2MiQb [m2 mbKQb T`
/2KQbi`` Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb Q#D2iQb Ki2K€iB+Qb i2M;M pHB/2x Tȹ#HB+X
GQb Q#D2iQb Ki2K€iB+Qb ?#BiM mM mMBp2`bQ +QM mMb +`+i2`őbiB+b 2bT2@
+BH2bX aQM 2MiB//2b- +QKQ HQb MȹK2`Qb- Hb 7mM+BQM2b- Hb 2+m+BQM2b- HQb TmMiQb-
Hb `2+ib- 2Mi`2 Qi`Qb- [m2 MQ iB2M2M +QHQ`- QHQ`- MB b#Q`c MQ bm#2M /2 T2bQ MB
bm7`2M /2T`2bBQM2bX aQM 2MiB//2b #bi`+ib  Hb +mH2b MQ i2M2KQb ++2bQ 
i`pûb /2 HQb b2MiB/Qb- bBMQ  i`pûb /2 mM T`Q+2bQ ?BTQiûiB+Q@/2/m+iBpQ- 2H +mH b2
JûiQ/Qb /2 /2KQbi`+BƦM k8

7mM/ 2M 2H KûiQ/Q tBQK€iB+QX lM bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q +QMbi /2 i`2b 2H2K2MiQb

#€bB+Qb,

RX GQb Q#D2iQb Ki2K€iB+Qb, //Qb  i`pûb /2 Hb /2}MB+BQM2b Q /2 KM2`

MQKBMHX

kX H;mMb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb Q#D2iQb [m2 b2 iQKM +QKQ TmMiQb /2 T`iB/,

HQb TQbimH/Qb Q tBQKbX

jX Gb T`QTQbB+BQM2b, HQb i2Q`2Kb- +Q`QH`BQb v H2KbX

GQb Q#D2iQb Ki2K€iB+Qb b2 /2}M2M v b2 `2H+BQMM ;m`/M/Q i`2b ;`M/2b

T`BM+BTBQb,

RX 1H T`BM+BTBQ /2 B/2MiB//

kX S`BM+BTBQ /2 MQ +QMi`/B++BƦM

jX S`BM+BTBQ /2H i2`+2`Q 2t+HmB/QX

J2/BMi2 2H T`BK2`Q b2 Tm2/2M ?+2` bmbiBim+BQM2b v 2[mBpH2M+BbX 1H b2;mM/Q

T`Q?ő#2 [m2 HQb +QMi``BQb b2 /2M H KBbKQ iB2KTQ- KB2Mi`b 2H i2`+2`Q 2t+Hmv2
iû`KBMQb BMi2`K2/BQb 2Mi`2 HQb +QMi``BQbX *QHQ[mBHK2Mi2- 2H i2`+2`Q 2t+HmbQ MQb
/B+2 [m2 mM 2MmM+B/Q bƦHQ Tm2/2 b2` 7HbQ Q p2`//2`QX ǯ*ƦKQ TQ/`ő b2` mM
T`QTQbB+BƦM K2/BQ p2`//2` Q mM i2`+BQ 7Hb\ 1H T`BM+BTBQ /2 MQ +QMi`/B++BƦM
BKTB/2 H T`2b2M+B /2 T`QTQbB+BQM2b [m2 b2M 7Hbb v p2`//2`b  H p2x, P b2
2b Q MQ b2 2bX a2` Q MQ b2`- +QKQ HQ BMKQ`iHBx` a?F2bT2`2X

RX8XR .2}MB+BƦMX UtBQKV

lM tBQK 2b mM T`QTQbB+BƦM 7mM/K2MiH /2 mM bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q [m2
b2 iQK +QKQ p2`//2` bBM /2KQbi`+BƦM H;mMX

S` TQ/2` 2bi#H2+2` T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb Q#D2iQb Ki2K€iB+Qb MQ #bi +QM

HQb tBQKb v Hb /2}MB+BQM2bc 2b M2+2b`BQ 2bi#H2+2` HQb i2Q`2KbX

RX8Xk .2}MB+BƦMX Uh2Q`2KV

lM i2Q`2K Ki2K€iB+Q 2b mM T`QTQbB+BƦM bQ#`2 HQb Q#D2iQb Ki2K€iB+Qb-
H +mH /2#2 b2` /2KQbi`/X

:2M2`HK2Mi2- mM i2Q`2K 2b /2 H 7Q`K,

>BTƦi2bBb 2MiQM+2b h2bBb-

H −→ TX
ke GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

RX8Xj .2}MB+BƦMX U.2KQbi`+BƦMV

lM /2KQbi`+BƦM 2b mM T`Q+2bQ /2/m+iBpQ- 2H +mH iB2M2 +QKQ TmMiQ /2
T`iB/ Hb ?BTƦi2bBb v /2 iH bm2`i2 [m2 mbM/Q Hb /2}MB+BQM2b- HQb TQbim@
H/Qb v HQb i2Q`2Kb T`2pBK2Mi2 /2KQbi`/Qb- b2 +QM+Hmv2 H i2bBbX

1H T`Q+2bQ /2KQbi`iBpQ b2 ?+2  i`pûb /2 H THB++BƦM /2 HQb T`BM+BTBQb HƦ;B+Qb

[m2 ?2KQb 2bi#H2+B/QX 1b[m2K€iB+K2Mi2- mM T`Q+2bQ /2KQbi`iBpQ b2 Tm2/2
bBMi2iBx` /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,

> >BTƦi2bBbX 










 `;mK2Mi+BƦM HƦ;B+X


a2 mbM /2}MB+BQM2b- i2Q`2Kb v




 tBQKbX









h *QM+HmbBƦMX

6B;m` RXRX 1b[m2K /2 mM /2KQbi`+BƦMX

.2 2bi 7Q`K- T` /2KQbi`` mM i2Q`2K- 2b /2+B` mM 2MmM+B/Q /2 H 7Q`K

H −→ T - b2 T`Q+2/2 bő,
RX amTQM2KQb [m2 Hb ?BTƦi2bBb H- b2 +mKTH2Mc 2b /2+B` bQM T`QTQbB+BQM2b
Ki2K€iB+b p2`//2`bX
kX  T`iB` /2 H ?BTƦi2bBb +QMbi`mBKQb mM T`Q+2bQ `;mK2MiiBpQ- 2M 2H +mH
TQ/2KQb miBHBx` Hb /2}MB+BQM2b- HQb tBQKb v i2Q`2Kb v /2KQbi`/Qb-
T` Q#i2M2`- K2/BMi2 H THB++BƦM /2 Hb `2;Hb /2 /2/m++BƦM HƦ;B+- H
pHB/2x /2 T X
jX 1M 2bib BMbiM+Bb +QM+Hmv2 H T`m2# v [m2/ 2bi#H2+B/ H pHB/2x /2
H −→ T X
*QKQ b2 Tm2/2 Q#b2`p`- H KvQ` /B}+mHi/ 2bi`B# 2M 2H ?2+?Q /2 `2+QMQ+2`
HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2H T`i/Q kX aB #B2M MQ ?v `2+2ib K€;B+ [m2 MQb T2`KBiM H
+QM7Q`K+BƦM /2 HQb TbQb bm+2bBpQb T` HH2;` /2 H ?BTƦi2bBb  H i2bBb- ?2KQb
B/2MiB}+/Q H;mMQb KûiQ/Qb- K€b Q K2MQb +MƦMB+Qb- T` ?+2` /2KQbi`+BQM2b-
HQb +mH2b /2b+`B#BKQb  +QMiBMm+BƦMX

.2KQbi`+BƦM /B`2+i
lM /2KQbi`+BƦM /B`2+i /2H i2Q`2K H −→ T +QMbBbi2 2M 2t?B#B` mM `xQM@
KB2MiQ /2 H 7Q`K,
JûiQ/Qb /2 /2KQbi`+BƦM kd

P1 , H-
P2 , H −→ h1 -
P3 , h1 −→ h2 -
XX
X
Pn , hn−1 −→ hn -
Pn+1 , hn −→ T -
C , TX

MHB+2KQb mM TQ+Q 2H 7mM+BQMKB2MiQ /2H KûiQ/QX S`iB2M/Q /2 P1 b2 i`i

/2 2bi#H2+2` P1 - P2 - XXX- Pn - Pn+1 - [m2 2tT`2bM BKTHB++BQM2b v /2KQbi`/bX
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2H `xQMKB2MiQ 2b p€HB/Q Tm2biQ [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH
 
H ∧ (H −→ h1 ) ∧ (h1 −→ h2 ) ∧ . . . (hn−1 −→ hn ) ∧ (hn −→ T ) −→ T,

2b mM imiQHQ;őX 1biQ b2 /2#2  [m2 iMiQ H +QKQ +/ mM /2 Hb T`2KBbb
P1 - P2 - XXX- Pn v Pn+1 bQM T`QTQbB+BQM2b p2`//2`b- 2MiQM+2b TQ/2KQb THB+`
`2Bi2`/K2Mi2 KQ/mb TQM2M/Q TQM2Mb v Q#i2M2` T X

RX8X9 1D2KTHQX lb2KQb 2H KûiQ/Q /B`2+iQ T` /2KQbi`` H T`QTQbB+BƦM,

Ŀ H bmK /2 /Qb MȹK2`Qb T`2b 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`ŀX
1M 2H H2M;mD2 Q`/BM`BQ 2M+QMi`KQb HQb i2tiQb /2 HQb 2MmM+B/Qb iH +Q@
KQ 2bi€ T`2b2Mi/Q 2H 2D2KTHQX 1b M2+2b`BQ- 2M +QMb2+m2M+B- [m2 TQ/KQb
B/2MiB}+` 2M ûH H BKTHB++BƦM BKTHő+Bi +QM bmb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b Mi2+2@
/2Mi2 v +QMb2+m2Mi2c /2 HQ +QMi``BQ MQ b2`ő TQbB#H2 #Q`/` bm /2KQbi`@
+BƦMX 1H 2MmM+B/Q Mi2`BQ` HQ TQ/2KQb T`2b2Mi` bő,

h2Q`2K aB a v b bQM MȹK2`Qb T`2b- 2MiQM+2b a + b 2b mM MȹK2`Q

T`X

.2KQbi`+BƦMX
k3 GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

P1 : a T` v b T`X >BTƦi2bBbX

P2 : bB a T` v b T`- 2MiQM+2b a = 2n .2}MB+BƦM MȹK2`Q T`X

v b = 2k- n, k 2Mi2`QbX

P3 : bB a = 2n v b = 2k- 2MiQM+2b G2v mMB7Q`K2 /2 H bmKX

a + b = 2n + 2kX

P4 : bB a + b = 2n + 2k- 2MiQM+2b a + G2v /Bbi`B#miBp /2H T`Q/m+iQX

b = 2(n + k)X

P5 : bB a+b = 2(n+k)- 2MiQM+2b a+b .2}MB+BƦM /2 MȹK2`Q T`X

2b T`X

C: a + b 2b T`X

JûiQ/Q /2H +QMi```2+őT`Q+Q

amTQM;KQb [m2 b2 [mB2`2 /2KQbi`` 2H i2Q`2K +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2  H −→ T v
[m2 H b2;mB` HQb TbQb /2H KûiQ/Q /B`2+iQ MQ HQ;`KQb HH2;` /2 H ?BTƦi2bBb H
 H +QM+HmbBƦM T X a2 T`Q+2/2 2MiQM+2b  /2KQbi``- TQ` 2H KûiQ/Q /B`2+iQ- bm
+QMi```2+őT`Q+ ∼ T −→ ∼ HX aB HQ;`KQb 2bi2 +QK2iB/Q- ?2KQb /2KQbi`@
/Q H −→ T X 1biQ b2 /2#2  [m2 H −→ T v ∼ T −→ ∼ H bQM HƦ;B+K2Mi2
2[mBpH2Mi2b- Tm2biQ [m2 (H −→ T ) ←→ (∼ T −→ ∼ H) 2b mM imiQHQ;őX

RX8X8 1D2KTHQX .2KQbi`` 2H bB;mB2Mi2 i2Q`2K,

h2Q`2K aB a2 2b BKT` 2MiQM+2b a 2b BKT`X

.2KQbi`+BƦMX 1KTH2M/Q 2H KûiQ/Q /B`2+iQ b2 iB2M2,

P1 : a2 2b BKT`X >BTƦi2bBbX

P2 : bB a2 BKT`- 2MiQM+2b a2 = 2k+1- .2}MB+BƦM MȹK2`Q BKT`X

k 2Mi2`QX

P3 : bB √a2 = 2k + 1- 2MiQM+2b a = hQKM/Q `ő+2b 2M H 2+m+BƦM

± 2k + 1X Mi2`BQ`X
JûiQ/Qb /2 /2KQbi`+BƦM kN

aBM 2K#`;Q-
√ MQ TQ/2KQb bB;M`H2 H +`+i2`őbiB+ /2 T` Q BKT` H
MȹK2`Q 2k + 1X H MQ ?#2` HQ;`/Q H +QM+HmbBƦM THB+M/Q Hb T`QTB2@
//2b `2bT2+iBpb- MQb HH2p  BMi2Mi` /2KQbi`` 2H 2MmM+B/Q mbM/Q H
+QMi``2+őT`Q+X 1H 2MmM+B/Q /2H +QMi```2+őT`Q+Q +Q``2bTQM/2 H bB;mB2Mi2
i2Q`2K,

h2Q`2K aB a 2b T`- 2MiQM+2b a2 2b T`X

.2KQbi`+BƦMX

P1 : a 2b T`X >BTƦi2bBbX

P2 : bB a T`X 2MiQM+2b a = 2k, k 2M@ .2}MB+BƦM /2 MȹK2`Q T`X

i2`QX

P3 : bB a = 2k- 2MiQM+2b a2 = (2k)2 X G2v mMB7Q`K2X

P4 : bB a2 = (2k)2 - 2MiQM+2b (2k)2 = G2v bQ+BiBpX

4k 2 = 2(2k 2 )X

P5 : bB (2k)2 = 2(2k 2 )- 2MiQM+2b a2 = G2v i`MbBiBpX

2(2k 2 )X

P6 : bB a2 = 2(2k 2 )- 2MiQM+2b a2 2b .2}MB+BƦM /2 MȹK2`Q T`X

T`X

C: a2 2b T`X

JûiQ/Q /2 /2KQbi`+BƦM TQ` +QMi`/B++BƦM Q `2/m++BƦM

H #bm`/Q
1H KûiQ/Q /2 /2KQbi`+BƦM TQ` `2/m++BƦM H #bm`/Q b2 7mM/K2Mi 2M 2H T`BM@
+BTBQ /2 MQ +QMi`/B++BƦM- T`QTBQ /2 H +iBpB// Ki2K€iB+X 1M iû`KBMQb ;2M2@
`H2b- +QMbBbi2 2M bmTQM2` H M2;+BƦM /2 H T`QTQbB+BƦM [m2 b2 [mB2`2 /2KQbi``
v ;2M2`` mM +QMi`/B++BƦMX 1b[m2K€iB+K2Mi2 2bi2 KûiQ/Q b2 Tm2/2 /2b+`B#B`
/2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,

RX Zm2`2KQb /2KQbi`` 2H i2Q`2K H −→ T X

kX amTQM2KQb [m2 / bm M2;+BƦM, ∼ (H −→ T )

jy GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

jX  T`iB` /2 T`Q+2bQb /2/m+iBpQb BMi2`K2/BQb Q#i2M2KQb mM T`QTQbB+BƦM /2H

iBTQ Q ∧ ∼ Q- [m2 2b mM +QMi`/B++BƦMX

9X *QKQ H i2Q`ő 2b +QMbBbi2Mi2- 2MiQM+2b MQ Tm2/2 /`b2 ∼ (H −→ T )- bBMQ

∼ ∼ (H −→ T ) [m2 2b HƦ;B+K2Mi2 2[mBpH2Mi2  H −→ T - [m2 2b H T`Q@
TQbB+BƦM [m2 [m2`őKQb /2KQbi``X

1H KûiQ/Q /2 `2/m++BƦM H #bm`/Q b2 7mM/K2Mi 2M Hb /Qb bB;mB2Mi2b 2[mBp@

H2M+Bb HƦ;B+b,
∼ (H −→ T ) 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2  H ∧ ∼ T - bBK#ƦHB+K2Mi2,

∼ (H −→ T ) ≡ H ∧ ∼ T.

H −→ T 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2  (H ∧ ∼ T ) −→ (Q ∧ ∼ Q)- bBK#ƦHB+K2Mi2,

H −→ T ≡ (H ∧ ∼ T ) −→ (Q ∧ ∼ Q)

RX8Xe 1D2KTHQX .2KQbi`` miBHBxM/Q 2H KûiQ/Q /2 `2/m++BƦM H #bm`/Q

2H i2Q`2K, Ŀ aB a2 2b T` 2MiQM+2b a 2b T`ŀX

P1 : a2 T` v a BKT`X }`K+BƦM /2 ?BTƦi2bBb v M2;@

+BƦM /2 H i2bBbX

P2 : bB a BKT`- 2MiQM+2b a = 2k + 1- k 2M@ .2}MB+BƦM MȹK2`Q BKT`X

i2`QX

P3 : bB a = 2k + 1- 2MiQM+2b a2 = (2k + 1)2 X G2v mMB7Q`K2X

P4 : bB a2 = (2k + 1)2 - 2MiQM+2b a2 = 4k 2 + S`Q/m+iQX

4k + 1X

P5 : bB a2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1- 2MiQM+2b a2 = G2v /Bbi`B#miBp v H2v +Hmbm`@

2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1- /QM/2 s = 2k 2 + 2k 2b iBp
2Mi2`Q

P6 : bB a2 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1- 2MiQM+2b a2 = ambiBimv2M/QX

2s + 1X

P7 : a2 BKT`X .2}MB+BƦM /2 MȹK2`Q BKT`X

P8 : a2 T` v a2 BKT`X *QMDmM+BƦM U+QMi`/B++BƦMVX

JûiQ/Qb /2 /2KQbi`+BƦM jR

1M +QMb2+m2M+B- a2 T` v a BKT` 2b 7HbQ v TQ` iMiQ bm M2;+BƦM 2b

p2`//2`X a2 +QM+Hmv2 [m2- bB a2 2b T` 2MiQM+2b a 2b T`- 2b p2`//2`X

.2KQbi`+BƦM TQ` /BbvmM+BƦM /2 +bQb

1H bB;mB2Mi2 `xQMKB2MiQ

P1 : p ∨ q-
P2 : p −→ r-
P3 : q −→ r-
C : rX

2b mb/Q 2M i2Q`2Kb +mv ?BTƦi2bBb Tm2/2 T`iB`b2 2M +bQb KmimK2Mi2 2t+Hm@

v2Mi2b- +/ mMQ /2 HQb +mH2b +QM/m+2 B;mHK2Mi2  H +QM+HmbBƦM T`2pBbiX

RX8Xd 1D2KTHQX 1H +m/`/Q /2 iQ/Q 2Mi2`Q- Q 2b mM KmHiBTHQ /2 9 Ʀ

/B72`2Mi2 /2 mM KȹHiBTHQ /2 9 2M RX

x 2Mi2`Q −→ x2 = 4t Ʀ x2 = 4t + 1- T` H;ȹM 2Mi2`Q i

G ?BTƦi2bBb /2 [m2 x 2b 2Mi2`Q /2#2 i`i`b2 2M /Qb b2T`/Qb x 2b T` Q

x 2b BKT` (p ∨ q)X

x 2b T` −→ x = 2m T` H;ȹM 2Mi2`Q m −→ x2 = 4m2 - mM KmHiBTHQ /2

4X
x 2b BKT` −→ x = 2m + 1 T` H;ȹM 2Mi2`Q −→ x2 = 4t + 1 T` mM
2Mi2`Q t- v TQ` HQ iMiQ x2 /B}2`2 2M 1 /2 H;ȹM KmHiBTHQ /2 4.

.2KQbi`+BƦM TQ` +QMi`2D2KTHQ

lbmHK2Mi2 MQb 2M+QMi`KQb +QM 2H /2b2Q /2 /2KQbi`` [m2 mM }`K+BƦM /2
H 7Q`K dzhQ/Q 2H2K2MiQ /2 x [m2 biBb7; H T`QTB2// P biBb7+2 H iK#BûM
H T`QTB2// QǴ 2b p2`//2`- T2`Q Tm2/2 bm+2/2` [m2 mM }`K+BƦM /2 iH iBTQ
b2 7HbX bő- bB b2 /2b2 /2KQbi`` [m2 mM }`K+BƦM 2b 7Hb- iQ/Q HQ [m2
b2 `2[mB2`2 2b 2t?B#B` mM +QMi`2D2KTHQ- 2MiQM+2b bB 2tBbi2 mM 2H2K2MiQ x0 [m2
biBb7+2 H T`QTB2// P v MQ biBb7+2 H T`QTB2// Q- /2+BKQb [m2 iH x0 2b mM
+QMi`D2KTHQ v bő- i2M/`BKQb BM7Q`K+BƦM bm}+B2Mi2 T` /2KQbi`` H 7Hb2//
/2 H }`K+BƦMX
jk GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

RX8X3 1D2KTHQX aB x 2b 2Mi2`Q T`BKQ- 2MiQM+2b x 2b BKT`- 2b mM BKTHB@

++BƦM 7HbX 1M 272+iQ- x = 2 2b mM +QMi`2D2KTHQ v [m2 2 2b mM MȹK2`Q
T`BKQ v 2b T`X

+iBpB// RX8XR,
RX A/2MiB}+` H ?BTƦi2bBb v H i2bBb /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2MmM+B/Qb,

V aB mM i`B€M;mHQ iB2M2 /Qb H/Qb /2bB;mH2b-  KvQ` H/Q b2 QTQM2

2H KvQ` €M;mHQX
#V lM MȹK2`Q 2b /BpBbB#H2 TQ` /Qb bB i2`KBM 2M +2`Q Q +B7` T`X
+V GQb €M;mHQb QTm2biQb TQ` 2H pû`iB+2 bQM B;mH2bX
/V G bmK /2 HQb €M;mHQb BMi2`BQ`2b /2 mM i`B€M;mHQ bmKM R3y
;`/QbX
√
2V 2 2b mM MȹK2`Q B``+BQMHX

kX .2Km2bi`2- mbM/Q 2H KûiQ/Q /B`2+iQ- [m2, Ŀ H bmK /2 i`2b 2Mi2`Qb

+QMb2+miBpQb 2b KȹHiBTHQ /2 i`2bŀX

jX .2Km2bi`2- mbM/Q 2H KûiQ/Q /2H +QMi```2+őT`Q+Q [m2, Ŀ aB 2H T`Q@

/m+iQ /2 /Qb 2Mi2`Qb 2b T`- H K2MQb mMQ /2 2HHQb 2b T`ŀX

RXe LQ+BQM2b 7mM/K2MiH2b /2 +QMDmMiQb

1M 2bi b2++BƦM b2 T`2b2MiM Hb MQ+BQM2b #€bB+b /2 H i2Q`ő /2 +QMDmMiQbX hQ@
/Qb HQb b2`2b ?mKMQb KM2DKQb H B/2 BMimBiBp /2 +QMDmMiQ- Tm2b /p2`iBKQb
ĿKQMiQM2bŀ Q Ŀ ;`mT+BQM2bŀ /2 Q#D2iQb Kmv p`B/Qb- v b2 /2 Q`/2M 2KTő`B@
+Q +QKQ +QKTmi/Q`2b- +``Qb Q KMxMb- Q /2 Q`/2M #bi`+iQ +QKQ MȹK2`Qb-
TmMiQb- HőM2b- `+€M;2H2b Q pKTB`Qb ?mKMQbX
LQ+BQM2b 7mM/K2MiH2b /2 +QMDmMiQb jj

*QKTH2K2Mi imb AMimBiBpK2Mi2 mM +QMDmMiQ 2b mM ;`mT+BƦM

+QMQ+BKB2MiQb bQ@ /2 Q#D2iQb- HQb +mH2b b2 /2MQKBMM 2H2K2MiQb
#`2 H ?BbiQ`B /2 /2H +QMDmMiQX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2bi /2}MB+BƦM 2b
H i2Q`ő /2 +QM@ +B`+mH` TQ`[m2 H TH#` Ŀ;`mT+BƦMŀ 2b mM
DmMiQb- `2pBbM/Q 2H bBMƦMBKQ /2 H TH#` +QMDmMiQX
bB;mB2Mi2 pB/2Q,
G i2Q`ő /2 +QMDmMiQb KQ/2`M 7m2 /2HBM2/
TQ` 2H Ki2K€iB+Q H2KM :2Q`;2 *MiQ`  }@
MH2b /2H bB;HQ sAsX *MiQ` /2}M2 mM +QMDmMiQ
+QKQ mM +QH2++BƦM /2 Q#D2iQb /B72`2M+B/Qb +H@
`K2Mi2 TQ` Mm2bi` BMimB+BƦMX .2#B/Q  [m2 2bi
/2}MB+BƦM HH2p  H;mMb T`/QDb- HQb +QMDmM@
iQb b2 BMi`Q/m+2M  i`pûb /2 i2Q`őb tBQK€iB+bX
1M 2bi2 HB#`Q T`2b2MiKQb HQb tBQKb K€b ;2@
?iiTb,ffvQmimX
M2`H2b- [m2 T2`KBi2M /2b``QHH` mM i2Q`ő bBM
#2f6[At:nFp9F
+2` 2M +QMi`/B++BQM2bX

1M Hb i2Q`őb tBQK€iB+b KQ/2`Mb b2 T`i2 /2 H;mMQb iû`KBMQb BM/2}MB/Qb,

2M Mm2bi`Q +bQ- HQb +QM+2TiQb /2 +QMDmMiQ v 2H2K2MiQX aBKTH2K2Mi2 /B`2KQb [m2
HQb 2H2K2MiQb T2`i2M2+2M  HQb +QMDmMiQb Q [m2 HQb +QMDmMiQb 2bi€M 7Q`K/Qb /2
2H2K2MiQb- bBM /2i2M2`MQb  /Bb+miB` bm Mim`H2xX
amTQM;KQb H 2tBbi2M+B /2 mMQb Q#D2iQb HHK/Q +QMDmMiQb- HQb +mH2b b2
`2T`2b2MiM TQ` Hb H2i`b A, B, C, ..., x, y, z, .... v mM `2H+BƦM /2 T2`i2M2M+B
2Mi`2 2HHQb- /2MQi/ +QKQ ∈ .

RXeXR .2}MB+BƦMX U*QMDmMiQbV

a2 2b+`B#2 x ∈ A 2M HQb +bQb bB;mB2Mi2b, 2H +QMDmMiQ x 2bi€ 2M 2H +QMDmMiQ
A- x T2`i2M2+2  A Ʀ x 2b mM 2H2K2MiQ /2 AX
M€HQ;K2Mi2- b2 2b+`B#2 x ∈/ A 2M +mH[mB2` /2 HQb +bQb bB;mB2Mi2b, x MQ
2bi€ 2M A- x MQ T2`i2M2+2  A Ʀ x MQ 2b mM 2H2K2MiQ /2 AX

6Q`Kb /2 /2bB;M` HQb +QMDmMiQb

Ji2K€iB+K2Mi2 ?#HM/Q- HQb +QMDmMiQb bQM Q#D2iQb #bi`+iQb v i2KTQ`H2bX
LQ TQ/2KQb `272`B`MQb  2HHQb +QKQ  HQb Q#D2iQb 7őbB+Qb v b2 b2ƢH€M/QHQb-
iQ+€M/QHQb Q /2;mbi€M/QHQbX aBM 2K#`;Q- //Q [m2 +QMbiBimv2M H Ki2`B T`BK
/2 Km+?b `Kb /2 Hb Ki2K€iB+b- M2+2bBiKQb ?+2`MQb /2 H;mMb 7Q`Kb
T` MQK#``HQbX >v /Qb KM2`b mbmH2b, TQ` +QKT`2MbBƦM +mM/Q b2 / mM
`2;H [m2 T2`KBi2 /2b+`B#B` bmb 2H2K2MiQbc v TQ` 2ti2MbBƦM +mM/Q b2 HBbiM HQb
2H2K2MiQb /2H +QMDmMiQX GQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 HQb +QMDmMiQb b2 T`2b2MiM 2M+2``/Qb
2Mi`2 HHp2b v b2T`/Qb TQ` +QKbX
j9 GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

RXeXk 1D2KTHQX

RX 1H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b K2MQ`2b [m2 3 b2 Tm2/2 `2T`2@

b2Mi` bő,
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} TQ` 2ti2MbBƦM- Ʀ A = {x ∈ N : x < 8} TQ`
+QKT`2MbBƦMc b2 H22 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb x iH2b [m2 x 2b MȹK2`Q Mim`H
v x 2b K2MQ` [m2 3X

kX 1H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b T`2b 2b /B7ő+BH /2 `2T`2b2Mi`

TQ` 2ti2MbBƦM /2#B/Q  [m2 MQ TQ/2KQb MQK#`` H iQiHB// /2 HQb
2H2K2MiQb /2 mM +QMDmMiQ BM}MBiQX S2`Q TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B` H;mMQb
2H2K2MiQb v- /2 b2` TQbB#H2- /` H `2;H /2 7Q`K+BƦM,

{0, 2, 4, . . . , 2n, . . . }, n ∈ N.

S` `2T`2b2Mi`HQ TQ` +QKT`2MbBƦM b2 +QbimK#`  /` mM `2;H

/2 7Q`K+BƦM, B = {x ∈ N : x 2b T`}X

jX G +QH2++BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b K2MQ`2b [m2 k,

D = {x ∈ R : 2 > x}X *QMDmMiQ [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2 H BMi2`pHQ,
(−∞, 2)X 1M 2bi2 +bQ- 5 ∈
/ D- 0 ∈ D- −45 ∈ D- 2i+X

9X G +QH2++BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Q `2H2b KvQ`2b  −3 v K2MQ`2b Q B;mH2b

[m2 4,
E = {x ∈ R : −3 < x ∧ x ≤ 4} = {x ∈ R : −3 < x ≤ 4} = (−3, 4]X

+iBpB// RXeXR,
1b+`B#2 TQ` 2ti2MbBƦM HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb,

RX 1H +QMDmMiQ /2 MȹK2`Qb T`BKQbX

kX 1H +QMDmMiQ /2 MȹK2`Qb T`BKQb T`2bX

jX 1H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`QbX

9X 1H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b KvQ`2b [m2 R v K2MQ`2b [m2

kX

S`BM+BTBQb #€bB+Qb T` H 7Q`K+BƦM /2 +QMDmMiQb

*QKQ b2 ? 2MmM+B/Q Mi2b-  i`pûb /2 Hb i2Q`őb tBQK€iB+b b2 T`QTQ`+BQ@
M mM bHB/ 7Q`KH H T`Q#H2K /2 `B;Q` 2M Ki2K€iB+bX S` 2H +bQ /2 HQb
+QMDmMiQb H i2Q`ő K€b /B7mM/B/ 7m2 BMbim`/ TQ` HQb Ki2K€iB+Qb 1`M2bi w2`@
LQ+BQM2b 7mM/K2MiH2b /2 +QMDmMiQb j8

K2HQ v #`?K 6`2MF2H- H +mH +Q;2 2H tBQK /2 2H2++BƦMX 1bi tBQK€iB+

b2 /2bB;M +QKQ x7 UtBQK€iB+ /2 w2`K2HQ@6`MF2HV v +QK2MxƦ  /B7mM/B`b2 
T`BM+BTBQb /2H bB;HQ ttX 1M 2bi2 i2tiQ MQb #b`2KQb 2M HQb tBQKb K€b ;2M2`H2b
HQb +mH2b /2b+`B#BKQb  +QMiBMm+BƦMX

tBQK /2 2ti2MbBƦMX hQ/Q 2H2K2MiQ /2 A T2`i2M2+2  B v iQ/Q 2H2@

K2MiQ /2 B T2`i2M2+2  A bB v bQHQ bB A = BX

1M 2bi2 b2MiB/Q, bB A v B bQM 2H KBbKQ +QMDmMiQ- A v B iB2M2M HQb KBbKQb 2H2K2M@

iQbX 1H tBQK /2 2ti2MbBƦM 2bi#H2+2 [m2 mM +QMDmMiQ b2 2M+m2Mi` /2i2`KBM/Q
TQ` bmb 2H2K2MiQbX *QM 2HHQ [m2`2KQb /2+B` [m2 MQ ?v +QMDmMiQb /BbiBMiQb [m2
i2M;M HQb KBbKQb 2H2K2MiQbX J€b +QM+`2iK2Mi2- 2H tBQK /2 2ti2MbBƦM THMi2
[m2 bB A v B iB2M2M HQb KBbKQb 2H2K2MiQb- 2MiQM+2b A = BX

1M 2bi2 b2MiB/Q- HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb bQM B;mH2b,

A = {a, b, c}, B = {a, a, b, c, c} v C = {a, a, b, b, c, c}.
1H T`BM+BTBQ /2 2ti2MbBQMHB// 2tT`2b [m2 HQ [m2 BKTQ`i /2 mM +QMDmMiQ MQ
2b +ƦKQ HQ /2}MBKQb- bBMQ +m€H2b bQM bmb 2H2K2MiQbX

+iBpB// RXeXk,
.2i2`KBM +m€H2b /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb bQM B;mH2bX

A = {x : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`BKQ},

B = {x : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`BKQ 2 BKT`},

C = {x : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`BKQ KvQ` [m2 k}.

G `2H+BƦM /2 BM+HmbBƦM
aB T`iBKQb /2 mM +QMDmMiQ A, TQ/2KQb 7Q`K` Qi`Qb +QMDmMiQb  T`iB` /2 2bi2
+QMDmMiQ /2 +m2`/Q  H bB;mB2Mi2 /2}MB+BƦMX

RXeXj .2}MB+BƦMX Uam#+QMDmMiQV

.B`2KQb [m2 mM +QMDmMiQ B 2b bm#+QMDmMiQ /2 Qi`Q +QMDmMiQ A- bB iQ/Q
2H2K2MiQ /2 B- 2b mM 2H2K2MiQ /2 AX a2 /2MQi B ⊆ AX 1M +QM+HmbBƦM-
B ⊆ A- bB v bƦHQ bB- +/ x ∈ B BKTHB+ x ∈ AX

S` 2H +bQ 2M 2H +mH B ⊆ A- T2`Q B = A- b2 /B+2 [m2 B 2b mM bm#+QMDmMiQ

T`QTBQ /2 A v 2b+`B#B`2KQb B ⊂ A. aB B MQ 2b mM bm#+QMDmMiQ /2 A b2
2b+`B#2, B ⊂ A.
je GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

RXeX9 1D2KTHQX aB A = {a, b, c, d, e, f }- B = {b, c, f } v C = {b, c, h}

2MiQM+2b
B ⊂ A, T2`Q C ⊂ A,
Tm2b h ∈ C v bBM 2K#`;Q h ∈
/ AX

"b€M/QMQb 2M H /2}MB+BƦM /2 bm#+QMDmMiQ b2 Tm2/2M /2KQbi`` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b

T`QTB2//2b 2H2K2MiH2b /2 HQb +QMDmMiQbX

RXeX8 S`QTB2//2b /2 bm#+QMDmMiQbX S` A- B v C +QMDmMiQb,

RX A ⊆ A.

kX aB A ⊆ B v B ⊆ C- 2MiQM+2b A ⊆ CX

jX A = B- bB v bQHQ bB A ⊆ B v B ⊆ AX

tBQK /2 H 2bT2+B}++BƦM Q /2 b2T`+BƦMX aB A 2b mM +QMDmMiQ-

2tBbi2 Qi`Q +QMDmMiQ- +QMi2MB/Q 2M A- [m2 biBb7+2 mM T`QTB2// /2i2`@
KBM/X .2 7Q`K K€b bBKTH2, am#+QMDmMiQb /2 +QMDmMiQb bQM +QMDmMiQbX

liBHBxM/Q 2bi2 tBQK TQ/2KQb 7Q`K` Qi`Qb +QMDmMiQb  T`iB` /2 HQb v 2bi@
#H2+B/QbX 1biQ [mB2`2 /2+B` [m2 bB i2M2KQb mM +QMDmMiQ- TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` Mm2pQb
+QMDmMiQb /2 Hb T`i2b /2H +QMDmMiQ //QX

:2M2`HK2Mi2- H T`QTB2// b2 2bi#H2+2 b2;ȹM 7Q`KmH+BQM2b /2H +€H+mHQ /2

T`2/B+/Qb, S`iB2M/Q /2 mM +QMDmMiQ A /2i2`KBM/Q- b2 Q#iB2M2 Qi`Q +QMDmMiQ
B- 2H +mH 2b mM T`i2 /2 A- v +mvQb 2H2K2MiQb +mKTH2M mM +QM/B+BƦM S(x)X .2
KM2` bBK#ƦHB+,
B = {x ∈ A : S(x)}.

RXeXe 1D2KTHQX a2 2H +QMDmMiQ,

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}X

 T`iB` /2H +QMDmMiQ A- 7Q`KKQb Qi`Q +QMDmMiQ B +mvQb 2H2K2MiQb +mK@
THM H T`QTB2// /2 b2` T`2b,

B = {x ∈ A : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`}.

1M 2bi2 +bQ S(x) +Q``2bTQM/2  H T`QTB2// Ŀb2` T`ŀX 1MiQM+2b-

B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}.

LQ+BQM2b 7mM/K2MiH2b /2 +QMDmMiQb jd

1bi2 T`BM+BTBQ MQb T2`KBi2 7Q`K` +QM i`M[mBHB// Qi`Qb +QMDmMiQb  T`iB` /2 HQb
v 2bi#H2+B/QbX 1M TH#`b bBKTH2b, bB +QMiKQb +QM mM +QMDmMiQ /2i2`KBM/Q-
TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` Mm2pQb +QMDmMiQb /2 HQb bm#+QMDmMiQb /2H +QMDmMiQ //QX

+iBpB// RXeXj,
a2M HQb +QMDmMiQb X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, Y = {1, 2, 4, 6} v Z =
{1, {1}, 3, {3, 6}} . .2i2`KBM +m€H2b /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b }`K+BQM2b bQM p2`@
//2`b v +m€H2b bQM 7Hbb,

RX 1 ∈ X 8X {1} ⊂ Y NX {{1}} ⊂ Z

kX 1 ∈ Y eX {1} ∈ Y RyX {3} ⊂ Z

jX 1 ∈ Z dX {1, 3, 5} ⊂ X RRX {1, 2, 4} ⊂ Y

9X {1} ⊂ X 3X {3, 6} ⊂ Z RkX {1, 3} ⊂ Z

 T2b` /2 MQ 2tBbiB` 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 iQ/Qb HQb +QMDmMiQb- T` 272+iQb T`€+iB+Qb

bB2KT`2 2bi`2KQb BMi2`2b/Qb 2M i`i` +QM +QMDmMiQb /2 mM +B2`iQ iBTQX SQ`
2D2KTHQ- +mM/Q ?#HKQb /2 H `BiKûiB+ 2biKQb BMi2`2b/Qb 2M HQb MȹK2`Qb
2Mi2`Qbc +mM/Q ?+2KQb +QMbB/2`+BQM2b 2bi/őbiB+b MQb HBKBiKQb  mM TQ#H@
+BƦM /2i2`KBM/X 1M ;2M2`H }DKQb mM +QMDmMiQ H [m2 T2`i2M2+2M HQb Q#D2iQb 2M
[m2 2biKQb BMi2`2b/Qb- MQb `272`B`2KQb  2bi2 +QKQ 2H mMBp2`bQ v HQ /2MQiKQb
TQ` XX

1H +QMDmMiQ p+őQ

tBQK /2H +QMDmMiQ p+őQX 1tBbi2 mM +QMDmMiQ 2H +mH MQ +QMiB2M2

2H2K2MiQbX

1H +QMDmMiQ p+őQ 2b-  T`BK2` pBbi- 2ti`ƢQ TQ`[m2 T`2+2 2b+T`  Mm2bi`
BMimB+BƦMc bBM 2K#`;Q- /2b/2 2H TmMiQ /2 pBbi i2Ʀ`B+Q 2b Kmv BKTQ`iMi2 T`
`2T`2b2Mi` +B2`ib bBim+BQM2b v T` TQ/2` /2}MB` H;mMb QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2
+QMDmMiQbX
.2 KM2` bBK#ƦHB+,
∃B ∀x (x ∈
/ B)
1H +QMDmMiQ p+őQ b2 `2T`2b2Mi TQ` 2H bőK#QHQ, ∅X

P#b2`p+BƦM 8X P#b2`p2 [m2 2H +QMDmMiQ p+őQ 2b /B72`2Mi2 /2H +QMDmMiQ +mvQ

ȹMB+Q 2H2K2MiQ 2b p+őQX
j3 GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

RXeXd 1D2KTHQX 1H +QMDmMiQ {x ∈ R : 5 < x ∧ x < 4} = ∅- Tm2biQ [m2

MQ 2tBbi2 MBM;ȹM MȹK2`Q `2H [m2 +mKTH Hb 2tB;2M+Bb `2[m2`B/bX

P#b2`p+BƦM eX lM T`QTB2// BKTQ`iMi2 /2H +QMDmMiQ p+őQ 2b [m2 2b bm#+QM@

DmMiQ /2 +mH[mB2` +QMDmMiQc 2b /2+B`- T` iQ/Q +QMDmMiQ A b2 iB2M2 [m2 ∅ ⊂ AX

+iBpB// RXeX9,
RX ./Qb HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb- 2b+`B# iQ/Qb HQb bm#+QMDmMiQb /2
+/ mMQ /2 2HHQbX

V {1, 2, 3}. +V {t, {u}, {t, u}} .

#V ∅ /V {∅, {∅}}

kX *QMi2bi2 7HbQ Q p2`//2`QX

V X ∈ ∅ +V ∅ ∈ ∅ 2V ∅ ∈ {∅}
#V ∅ ⊂ {a, b, c} /V ∅ ⊂ ∅ 7 V ∅ ⊂ {∅}

RXd PT2`+BQM2b +QM +QMDmMiQb

1M 2bi b2++BƦM pKQb  2bim/B` H +QM7Q`K+BƦM /2 Mm2pQb +QMDmMiQb  T`iB` /2
HQb v /2i2`KBM/QbX 1HHQ b2 +QMbB;m2 +QK#BMM/Q HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 HQb +QMDmMiQb
v 2bi#H2+B/Qb- 2b /2+B`- 2bi#H2+B2M/Q QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 +QMDmMiQbX G i`2b QT2@
`+BQM2b K€b bBKTH2b bQM H mMBƦM- H BMi2`b2++BƦM v H /B72`2M+B [m2 2bim/B`2KQb
 +QMiBMm+BƦMX

G mMBƦM /2 +QMDmMiQb

RXdXR .2}MB+BƦMX UlMBƦMV

G mMBƦM /2 /Qb +QMDmMiQb A v B- /2MQi/ TQ` A ∪ B- b2 /2}M2 +QKQ 2H
+QMDmMiQ 7Q`K/Q TQ` HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 A DmMiQ +QM HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 BX .2
2bi 7Q`K-
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B},
HQ +mH 2[mBpH2  2tT`2b` [m2,

x∈A∪B bB v bƦHQ bB x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B.
PT2`+BQM2b +QM +QMDmMiQb jN

RXdXk 1D2KTHQX

RX a2M A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6} v B = {2, 3, 7, 8, 9}- 2MiQM+2b-

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

kX a2M C = {x ∈ R : −9 < x ≤ −1} v D = {x ∈ R : −7 ≤ x ≤ 1}X

1M iû`KBMQb /2 BMi2`pHQb b2 iB2M2 [m2 C = (−9, −1 ] v D = [−7, 1]c
2MiQM+2b
C ∪ D = (−9, 1].

"b€M/QMQb 2M H /2}MB+BƦM /2 mMBƦM 2Mi`2 +QMDmMiQb b2 Tm2/2M /2KQbi`` Hb

bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b 2H2K2MiH2bX

RXdXj S`QTB2//2b /2 H mMBƦM /2 +QMDmMiQbX S` A v B +QMDmMiQb

b2 iB2M2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b,

RX A/2KTQi2M+B, A ∪ A = AX

kX *QMKmiiBpB//, A ∪ B = B ∪ AX

jX bQ+BiBpB//, (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)X

9X A/2MiB//, A ∪ ∅ = AX Pi`b T`QTB2//2b

V A ⊆ (A ∪ B)X
#V aB A ⊆ B 2MiQM+2b A ∪ B = BX

*QKQ 2D2KTHQ BHmbi`iBpQ- /2KQbi`2KQb k, A∪B = B∪A b2 #b 2M H 2[mBpH2M+B

HƦ;B+ /2 p ∨ q v q ∨ pX .2#2KQb /2KQbi`` [m2 x ∈ A ∪ B bB v bƦHQ bB x ∈ B ∪ AX
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2H 2MmM+B/Q Mi2`BQ` 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2 ,

x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B ←→ x ∈ B ∨ x ∈ A,

GQ +mH /2Km2bi` H T`QTB2//X

9y GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

G BMi2`b2++BƦM /2 +QMDmMiQb

RXdX9 .2}MB+BƦMX UAMi2`b2++BƦMV

G BMi2`b2++BƦM /2 /Qb +QMDmMiQb A v B b2 /2}M2 +QKQ 2H +QMDmMiQ 7Q`K/Q
TQ` HQb 2H2K2MiQb +QKmM2b  A v Bc b2 /2bB;M TQ` A ∩ BX
1M H MQi+BƦM mbmH,

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.

1[mBpH2Mi2K2Mi2,

x ∈ A ∩ B ←→ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B.

RXdX8 1D2KTHQX

RX a2M A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6} v B = {2, 3, 7, 8, 9}- 2MiQM+2b

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9} v A ∩ B = {2, 3}.

kX a2M C = {x ∈ R : −7 < x ≤ 5} v D = {x ∈ R : 2 < x}X

1M iû`KBMQb /2 BMi2`pHQb b2 iB2M2 [m2 C = (−7, 5 ] v D = (2, ∞)-
2MiQM+2b
C ∪ D = (−7, ∞) v C ∩ D = (2, 5 ].

jX aB E = {x ∈ N : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`} v F = {x ∈ N :
x 2b mM MȹK2`Q BKT`}- 2MiQM+2b E ∪ F = N v E ∩ F = ∅X

"b€M/QMQb 2M H /2}MB+BƦM /2 BMi2`b2++BƦM 2Mi`2 +QMDmMiQb b2 Tm2/2M /2KQbi``

Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b 2H2K2MiH2b,

RXdXe S`QTB2//2b /2 H BMi2`b2++BƦM /2 +QMDmMiQb S` A v B

+QMDmMiQb b2 iB2M2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b,

RX A/2KTQi2M+B, A ∩ A = AX

kX *QMKmiiBpB//, A ∩ B = B ∩ AX

jX bQ+BiBpB//, (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)X

9X A/2MiB//, A ∩ ∅ = ∅X
PT2`+BQM2b +QM +QMDmMiQb 9R

G /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 +QMDmMiQb

RXdXd .2}MB+BƦMX U*QMDmMiQ /B72`2M+BV

G /B72`2M+B /2 /Qb +QMDmMiQb A v B b2 /2}M2 +QKQ 2H +QMDmMiQ 7Q`K/Q
TQ` HQb 2H2K2MiQb [m2 T2`i2M2+2M  A v MQ T2`i2M2+2M  Bc b2 /2MQi +QKQ
A − BX
1b /2+B`-
A − B = {x : x ∈ A ∧ x ∈/ B},
HQ +mH 2[mBpH2  2tT`2b` [m2,

x ∈ A − B bB v bƦHQ bB x ∈ A ∧ x ∈
/ B.

RXdX3 1D2KTHQX

RX a2M A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6} v B = {2, 3, 7, 8, 9}- 2MiQM+2b-

A − B = {1, 4, 6}.

kX aB C = {x ∈ R : 2 < x ≤ 6} v D = {x ∈ R : 4 < x}- 2MiQM+2b-

C − D = (2, 4 ].

jX aB E = {x ∈ N : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q T`} v F = {x ∈ N :
x 2b mM MȹK2`Q BKT`}c 2MiQM+2b E − F = EX

.2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2 /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 +QMDmMiQb b2 bB;m2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b

2H2K2MiH2b,

RXdXN S`QTB2//2b /2 H /B72`2M+B /2 +QMDmMiQbX S` A- B v C

+QMDmMiQb b2 iB2M2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b,
RX A − (A − B) = A ∩ BX
kX A − ∅ = AX
jX ∅ − A = ∅X
9X (A − B) − C = A − (B ∪ C)X
S`QTB2//2b .Bbi`B#miBpbX
8X A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)X
eX A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)X
9k GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

dX A − (B ∪ C) = (A − B) ∩ (A − C)X

3X A − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∪ (A − C)X

1H +QMDmMiQ T`i2b /2 mM +QMDmMiQ

tBQK /2 T`i2bX ./Q mM mM +QMDmMiQ  2tBbi2 mM +QMDmMiQ bQ+B/Q

 A- HHK/Q 2H +QMDmMiQ TQi2M+B /2 A Q T`i2b /2 A 7Q`K/Q TQ` iQ/Qb
HQb bm#+QMDmMiQb /2 AX a2 /2MQi TQ` P (A)X

RXdXRy 1D2KTHQX aB A = {x ∈ Z+ : x < 4}- 2H +QMDmMiQ T`i2b /2 A b2`€

P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}

1b TQbB#H2 /2KQbi`` [m2 bB A 2b mM +QMDmMiQ }MBiQ [m2 iB2M2 M 2H2K2MiQb- 2b

/2+B`- bm +`/BMHB// 2b M- 2MiQM+2b H +`/BMHB// /2H +QMDmMiQ P (A) 2b 2n X

*QKTH2K2MiQ

RXdXRR .2}MB+BƦMX U*QKTH2K2MiQV

a2 X mM +QMDmMiQ v A ⊆ XX .2}MBKQb 2H +QKTH2K2MiQ /2 A 2M X +QKQ
2H +QMDmMiQ X − AX 1H +QKTH2K2MiQ /2 A 2M X b2 /2MQi TQ` CX A Q
bBKTH2K2Mi2 A +mM/Q b2 +QMQ+2 +mH 2b 2H +QMDmMiQ XX 1b /2+B`

A = X − A = {x ∈ X : x ∈
/ A}.

RXdXRk 1D2KTHQX

RX a2M X = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A = {0, 2, 3, 5, 7} v B = {1, 3, 8},

2MiQM+2b A = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9} v B  = {0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9}.

kX hQKM/Q +QKQ X 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 MȹK2`Qb `2H2b R- i2M2KQb [m2 T`

A = {x ∈ R : 1 ≥ x}- 2H +QKTH2K2MiQ A = (1, ∞]X

RXdXRj S`QTB2//2b /2 HQb +QKTH2K2MiQb /2 +QMDmMiQbX S` A v B

+QMDmMiQb v X 2H +QMDmMiQ mMBp2`bHX a2 iB2M2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b,
PT2`+BQM2b +QM +QMDmMiQb 9j

RX A ∪ X = XX eX X  = ∅X
kX A ∩ X = AX
dX ∅ = XX
jX A ∪ A = XX
3X (A ∪ B) = A ∩ B  X
9X A ∩ A = ∅X
8X (A ) = AX NX (A ∩ B) = A ∪ B  X

GQbƘ/B;`Kb /2 o2MMƘbQM };m`b mb/b 2M HƘi2Q`ő /2 +QMDmMiQb T` BHmbi``

Km+?b /2 bmb T`QTB2//2bX 6m2`QM miBHBx/b- 2M T`BM+BTBQ- TQ` 2H Ki2K€iB+Q
bmBxQ G2QM`/Q 1mH2` 2M bmb +Hb2b /2 Ki2K€iB+b v Hm2;Q TQTmH`Bx/b TQ`
2H Ki2K€iB+Q #`Bi€MB+Q CQ?M o2MMX :2M2`HK2Mi2 2H +QMDmMiQ mMBp2`bH b2 `2@
T`2b2Mi TQ` mM `2+i€M;mHQ v HQb +QMDmMiQb  i`pûb /2 ƦpHQb 2M bm BMi2`BQ`X 1H
M€HBbBb pBbmH MQb T2`KBi2 /BbiBM;mB` Hb BMi2`b2++BQM2b- mMBQM2b- +QKTH2K2MiQb v
Km+?b `2H+BQM2bX
99 GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

SQ` 2D2KTHQ- bB 2H +ő`+mHQ /2H +QMDmMiQ A T`2+2 /2Mi`Q /2H +ő`+mHQ mM +QMDmMiQ
B, [mB2`2 /2+B` [m2 iQ/Qb HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2H +QMDmMiQ A 2bi€M +QMi2MB/Qb 2M 2H
+QMDmMiQ B.
a2 Tm2/2 BHmbi`` H T`m2# /2 H T`QTB2// k /2 RXe +m/B2M/Q  HQb /B;`Kb
/2 o2MM,

A ⊆ B b2 `2T`2b2Mi TQ` H };m` RXk,

B A

6B;m` RXk

B ⊆ C b2 `2T`2b2Mi TQ` H };m` RXj,

C B

6B;m` RXj

*QK#BMM/Q HQb /Qb /B;`Kb Mi2`BQ`2b Q#i2M2KQb,

C B A

6B;m` RX9

/2H +mH b2 /2/m+2,

C A

6B;m` RX8
PT2`+BQM2b +QM +QMDmMiQb 98

+iBpB// RXdXR,
1b+`B#2 mM `;mK2Mi+BƦM [m2 T`m2#2 HQb 2MmM+B/Qb R v jX AHmbi`2 +QM
/B;`Kb /2 o2MM bm T`m2#X

*QKTH2K2Mi imb +QMQ@ 1H T`Q/m+iQ +`i2bBMQ

+BKB2MiQb /2H mbQ /2 HQb
/B;`Kb /2 o2MM +QM
RXdXR9 .2}MB+BƦMX US` Q`/2M/Q-
2H bB;mB2Mi2 pB/2Q,
T`Q/m+iQ +`i2bBMQV
a2M A v B +QMDmMiQb- a ∈ A v b ∈ BX .2@
}MBKQb 2H T` Q`/2M/Q (a, b) 2Mi2M/B2M/Q
[m2 (a, b) = (c, d) bB v bQHQ bB a = c v b = dX
1H T`Q/m+iQ +`i2bBMQ 2Mi`2 A v B b2 /2@
}M2 +QKQ,

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A v b ∈ B}.
?iiTb,ffvQmimX#2f
6m>E9`PK_[b

RXdXR8 1D2KTHQX aB A = {u, v} v B = {u, v, w}- 2MiQM+2b,

A × B = {(u, u), (u, v), (u, w), (v, u), (v, v), (v, w)}.

"b€M/QMQb 2M H /2}MB+BƦM /2 T`Q/m+iQ +`i2bBMQ 2Mi`2 +QMDmMiQb b2 Tm2/2M

/2KQbi`` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b 2H2K2MiH2b,

RXdXRe S`QTB2//2b /2H T`Q/m+iQ +`i2bBMQX S` A- B v C +QMDmM@

iQb b2 iB2M2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b,

RX A/2MiB//, A × ∅ = ∅ × A = ∅

S`QTB2//2b /Bbi`B#miBpb,

kX A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)

jX A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)

1M +bQb Kmv 2bT2+BH2b 2H T`Q/m+iQ +`i2bBMQ 2b +QMKmiiBpQ- T2`Q 2M ;2M2`H

MQ HQ 2bX S` BHmbi``- /2H 2D2KTHQ Mi2`BQ` i2M2KQb,

A × B = {(u, u), (u, v), (u, w), (v, u), (v, v), (v, w)}.
9e GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

SQ` Qi` T`i2,

B × A = {(u, u), (u, v), (v, u), (v, v), (w, u), (w, v)}.

SQ` HQ iMiQ TQ` 2H tBQK /2 2ti2MbBƦM TQ/2KQb +QM+HmB` [m2 A × B = B × A

Tm2b (v, w) ∈ A × B v (v, w) ∈
/ B × AX

GQ KBbKQ Q+m``2 +QM H bQ+BiBpB//- /QM/2 2M ;2M2`H,

A × (B × C) = (A × B) × C

+iBpB// RXdXk,
RX a2M,
A = {x : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q Mim`H T`},
B = {x : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q Mim`H BKT`},
C = {x : x 2b mM MȹK2`Q Mim`H T`BKQ}.
1M+m2Mi` +/ mMQ /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb,

V A ∪ C /V B − A ;V A × (B ∪ C)
#V A ∩ C 2V A × B
+V A ∪ (B ∩ C) 7V B × A ?V (A × B) ∪ A

kX a2M A = {1, 5, 7}, B = {1, 3, 4, 8} v C = {5, 6, 8, 9}. 1M+m2Mi` +/

mMQ /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb,

V A ∪ C 2V A × B
#V A ∩ C 7V B × A
+V A ∪ (B ∩ C) ;V A × (B ∪ C)
/V B − A ?V (A × B) ∪ (A × C)

*QMDmMiQb +QQ`/BM#H2b- `2H+BQM2b

1M H };m` RX8 T`2+2M `2T`2b2Mi/Qb /Qb +QMDmMiQb +QM+`2iQb, mMQ /2 H2i`b
;`B2;b v Qi`Q /2 };m`b ;2QKûi`B+bX a2 Q#b2`p [m2 +/ H2i` 2bi +QKTƢ/
/2 bm `2bT2+iBp };m`c 2b /2+B`-  +/ H2i` H2 +Q``2bTQM/2 mM };m` Q pB+2@
p2`b-  +/ };m` H2 +Q``2bTQM/2 mM H2i`X a2 /B+2 [m2 2M 2bi2 +bQ 2tBbi2 mM
+Q``2bTQM/2M+B #BmMőpQ+ 2Mi`2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 H2i`b v 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 };m`b- Q
[m2 HQb /Qb +QMDmMiQb bQM +QQ`/BM#H2bX
1M 2H T`BK2` +bQ- i2M2KQb mM +QMDmMiQ /2 H2i`b,

L = {H7- #2i- ;K- /2Hi- ûTbBHQM},

PT2`+BQM2b +QM +QMDmMiQb 9d

α β γ δ 
    
6B;m` RXeX .Qb +QMDmMiQb, mMQ /2 H2i`b ;`B2;b v Qi`Q /2 };m`b ;2QKûi`B+bX

v mM +QMDmMiQ /2 };m`b ;2QKûi`B+b,

F = {+ő`+mHQ- 2bi`2HH- +m/`/Q- +`mx- i`B€M;mHQ},

v b2 2bi#H2+BƦ H +Q``2bTQM/2M+B,

+ő`+mHQ 2bi`2HH +m/`/Q +`mx i`B€M;mHQ

H7 #2i ;K /2Hi ûTbBHQM

h2M2KQb 2MiQM+2b [m2 2H +QMDmMiQ L 2b +QQ`/BM#H2 +QM 2H +QMDmMiQ F X

1M H };m` RXe b2 Q#b2`p B;mHK2Mi2 H T`2b2M+B /2 mM +QMDmMiQ /2 H2i`b

v /2 mM +QMDmMiQ /2 };m`bc bBM 2K#`;Q ?v H2i`b bQHBi`BbX  +/ };m` H2
+Q``2bTQM/2 mM H2i`- T2`Q  +/ H2i` MQ b2 H2 Tm2/2 ?+2` +Q``2bTQM/2` mM
};m`X 1M Qi`b TH#`b- ?v H2i`b [m2 MQ iB2M2M };m`X a2 /B+2 [m2 2M 2bi2
+bQ MQ 2tBbi2 mM +Q``2bTQM/2M+B #BmMőpQ+ 2Mi`2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 Hb H2i`b v 2H
+QMDmMiQ /2 Hb };m`b- Q [m2 HQb /Qb +QMDmMiQb bQM MQ +QQ`/BM#H2bX

α β γ δ 
  
6B;m` RXdX .Qb +QMDmMiQb, mMQ /2 H2i`b ;`B2;b v Qi`Q /2 };m`b ;2QKûi`B+bX

>+B2M/Q H KBbK QT2`+BƦM [m2 2M 2H +bQ Mi2`BQ` b2 i2M/`€ 2H /B;`K,

+ő`+mHQ 2bi`2HH +m/`/Q /2Hi ûTbBHQM

H7 #2i ;K

1M 2bi2 +bQ i2M2KQb [m2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 };m`b `2/m+B/Q

R = { +ő`+mHQ- 2bi`2HH- +m/`/Q },

93 GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

MQ 2b +QQ`/BM#H2 +QM 2H +QMDmMiQ LX

RXdXRd .2}MB+BƦMX U*QMDmMiQb +QQ`/BM#H2bV

.Qb +QMDmMiQb A v B bQM +QQ`/BM#H2b- +mM/Q  +/ 2H2K2MiQ /2H +QMDmMiQ
A H2 +Q``2bTQM/2 mMQ v bƦHQ mM 2H2K2MiQ /2H +QMDmMiQ B- v  +/ 2H2K2MiQ
/2H +QMDmMiQ B H2 +Q``2bTQM/2 mMQ v bƦHQ mM 2H2K2MiQ /2H +QMDmMiQ AX

+iBpB// RXdXj,
1b+`B# mM `;mK2Mi+BƦM +QMpBM+2Mi2 T` /2KQbi`` [m2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b
+QMDmMiQb bQM +QQ`/BM#H2b,

RX GQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b T`2b v HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2bX

kX GQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b T`2b v HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b BKT`2bX

 PT2`+BQM2b +QM +QMDmMiQb 9N

RX3 1D2`+B+BQb /2H +TőimHQ R

1M HQb 2D2`+B+BQb /2H R H R3 `2bTQM/2 ./Qb HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb- 2b+`B@

7HbQ Q p2`//2`Q DmbiB}+M/Q im 2H2+@ #2 HQb bm#+QMDmMiQb /2 +/ mMQ /2
+BƦMX S` HQb 2D2`+B+BQb /2H R H Rj 2HHQb
+QMbB/2` HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb,  
RNX {2, 5}X kRX {a, b}, {a} X
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {{1}, {3, 4}}  
kyX ∅, {1}, 1 X kkX ∅X
C = {{1, 2}, 3, {3}}
liBHBxM/Q Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb +QM@
RX 1 ∈ AX DmMiQb /2Km2bi` [m2,
kX 1 ∈ CX kjX (A ∪ B  ) ∩ B = A ∩ BX
jX {1} ⊂ AX k9X (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B  ) = AX

9X {1} ⊂ BX k8X A ∪ (A ∩ B) = AX

8X {1, 2} ⊂ AX keX A ∩ (A ∪ B) = AX

eX {1, 2} ⊂ CX kdX A − (B − C) = (A − B) ∪ (A ∩ C)X

dX 3 ∈ CX a2M A = {1, 5, 7}, B = {1, 3, 4, 8} v

C = {5, 6, 8, 9} 1M+m2Mi` +/ mMQ
3X {3} ⊂ CX /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb,

NX {3, 4} ∈ AX k3X A ∪ CX

RyX {3, 4} ⊂ BX kNX A ∩ CX

RRX ∅ ⊂ AX jyX A ∪ (B ∩ C)X

jRX B − AX
RkX 2 ∈ CX
jkX A × BX
RjX {1, 2, 3} = CX
jjX B × AX
R9X A ∪ B = A + BX
j9X A × (B ∪ C)X
R8X ∅ ∈ ∅X
j8X (A × B) ∪ (A × C)X
ReX ∅ ⊂ ∅X
 
1b+`B#2 H M2;+BƦM /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b
RdX {2} ∈ 2, {2, 3} X T`QTQbB+BQM2b +mMiB}+/b,

R3X aB A ⊂ B- 2MiQM+2b A ∩ B = AX jeX ∃x ∈ R (x2 + 5x + 4 = 0)X

 8y GƦ;B+ v +QMDmMiQb

√
jdX ∃x ∈ Q (0,3 < x < 0,33)X 9NX 3 2b mM MȹK2`Q `+BQMH Ʀ B``@
+BQMHX
j3X ∀a ∈ R ∀b ∈ R (a + b = b + a)X
8yX 18 2b /BpBbB#H2 TQ` i`2b v TQ` b2BbX
jNX ∀x ∈ C ∃y ∈ C (xy = 1)X
8RX lM +QM/B+BƦM M2+2b`B T` [m2
9yX ∃x ∈ R ∀y ∈ R (x + y = y)X 32 = 10 2b [m2 8 − 3 = 6X

h`/m+2 H H2M;mD2 bBK#ƦHB+Q Hb bB@ 8kX lM +QM/B+BƦM bm}+B2Mi2 T` [m2
;mB2Mi2b T`QTQbB+BQM2b v bmb M2;+BQ@ 2 < 3 2b [m2 2 < 5X
M2b, 8jX lM +QM/B+BƦM M2+2b`B v bm}+B2M@
i2 T` [m2 0,75 b2 mM MȹK2`Q `@
9RX G 2+m+BƦM x2 − x + 1 = 0 iB2M2 +BQMH 2b [m2 b2 Tm2/ 2b+`B#B` +Q@
bQHm+BƦM 2M RX KQ 7`++BƦM 2Mi`2 2Mi2`QbX
9kX hQ/Q MȹK2`Q `+BQMH a = 0 iB2M2 a2M A = {x ∈ N : 2 < x ≤ 8} v
Qi`Q MȹK2`Q `+BQMH b = 0 iH [m2 B = {x ∈ R : x2 − 9 = 0}X 1M+m2Mi`,
ab = 1X
89X A ∪ BX 8eX A − BX
9jX hQ/Q MȹK2`Q 2Mi2`Q n iB2M2 2M Z
Qi`Q MȹK2`Q m iH [m2 m + n = 0X 88X A ∩ BX 8dX B − AX

99X H;ȹM MȹK2`Q 2Mi2`Q MQ 2b T`X .2Km2bi` [m2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmM@
iQb bQM +QQ`/BM#H2b +QM Z v TQ` HQ
98X hQ/Q MȹK2`Q 2Mi2`Q b2 Tm2/2 /2b@
iMiQ [m2 bQM MmK2`#H2bX
+QKTQM2` +QKQ T`Q/m+iQ /2 7+iQ@
`2b T`BKQbX 83X GQb MȹK2`Qb T`2b TQbBiBpQbX

1b+`B#2 H M2;+BƦM- H `2+őT`Q+ v H 8NX GQb MȹK2`Qb BKT`2b TQbBiBpQbX

+QMi``2+őT`Q+ /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b BK@
eyX hQ/Qb HQb 2Mi2`Qb KȹHiBTHQb /2 5X
THB++BQM2b v /B; +m€H /2 Hb T`QTQ@
bB+BQM2b 2b p2`//2`, eRX 1H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb [m2 b2
Q#iB2M2M H 2H2p` 2H −3 bm+2bBp@
9eX aB mM MȹK2`Q 2Mi2`Q 2b T`BKQ- MQ K2Mi2  H T`BK2` TQi2M+B-  H
2b /BpBbB#H2 TQ` 3X b2;mM/ TQi2M+B- 2i+X
9dX ./Qb HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b a v b- bB 1b+`B#2 mM `;mK2Mi+BƦM +QMpBM@
ab = 0 2MiQM+2b a = 0 Ʀ b = 0X +2Mi2 T` /2KQbi`` [m2 HQb +QMDmM@
iQb bB;mB2Mi2b bQM +QMDmMiQb +QQ`/BM@
93X ./Q x MȹK2`Q `2H- bB 0 < x < 1
#H2bX
2MiQM+2b 0 < x2 < xX
ekX GQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b T`2b v HQb
1b+`B#2 2M 7Q`K bBK#ƦHB+ Hb bB@ MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2bX
;mB2Mi2b T`QTQbB+BQM2b- /û bm M2;@
+BƦM v /B; +m€H2b bQM 7Hbb v +m€H2b ejX GQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b T`2b v HQb
p2`//2`b, MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b BKT`2bX
 PT2`+BQM2b +QM +QMDmMiQb 8R

1M HQb 2D2`+B+BQb e9 H ed `2bTQM/2 p2`@ 1M HQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2D2`+B+BQb Hb T`2KB@

//2`Q Q 7HbQ DmbiB}+M/Q im `2bTm2b@ bb 2bi€M //b 2M 7Q`K bBK#ƦHB+X
iX .û mM /2/m++BƦM +QKTH2i /2 H T`Q@
TQbB+BƦM [m2 b2 [mB2`2 /2KQbi``X
e9X 1H 2MmM+B/Q Ŀ aB /Qb `2+ib bQM
T`H2Hb- b2 BMi2`+2TiMŀ 2b mM P1 : ∼ t ∨ r-
T`QTQbB+BƦMX P2 : ∼ s −→ ∼ r-
djX
P3 : tX
e8X 1H 2MmM+B/Q Ŀ x2 + 2 = 0ŀ 2b mM
T`QTQbB+BƦMX C : s

eeX 1H 2MmM+B/Q Ŀ aB x2 = 0- 2MiQM+2b P1 : ∼ r ∧ t-

x = 2ŀ 2b mM T`QTQbB+BƦMX d9X P2 : s −→ rX
C: ∼ s∨ ∼ t
edX 1H 2MmM+B/Q Ŀ PDH€ 2H /2TQ`iBpQ
*HB [m2/2 +KT2ƦM /2H 7ȹi#QH +Q@ P1 : ∼ p-
HQK#BMQŀ- 2b mM T`QTQbB+BƦMX P2 : q ∨ ∼ r-
d8X P3 : q ←→ p-
e3X ǯZmû 2b mM imiQHQ;ő\
P4 : t −→ rX
eNX ǯ*m€M/Q /Qb T`QTQbB+BQM2b bQM C : ∼ t
2[mBpH2Mi2b\
P1 : f −→ ∼ t-
dyX ǯ*m€M/Q /2+BKQb [m2 mM T`QTQ@ P2 : ∼ f −→ (h −→ ∼ g)-
bB+BƦM 2b mM +QMi`/B++BƦM\ P3 : (∼ i ∨ ∼ h) −→ ∼ (∼ t)-
deX
P4 : ∼ i ∨ ∼ d-
dRX .2KQbi`` [m2 H +QM+HmbBƦM 2b
P5 : d ∧ hX
+QMb2+m2M+B HƦ;B+ /2 Hb T`2KB@
bb //bX C : ∼ g

ǴaB 2bi 2b mM bQ+B2// Ki`B`@ *QHQ[m2 HQb T`ûMi2bBb /2+m/K2M@

+H- 2MiQM+2b 2H ?2`KMQ /2 H K@ i2 /2 iH KM2` [m2 TQ/KQb Q#i2M2`
/`2 2b H +#2x /2 7KBHBX aB 2H H +QM+HmbBƦMX
?2`KMQ /2 H K/`2 2b +#2x /2
7KBHB 2MiQM+2b 2H T/`2 MQ iB2M2 P : p −→ r ∧ qX
ddX
MBM;mM miQ`B//X 1bi 2b mM bQ@ C : p −→ rX
+B2// Ki`B`+HX SQ` HQ iMiQ 2H
T/`2 MQ iB2M2 MBM;mM miQ`B//ǴX P1 : p −→ q ∧ rX
d3X P2 : ∼ q ∧ rX
dkX .2Km2bi`2- mbM/Q 2H KûiQ/Q /2 C : ∼ pX
`2/m++BƦM H #bm`/Q [m2, ĿT` a
v b MȹK2`Qb `2H2b- bB a · b = 0- 2M@ P : p ∧ r ∨ qX
dNX
iQM+2b a = 0 Ʀ b = 0ŀX C : pX
 k
G2QM`/Q /2 SBb URRd8@Rk9yV- +QMQ+B/Q +QKQ
6B#QM++B- 7m2 2H Ki2K€iB+Q BiHBMQ [m2 /B7mM@
/BƦ 2M 1m`QT HQb +QMQ+BKB2MiQb +B2Miő}+Qb /2H
KmM/Q €`#2X 1M T`iB+mH` 7m2 [mB2M /BQ  +Q@
MQ+2` 2H bBbi2K /2+BKH BM/Q`€#B+QX

aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

P#D2iBpQb
1bi2 +TőimHQ 2bi€ /2/B+/Q  HQb bBbi2Kb MmKû`B+Qb- +QM+`2iK2Mi2  H /2b+`BT@
+BƦM /2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b v /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQbX a2 2bT2` [m2
HQbfHb 2bim/BMi2b Tm2/M /[mB`B Hb +QKT2i2M+Bb [m2 H2b T2`KBiM,

• .2b+`B#B` H +QMbi`m++BƦM BMimBiBp /2 R  T`iB` /2 2ti2MbBQM2b /2 HQb Mȹ@

K2`Qb Mim`H2b- 2Mi2`Qb v `+BQMH2bX

• 1Mi2M/2` H 7Q`KHBx+BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b  i`pûb /2 mM T`2b2Mi+BƦM

tBQK€iB+X

• _2HBx` mM BMi2`T`2i+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ v /2+BKH /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2bX

• 1Mi2M/2` Hb #b2b +QM+2TimH2b v QT2`iBpb /2 Hb TQi2M+Bb- HQb `/B+H2b

v HQb HQ;`BiKQbX

• JM2D` Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb v bmb QT2`+BQM2bX

8j
89 aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

kXR AMi`Q/m++BƦM
Gb +iBpB//2b /2 K2/B`- +QMi` v Q`/2M` bQM BM?2`2Mi2b  H 2bT2+B2 ?mKMX
SQ` K€b /2 jy bB;HQb-  i`pûb /2 Hb Ki2K€iB+b- H 2bT2+B2 ?mKM ? p2MB/Q
/2HBM2M/Q T`Q+2bQb /2 +mMiB}++BƦM [m2 H2 T2`KBi2M 7Q`KHBx` 2bib +iBpB/@
/2bX 1H p2biB;BQ K€b MiB;mQ /2 `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM MmKû`B+ 2b 2HƘ?m2bQ /2 Ab?M;Q-
2M+QMi`/Q 2M H BMK2/B+BQM2b /2H M+BKB2MiQ /2H `BQ LBHQX a2 i`i /2 mM ?m2bQ-
+QM+`2iK2Mi2 2H T2`QMû /2 mM ##mBMQ- T`Q+2/2Mi2 /2H ƢQ kyXyyy X *X- [m2
+QMiB2M2 mM b2`B2 /2 bm`+Qb- iHH/Qb /2 7Q`K Q`/2M/- v [m2 b2;m`K2Mi2 2`M
miBHBx/Qb T` HH2p` +m2MibX

>+B 2H bB;HQ jX8yy X *X- HQb ##BHQMBQb /2b``QHH`QM mM bBbi2K [m2 +QK#BM@
# HQ /BiBpQ v HQ TQbB+BQMH- 2M #b2 ey- miBHBxM/Q mM `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM +mM2B7Q`K2-
HHK/ bő TQ`[m2 2b+`B#őM +QM mM 2biBH2i2 bQ#`2 i#HBHHb /2 `+BHH ?mK2/X

SQ` 2H ƢQ jXkyy X *X T`2+2 H 2b+`Bim` D2`Q;Hő}+ /2 HQb MiB;mQb 2;BT+BQb- H

+mH miBHBx`QM T` `2T`2b2Mi` MȹK2`QbX 1b+`B#őM +QM mM +€HKQ bQ#`2 TTB`Qb
m Qbi`+bX
AMi`Q/m++BƦM 88

1H bBbi2K /2 MȹK2`Qb `QKMQb bm`;BƦ /m`Mi2 H ?2;2KQMő /2H BKT2`BQ `Q@

KMQ ?+B 2H bB;HQ AAA X*X 1` mM bBbi2K /BiBpQ- 2H +mH +QMi# +QM bőK#QHQb
2bT2+BH2b T` H;mMQb MȹK2`QbX

GQb bBbi2Kb /BiBpQb iB2M2 H /2bp2MiD /2 M2+2bBi` mM MȹK2`Q +/ p2x

KvQ` /2 bőK#QHQb `272`2M+BH2b  K2/B/ [m2 2H MȹK2`Q 2b Kmv ;`M/2X 1M
+QMi`TQbB+BƦM +QM HQb bBbi2Kb /BiBpQb- bm`;B2`QM HQb bBbi2Kb TQbB+BQMH2bX 1M
2biQb bBbi2Kb b2 M2+2bBi mM MȹK2`Q }MBiQ /2 +`€+i2`2b T` `2T`2b2Mi` MȹK2`Qb
`#Bi``BK2Mi2 ;`M/2b Q `#Bi``BK2Mi2 T2[m2ƢQbX 1H bBbi2K TQbB+BQMH [m2
b2 BKTmbQ 2M Q++B/2Mi2 7m2 2H bBbi2K /2+BKH- 2H +mH miBHBx HQb Ry bőK#QHQb,

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

1H bBbi2K /2 MmK2`+BƦM /2+BKH 2KT2xƦ  /2b``QHH`b2 2M H MiB;m AM/B

?+B 2H bB;HQ o X *X v H+MxƦ bm K/m`2x 2M 2H bB;HQ As /X *X 2M 2H KmM/Q €`#2X
6m2 HH2p/Q  1m`QT TQ` G2QM`/Q /2 SBb URRdy@Rk8yV- TQTmH`K2Mi2 +QMQ+B/Q
+QKQ 6B#QM++BX G BMi`Q/m++BƦM /2 mM bBbi2K TQbB+BQMH /BQ mM ;`M BKTmHbQ
H /2b``QHHQ /2 Hb Ki2K€iB+b- Tm2b  /B72`2M+B /2 HQb MiB;mQb bBbi2Kb /2
MmK2`+BƦM [m2 /2#őM miBHBx` 2H €#+Q T` `2HBx` QT2`+BQM2b- 2H bBbi2K
/2+BKH i`2 +QMbB;Q mM T`Q+2bQ H;Q`őiKB+Q [m2 MQ M2+2bBi mM bQTQ`i2 7őbB+QX
8e aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

*QKTH2K2Mi imb +QMQ@ 1H mMBp2`bQ MmKû`B+Q b2 2tiB2M/2  T`iB` /2

+BKB2MiQb bQ#`2 2H /2@ Hb QT2`+BQM2b +QM 2tTQM2Mi2b v HQ;`BiKQb
b``QHHQ ?BbiƦ`B+Q /2 HQb 2bi#H2+B/b TQ` CQ?M LTB2`- >2M`v "`B;;b v
MȹK2`Qb 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 LB+QHb J2`+iQ`- 2Mi`2 HQb bB;HQb soA v soAAX
pB/2QX 1M 2H K`+Q /2H T`Q#H2K /2 H K2/B/ /2
};m`b THMb- C?QM qHHBb 2KTB2x  2pB/2M+B`
H M2+2bB// /2 BM+Q`TQ`` +MiB//2b /B72`2Mi2b
 Hb `ő+2b BM2t+ibX

*QM G2QM`/ 1mH2` b2 / mM pM+2 BKTQ`iMi2

2M 2H bT2+iQ QT2`iBpQX AM+Q`TQ` H;mMQb 2H2@
K2MiQb /2 `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM Kmv BKTQ`iMi2b- +Q@
?iiTb,ffvQmimX#2f
KQ 2H bőK#QHQ π- T` H `xƦM 2Mi`2 2H /B€K2i`Q
etARyNCnSC3
v H HQM;Bim/ /2 mM +ő`+mHQX

 T`BM+BTBQb /2H bB;HQ sAs HQb pM+2b i2Ʀ`B+Qb 2tB;2M H 7Q`KHBx+BƦM /2 HQb
T`Q+2bQb BMimBiBpQb [m2 b2 ?+őM +QM HQb MȹK2`QbX .2 2bi 7Q`K b2 +QMbiBimv2
2H bBbi2K /2 MȹK2`Qb `2H2bX 1bQ b2 / 7mM/K2MiHK2Mi2 TQ` /Qb BMbiM+Bb,
S`Q+2bQb +QMbi`m+iBpQb v  i`pûb /2 mM tBQK€iB+X

1tBbi2M /Qb pőb iőTB+b T` H +QMbi`m++BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b, URV G
+QMbi`m++BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b  T`iB` /2 +Q`i/m`b- TQ` T`i2 /2 _B+?`/
.2/2FBM/ UR3jR@RNReVX UkV G +QMbi`m++BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b  T`iB` /2
bm+2bBQM2b 7mM/K2MiH2b- TQ` T`i2 /2 :2Q`; *MiQ` UR398@RNR3VX G T`BK2`
T`QTm2bi tBQK€iB+ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b b2 /2#2  .pB/ >BH#2`i UR3ek@RN9jV
2M R3NNX

1M 2bi2 +TőimHQ T`2b2MiKQb mM +QMbi`m++BƦM  i`pûb /2 2ti2MbBQM2b MmKû@

`B+b [m2 b2 7m2`QM /M/Q 7mM/K2MiHK2Mi2  i`pûb /2 H `2bQHm+BƦM /2 2+m@
+BQM2bX
.2b+`BT+BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b 8d

kXk .2b+`BT+BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b

GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b bQM 2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 mM T`Q+2bQ ?BbiƦ`B+Q [m2 BMB+BƦ +QM 2H
2H2K2MiH +iQ /2 +QMi` Q#D2iQb +QM+`2iQb +QKQ 7`miQb- ;mBD``Qb Q MBKH2b v 7m2
;MM/Q +QKTH2DB//  K2/B/ [m2 Hb +B`+mMiM+Bb HQ 2tB;őMX >Qv 7Q`KM T`i2
/2 Mm2bi` pB/ +QiB/BM /2 /Bp2`bb KM2`bX GQb miBHxKQb +mM/Q ?+2KQb
+QKT`b Q KB`KQb 2H `2HQDc +mM/Q +H+mHKQb 2H TmMiD2 /2 mM 2tK2M- 2H
MȹK2`Q /2 +HQ`Bb /2 mM HBK2MiQ- 2H TQ`+2MiD2 /2 K2/B+BM [m2 /2#2KQb BM;2`B`
Q 2H €`2 /2 mM +ő`+mHQX GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b bQM BM/BbT2Mb#H2b T` KQ/2H`
bBim+BQM2b [m2 ?M //Q Hm;`  /2HMiQb i2+MQHƦ;B+Qb [m2 ?+2 /Q+B2MiQb ƢQb
MB bB[mB2` bQƢ#KQbc iH 2b 2H +bQ /2 HQb pBQM2b- HQb +2HmH`2b- 2H BMi2`M2i v H
BMi2HB;2M+B `iB}+BHX
GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b- `2T`2b2Mi/Qb TQ` R- 2bi€M +QM7Q`K/Qb TQ` H mMBƦM /2
HQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b- `2T`2b2Mi/Qb TQ` Q- v HQb MȹK2`Qb B``+BQMH2b- `2T`2b2M@
i/Qb TQ` IX  bm p2x- HQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b +QMiB2M2M  HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b-
`2T`2b2Mi/Qb TQ` Z v HQb MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`Qb- `2T`2b2Mi/Qb TQ` NX

GQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b v HQb MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`Qb

GQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b b2 miBHBxM 7mM/K2MiHK2Mi2 T` +QMi` v 2MmK2``
Q#D2iQb v /2b+`B#B` H TQbB+BƦM /2 mM 2H2K2MiQ 2M mM b2+m2M+BX 1M i2`KBMQb
7Q`KH2b- HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b T2`KBi2M /2i2`KBM` 2H MȹK2`Q /2 2H2K2MiQb /2
mM +QMDmMiQ }MBiQ,

LmK2`H *QMDmMiQ
0 ∅ *QMDmMiQ bBM 2H2K2MiQb
1 {∅} = {0} *QMDmMiQ +QM mM 2H2K2MiQ
2 {∅, {∅}} = {0, 1} *QMDmMiQ +QM /Qb 2H2K2MiQb
XX XX
X X
n {0, 1, . . . , n − 1} *QMDmMiQ +QM n 2H2K2MiQb
XX XX
X X

1H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b- /2MQi/Q TQ` N- b2 /2b+`B#2- TQ` 2t@

i2MbBƦM- /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,

N = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n, . . . }.

P#b2`p2KQb [m2 HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b b2 ;2M2`M  T`iB` /2H +2`Q K2/BMi2
H /B+BƦM /2 mMB//2bc /2 2bi 7Q`K- //Q mM MȹK2`Q Mim`H n, H ;`2;`H2 mM
mMB// Q#i2M2KQb mM Mm2pQ MȹK2`Q Mim`H n + 1, /2MQKBM/Q 2H bm+2bQ` /2 n.
1M Q+bBQM2b MQ b2 iQK 2H +2`Q +QKQ mM MȹK2`Q Mim`H- Tm2b b2 +QMbB/2` [m2
83 aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

2H T`Q+2bQ /2 +QMi` 2KTB2x 2M R- T2`Q 2M H 7mM/K2Mi+BƦM 7Q`KH /2 N- +QKQ

+QMDmMiQ `272`2M+BH T` /2i2`KBM` H +MiB// /2 2H2K2MiQb /2 HQb +QMDmMiQb
}MBiQb- 2b M2+2b`BQ BMB+B` 2M y- T` /` +m2Mi /2 [m2HHQb +QMDmMiQb [m2 MQ
iB2M2M 2H2K2MiQbc TQ` 2D2KTHQ 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Q Mim`H2b KvQ`2b [m2
k v K2MQ`2b [m2 jX
S`iBKQb /2 H T`2KBb [m2 HQbfHb 2bim/BMi2b iB2M2M mM +QMQ+BKB2MiQ BMimBiB@
pQ /2 Hb QT2`+BQM2 /2 bmK UYV v T`Q/m+iQ UXV [m2 b2 /2}M2M bQ#`2 NX /2K€b
b2 /2}M2 iK#BûM mM `2H+BƦM /2 Q`/2M Ǵ<Ǵ- /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,

0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < ··· < n < n + 1···

S` m, n inN, n < m- H 2tT`2bBƦM m − n = s Ua2 H22 m K2MQb nVBKTHB+ [m2
2tBbi2 t ∈ N- iH [m2 m = n + sX
1H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b iB2M2 Km+?b HBKBi+BQM2b [m2 b2 Tm2/2M
2pB/2M+B` /2b/2 /B72`2Mi2b BMbiM+BbX 1M 2bi2 +bQ /2iHH`2KQb H M2+2bB// /2
2ti2M/2` HQb bBbi2Kb MȹK2`B+Qb  i`pûb /2 H `2bQHm+BƦM /2 2+m+BQM2b- iH +QKQ
?BbiƦ`B+K2Mi2 b2 p /2b``QHHM/QX
*QM HQb MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b MQ b2 Tm2/2M `2bQHp2` 2+m+BQM2b +QKQ,

x + 5 = 3-
x + 7 = 0X

S` `2bQHp2` 2bib 2+m+BQM2b b2 ?+2 M2+2b`BQ 2ti2M/2` 2H bBbi2K /2 HQb

MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b H bBbi2K /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`QbX .2 2bi 7Q`K- T` `2bQHp2`
H 2+m+BƦM x + 7 = 0X b2 BMi`Q/m+2 mM Mm2pQ MȹK2`Q [m2 `2T`2b2MiKQb +QKQ
−7- iH [m2- 7 + (−7) = 0X 1M ;2M2`H b2 +QMbB/2` [m2 T` iQ/Q MȹK2`Q Mim`H
n- 2tBbi2 mM MȹK2`Q Mim`H −n- iH [m2 n + (−n) = 0X .2 2bi 7Q`K b2 /2}M2 2H
+QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`Qb Z,

Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, n + 1, . . . }.

a2 /2}M2M HQb 2Mi2`Qb TQbBiBpQb v HQb 2Mi2`Qb M2;iBpQb- /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Q`K,

Z+ = {1, 2, . . . , n, . . . }.
Z− = {. . . , −(n + 1), −n, . . . , −2, −1}.
.2b+`BT+BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b 8N

GQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b

GQb MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`Qb b2 Km2bi`M BMbm}+B2Mi2 T` `2bQHp2` 2+m+BQM2b +QKQ,

2x − 5 = 0-
3x − 1 = 0X

S` `2bQHp2` 2bib 2+m+BQM2b b2 ?+2 M2+2b`BQ 2ti2M/2` 2H bBbi2K /2 HQb

MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`Qb H bBbi2K /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2bX 1M T`iB+mH`- T` bQHm@
+BQM` H 2+m+BƦM 3x − 1 = 0X b2 BMi`Q/m+2 mM Mm2pQ MȹK2`Q- [m2 `2T`2b2MiKQb
1
+QKQ X h2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi 2biQb bT2+iQb- b2 /2}M2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb
3
`+BQMH2b Q,
 
p
Q= : p, q ∈ Z, q = 0 .
q

p
./Q 2H MȹK2`Q `+BQMH - H MȹK2`Q p b2 H2 /2MQKBM MmK2`/Q` v H
q
MȹK2`Q q /2MQKBM/Q`X

GQb MȹK2`Qb MQ `+BQMH2b

GQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b b2 Km2bi`M HBKBi/Qb T` `2bQHp2` 2+m+BQM2b /2 H 7Q`@
K,

x2 − 2 = 0
X
S`
√ 2bi2 iBTQ /2 2+m+BQM2b b2 BMi`Q/m+2 mM Mm2pQ MȹK2`Q [m2 b2 `2T`2b2Mi
+QKQ 2- /M/Q Hm;`  HQb MȹK2`Qb B``+BQMH2b- HQb +mH2b b2 `2T`2b2MiM +QKQ,
IX GQb MȹK2`Qb B``+BQMH2b MQ bQM 2tT`2b#H2b +QKQ
√ 7`++BQM2b
√ /2 2Mi2`QbX 1D2K@
√
THQb +QMQ+B/Qb /2 MȹK2`Qb B``+BQMH2b bQM π- e- 2 v 3X .BDBKQb Mi2b [m2 1/ 2
MQ 2` mM MȹK2`Q `+BQMH- Tm2b MQ b2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b` +QKQ 7`++BƦM 2Mi`2 2Mi2`QbX

.2KQbi`` [m2 mM MȹK2`Q √ //Q 2b B``+BQMH MQ 2b b2M+BHHQX Gb /2KQbi`+BQM2b

/2 H B``+BQMHB// /2 π- 2 v e- TQ` 2D2KTHQ- 7m2`QM 2M bm KQK2MiQ TbQb
BKTQ`iMi2b 2M 2H /2b``QHHQ /2 Hb Ki2K€iB+bX

kXkXR h2Q`2KX  2 √
LQ 2tBbi2 p/q ∈ Q- iH [m2 pq = 2X 1b /2+B`- 2 MQ 2b `+BQMHX

√
.2KQbi`+BƦMX amTQM;KQb [m2 2 2b `+BQMHX 1biQ 2b- 2tBbi2M 2Mi2`Qb p v q
iH2b [m2-
p √
= 2 UkXRV
q
ey aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

aBKTHB}+M/Q 2bi MȹK2`Q `+BQMH- bB 7m2b2 M2+2b`BQ- TQ/2KQb bmTQM2` [m2 p v

q MQ iB2M2M 7+iQ`2b +QKmM2bc Q HQ [m2 2b HQ KBbKQ- [m2 2H MȹK2`Q `+BQMH ?
bB/Q `2/m+B/Q  bm 7Q`K K€b bBKTH2X .2 2bi2 KQ/Q- 2H2pM/Q H +m/`/Q +/
H/Q /2 H B;mH// kXR MQb [m2/,

p2
= 2,
q2 UkXkV
p2 = 2q 2 .

a2 /2/m+2 /2 2bi ȹHiBK 2tT`2bBƦM [m2 p2 2b T`X Sm2biQ [m2 2H +m/`/Q /2 mM

MȹK2`Q BKT` 2b mM MȹK2`Q BKT`- 2H [m2 p2 b2 T` bB;MB}+ [m2 p iK#BûM 2b
T`X SQ` HQ iMiQ p = 2r bB2M/Q r 2Mi2`QX ambiBimv2M/Q p2 TQ` 4r2 2M H 2+m+BƦM
kXk b2 iB2M2

4r2 = 2q 2 ,
2r2 = q 2 .

1b /2+B`- [m2 q 2 iK#BûM 2b T` v- TQ` H KBbK `xƦM miBHBx/ 2M 2H T€``7Q

Mi2`BQ`- q iK#BûM HQ b2`€X *QMb2+m2Mi2K2Mi2- q 2b /2 H 7Q`K q = 2k- bB2M/Q
k 2Mi2`QX 1bi2 `2bmHi/Q T2`KBi2 +QM+HmB` [m2 2 2b mM 7+iQ` +QKȹM /2 p v /2 q-
+QMi` 2H bmTm2biQ /2 [m2 MQ i2Mő 7+iQ`2b +QKmM2bX 1biQ 2b mM +QMi`/B++BƦMX
√
a2 /2/m+2- TQ` HQ iMiQ- [m2 2H bmTm2biQ 2M H B;mH// kXR MQ 2b p€HB/Q v [m2 2
MQ 2b `+BQMHX
√
*QKQ 2 MQ 2b mM MȹK2`Q `+BQMH- /2+BKQb [m2 2b mM MȹK2`Q B``+BQMHX
a2;m`K2Mi2 [m2 MQ 2b /B7ő+BH +2Ti` [m2 ?v MmK2`QbQb UBM}MBiQbV MȹK2`Qb
`+BQMH2bX√ǯZmû b2 Tm2/2 }`K` /2 HQb B``+BQMH2b\ ǯLQ ?#`€ K€b B``+BQMH2b
[m2 π- e- 2\ 1M `2HB// 2H +QMDmMiQ
√ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb B``+BQMH2b 2b BM}MBiQX
S`iB2M/Q /2 H B``+BQMHB// /2 √2- MQ 2b /B7ő+BH /2KQbi``- TQ` 2D2KTHQ- [m2 bB
p/q 2b mM MȹK2`Q `+BQMH- p/q + 2 2b mM MȹK2`Q B``+BQMHX

kXkXk h2Q`2KX √
aB p/q ∈ Q- 2MiQM+2b p/q + 2 ∈ IX

.2KQbi`+BƦMX S` /2KQbi``HQ T`Q+2/KQb /2 Mm2pQ 2M 7Q`K BM/B`2+iX }`@

K2KQb HQ +QMi``BQ /2 HQ [m2 [m2`2KQb T`Q#`X 1b /2+B`- bmTQM;KQb [m2
p √
+ 2 ∈ Q.
q
.2b+`BT+BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b eR

SQ` HQ iMiQ 2tBbi2 m/n ∈ Q- iH [m2,

p √ m
+ 2= ,
q n
√ m p
2= − ,
n q
mq − np
= .
nq

S2`Q (mq − np)/nq 2b mM MȹK2`Q `+BQMH- Tm2b- iMiQ mq − np- +QKQ nq bQM
2Mi2`QbX
√ S2`Q 2biQ 2b mM +QMi`/B++BƦM-√ Tm2b 2bi 7`++BƦM /2 2Mi2`Qb 2b B;mH 
2 v /2KQbi`KQb- Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2- [m2 2 2b B``+BQMHX √ a2 +QM+Hmv2- TQ` HQ iMiQ-
[m2 Mm2bi` ?BTƦi2bBb /2 i`#DQ 2b 7Hb v [m2 p/q + 2 MQ Tm2/2 b2` `+BQMHX

1M ;2M2`H b2 Tm2/2 /2KQbi`` [m2 H bmK /2 mM MȹK2`Q B``+BQMH +QM mM

`+BQMH 2b mM MȹK2`Q B``+BQMHX
.2#2 b2` +H`Q [m2- b2;ȹM H /2}MB+BƦM /2 MȹK2`Q B``+BQMH-

I ∩ Q = ∅.
1b /2+B`- I v Q MQ iB2M2M 2H2K2MiQb +QKmM2bX

1H +QMDmMiQ [m2 `2bmHi /2 H mMBƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b v HQb MȹK2`Qb

B``+BQMH2b +QMbiBimv2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b [m2 /2MQi`2KQb +QM 2H
bőK#QHQ RX *QMb2+m2Mi2K2Mi2,

R = Q ∪ I.

a2 Tm2/2 miBHBx` H 2tTMbBƦM /2+BKH /2 HQb `2H2b T` /2i2`KBM` bB mM

MȹK2`Q `2H 2b `+BQMH Q B``+BQMHX
ek aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

a2 Tm2/2 /2KQbi`` [m2 +mH[mB2` MȹK2`Q `2H /KBi2 mM `2T`2@

b2Mi+BƦM TQ` mM MmK2`H /2+BKH [m2 2b /2 H 7Q`K,

±an an−1 . . . . . . . . . a1 a0 . b1 b2 b3 . . . UkXjV

/QM/2 0 ≤ ai ≤ 9 v 0 ≤ bi ≤ 9.

aB  T`iB` /2 mM /ő;BiQ /2 H T`i2 /2+BKH /2 mM MȹK2`Q ?v mM `2T2iB+BƦM

BM/2}MB/ /2 mM ;`mTQ /2 /ő;BiQb- 2H MmK2`H b2 /B+2 [m2 2b T2`BƦ/B+Q v 2H MȹK2`Q
[m2 `2T`2b2Mi 2b mM MȹK2`Q `+BQMHX SQ` 2D2KTHQ 0, 32585858... 2b mM MȹK2`Q
T2`BQ/B+Q Tm2b  T`iB` /2H k 2H MȹK2`Q 83 b2 `2TBi2 BM/2}MB/K2Mi2c 2bi2 MȹK2`Q
/2MQi +QKQ 0, 3258X 1M 2bi2 +bQ 2H T2`BQ/Q 2b 83X hK#BûM 2H MȹK2`Q 5, 360000...
2b T2`BƦ/B+Q- /QM/2 2H T2`BQ/Q 2b yX 1M 2bi2 +bQ b2 /B+2 [m2 2b mM MȹK2`Q /2+BKH
}MBiQ v b2 2b+`B#2 bBKTH2K2Mi2 5, 36X lM /2+BKH T2`BƦ/B+Q Q }MBiQ- Tm2/2 HH2p`b2
p p
 H 7Q`K v iQ/Q MȹK2`Q `+BQMH /2 H 7Q`K b2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b` +QKQ mM
q q
/2+BKH T2`BƦ/B+Q Q }MBiQX
aB i2M2KQb mM MȹK2`Q `+BQMH 2M H 7Q`K pq , p, q ∈ Z, q ∈/ 0- b2 Tm2/2 `2T`2@
b2Mi` 2M 7Q`K /2+BKH  i`pûb /2H H;Q`BiKQ /2 H /BpBbBƦMX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- T`
2H +bQ /2 14
8 b2 iB2M2,

aB;mB2M/Q 2H KBbKQ T`Q+2bQ- b2 i2M/`őM Hb 2[mBpH2M+Bb,

1 3 100 24
3 4 4 5
0, 333 · · · = 0, 3 0, 75 25 4, 8

 i`pûb /2 bB;mB2Mi2 2D2KTHQ b2 /2b+`B#2 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 +QMp2`iB` mM MȹK2`Q

p
T2`BQ/B+Q 2M bm `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2 H 7Q`K ,
q
.2b+`BT+BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b ej

*QKTH2K2Mi imb +QMQ@

kXkXj 1D2KTHQX *QMbB/2`2KQb 2H MȹK2`Q
+BKB2MiQb bQ#`2 HQb Mȹ@
T2`BƦ/B+Q 3, 272727 . . . = 3, 27 v HH2p2KQb@
K2`Qb `2H2b `2pBbM/Q
HQ  H 7Q`K pq
2H bB;mB2Mi2 pB/2Q,
aB iQKKQb x = 3, 272727 . . . 2MiQM+2b,
100x 4 327, 272727 . . .
−x 4 −3, 272727 . . .
99x 4324

SQ` HQ iMiQ-

?iiTb,ffvQmimX#2f 324 36
x= = .
tPDZjmdDaGZ 99 11

1bi2 T`Q+2bQ b2 Tm2/2 ?+2` /B`2+iK2Mi2- +QKQ b2 pBbmHBx 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2

2D2KTHQ,

GQb +bQb bB;mB2Mi2b vm/M  2Mi2M/2` 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 Tb` mM /2+BKH T2`BƦ@

/B+Q  H 7Q`K pq ,

2−0 2
RX 0, 02 = =
90 90
12 − 1 11
kX 0, 112 = =
90 90
251 − 2 249
jX 0, 251 = =
990 990
102 − 10 92
9X 0, 102 = =
900 900
e9 aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

GQb MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`Qb bQM MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b +QM /2MQKBM/Q` RX *mM/Q 2H

MȹK2`Q MQ 2b 2Mi2`Q- H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2+BKH T2`KBi2 2bi#H2+2` /B72`2M+Bb
2Mi`2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b v HQb B``+BQMH2b- i2M/B2M/Q H ?2+?Q /2 [m2 HQb
`+BQMH2b iB2M2M mM 2tTMbBƦM }MBi Q BM}MBi T2`BƦ/B+- KB2Mi`b H 2tTMbBƦM
/2 HQb B``+BQMH2b 2b BM}MBi MQ T2`BƦ/B+X
√
Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2 b2 /2KQbi`Ʀ [m2√ 2 2b mM MȹK2`Q B``+BQMHX h-#BûM b2 /2KQb@
i`Ʀ [m2 bB bmKKQb mM `+BQMH  2 Q#i2M2KQb Qi`Q B``+BQMHX 1M 2bi2 b2MiB/Q
HQb B``+BQM2b bQM BM}MBiQbX  i`pûb /2 H 2TMbBƦM /2+BKH TQ/2KQb /2b+`B#B`
Qi`Qb B``+BQMH2b- /2H iBTQ [m2 b2 /2b+`B#2M  +QMiBMm+BƦM,

RX 0, 1001000100001...

kX 4, 040040004...

+iBpB// kXkXR,
_2T`2b2Mi HQb bB;mB2Mi2b MȹK2`Qb T2`BƦ/B+Qb 2M H 7Q`K p/q, p v q 2Mi2`Qb,

RX 6. 125125125 . . . jX 13. 3452020

kX 2. 0099999 . . . 9X 5. 11111 . . .

1M 2bi b2++BƦM b2 ? /2b+`BiQ mM +QMbi`m++BƦM BMimBiBp /2 R-  T`iB` /2

2ti2MbBQM2b bm+2bBpb [m2 BMB+B`QM +QM Nc Hm2;Q b2 BM+Q`TQ`Ʀ Z-  T`iB` /2 H
BKTQbB#BHB// /2 `2bQHp2` +B2`ib 2+m+BQM2bc B;mH bm+2/BQ +QM QX 6BMHK2Mi2 b2
/2Km2bi`Ʀ [m2 2tBbi2M MȹK2`Qb [m2 MQ bQM `+BQMH2b- /M/Q Hm;`  HQb MȹK2`Qb
B``+BQMH2b IX S2`Q +QM 2bi2 iBTQ /2 /2b+`BT+BƢQM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b- [m2/M
Km+?Qb bT2+iQb 7Q`KH2b bBM `2bQHp2`X a2 ?+2- 2MiQM+2b M2+2b`BQ /2}MB` R- 
i`pûb /2 mM bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q- 2H +mH b2 T`2b2Mi  +QMiBMm+BƦMX

kXj GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b +QKQ bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q

1tBbi2 mM +QMDmMiQ R- /2MQKBM/Q 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b- 2M 2H
+mH b2 /2}M2M Hb QT2`+BQM2b /2 bmK U/B+BƦM, YV v KmHiBTHB++BƦM UT`Q/m+iQ,
·V [m2 +mKTH2M HQb tBQKb H;2#`B+Qb- HQb tBQKb /2 Q`/2M v 2H tBQK /2
+QMiBMmB// U/2H bmT`2KQVX _2+Q`/2KQb [m2 HQb tBQKb bQM 2MmM+B/Qb [m2 MQ
b2 /2Km2bi`Mc bQM T`BM+BTBQb Q T`QTB2//2b [m2 b2 +QMbB/2`M p€HB/QbX  +QMiB@
Mm+BƦM b2 /2b+`B#2M +QKQ T`BM+BTBQb [m2 +mTH2M HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 RX

S`QTB2//2b H;2#`B+b /2 R
a2M a, b v c ∈ R,
GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b +QKQ bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q e8

S`QTB2// RX *QMKmiiBpB//, x + y = y + x- xy = yx.

S`QTB2// kX bQ+BiBpB//, x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z- x(yz) = (xy)z.

S`QTB2// jX .Bbi`B#miBpB//, x(y + z) = xy + xz.

S`QTB2// 9X 1tBbi2M+B /2 2H2K2MiQb M2mi`Qb, 1tBbi2M /Qb MȹK2`Qb

`2H2b /BbiBMiQb- `2T`2b2Mi/Qb TQ` 0 v 1 - iH2b [m2 T` iQ/Q x ∈ R -
x + 0 = x v x1 = xX

S`QTB2// 8X 1tBbi2M+B /2 BMp2`bQb, S` +/ MȹK2`Q `2H x

2tBbi2 Qi`Q MȹK2`Q `2H- HHK/Q QTm2biQ /2 x Q BMp2`bQ /BiBpQ /2 xv
`2T`2b2Mi/Q TQ` −x- iH [m2 x + (−x) = 0X

S` +/ MȹK2`Q `2H x = 0 2tBbi2 Qi`Q MȹK2`Q `2H- HHK/Q BMp2`bQ /2
x Q Bp2`bQ KmHiBTHBQ+iBpQ /2 xv `2T`2b2Mi/Q TQ` x−1 - iH [m2 xx−1 = 1X

LQi+BƦM, 1b+`B#B`2KQb x − y TQ` x + (−y) v iK#BûM xy TQ` xy −1 X

 T`iB` /2 Hb 8 T`QTB2//2b H;2#`B+b- b2 Tm2/2M /2KQbi`` Hb T`QTQbB@
+BQM2bb,

kXjXR S`QTQbB+BQM2bX a2M x, y, z ∈ RX

RX −(−x) = x.

kX (−x)y = x(−y) = −xy

jX (−x)(−y) = xy

9X −(x − y) = y − x)

LQ 2tBbi2 mM H;Q`BiKQ ;2M2`H T` bmK` v KmHiBTHB+` MȹK2`Qb `2H2b- bBM

2K#`;Q 2biQ 2b TQbB#H2 T` HQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2bX bő //Qb /Qb MȹK2Qb `@
p r
+BQMH2b v - b2 2bi#H2+2 H bmK v 2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,
q s

RX amK /2 `+BQMH2bX a2 T`2b2MiM /Qb +bQb,

V Zm2 i2M;M B;mH /2MQKBM/Q`, b2 bmKM HQb MȹK2`/Q`2b v b2 TQM2

2H KBbKQ /2MQKBM/Q`,
ee aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

p r p+r
+ =
q q q
#V , Zm2 i2M;M /B72`2Mi2 /2MQKBM/Q`, b2 bB;m2 2H bB;mB2Mi2 T`Q+2bQ,

p r ps + rq
+ =
q s qs

kX S`Q/m+iQ /2 `+BQMH2bX

p r p.r
. =
q s q.s

kXjXk 1D2KTHQX
7 12 7 + 12 19
RX + = = .
3 3 3 3

−8 4 6 −8 + 4 + 6 2
kX + + = = .
5 5 5 5 5
7 9 −7 −9 −7 · 7 + (−9) · 11 −49 − 99 −148
jX − − = + = = = X
11 7 11 7 11 · 7 77 77
−3 1 −3 · 3 + 1 · 2 −7
9X + = = X
2 3 2·3 6
5 12 5 −12 5 · −12 −60
8X ·− = · = = X
13 7 13 7 13 · 7 91
8 5 8·5 40
eX · = = X
7 9 7·9 63
−2 −3 −2 · −3 6
dX · = = X
5 8 5·8 40
7 7 2 7·1−3·2 1
3X −2= − = = X
3 3 1 3·1 3
GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b +QKQ bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q ed

+iBpB// kXjXR,
RX *H+mH2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b BM/B+/b,
3 4 2 4 7 5
V +8− − +3 +V − + +5
5 3 4 9 5 6
5 3 4 6 1 3
#V − + /V + − .
4 5 7 3 7 9

kX lM MBƢQ TB2Mb ;bi` 23 /2 bmb ?Q``Qb 2M Dm;m2i2b- v 57 /2H /BM2`Q

/2biBM/Q  Dm;m2i2b HQ TB2Mb BMp2`iB` 2M mM #HƦMX ǯZmû 7`++BƦM /2
bmb ?Q``Qb `2T`2b2Mi 2H pHQ` /2H #HƦM\
2
jX lM `2HQD /2HMi 7 /2 KBMmiQ +/ /őX ǯ+m€MiQb KBMmiQb b2 /2HM@
i`€ 2M R9 /őb\

9X 1M mM }2bi [m2/`QM 34 /2H Tbi2H-  62`MM/Q H2 `2;H`QM 25 /2H

Tbi2H [m2 [m2/ƦX ǯZmû 7`++BƦM /2 Tbi2H H2 `2;H`QM  62`MM/Q\

8X ǯlM +x/Q` b2 2M+m2Mi` +QM /Qb TbiQ`2b [m2 H2 /M /2 +QK2`X 1H

T`BK2`Q TmbQ 8 TM2b v 2H b2;mM/Q i`2bX GQb i`2b +QKB2`QM T`i2b
B;mH2bX H /2bT2/B`b2 2H +x/Q` 2Mi`2; 3 KQM2/b ǯ*ƦKQ /2#2M
`2T`iB`b2 HQb TbiQ`2b 2H /BM2`Q bB  +/ mMQ H2 /2#2 iQ+` b2;ȹM HQ
[m2 TQ`iƦ T` 2H +x/Q`\

G `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b

hQK2KQb mM `2+i /2i2`KBM/ v Hm2;Q /2 }D` 2M 2HH 2H TmMiQ P- +Q``2bTQM/B2M@
i2 H +2`Q- iQK2KQb mM b2;K2MiQ mMBi`BQ- 2b /2+B` bm HQM;Bim/ 2b R- m(OU ) = 1.
GQb MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`Qb b2 HQ+HBxM iQKM/Q +QTBb /2H Ti`ƦM /2 K2/B/ OU.

S` `2T`2b2Mi` 2H MȹK2`Q `+BQMH p/q, p v q 2M Z+ , /BpB/BKQb 2H b2;K2MiQ

mMBi`BQ OU 2M q T`i2b B;mH2b v iQKKQb p p2+2b mM /2 2bb T`i2b  T`iB`
/2 P ?+B H /2`2+?X S` 2H +bQ /2H MȹK2`Q −p/q +QM p v q 2M Z+ , 2H T`Q+2bQ
2b 2H KBbKQ bƦHQ [m2 b2 HQ+HBx  H Bx[mB2`/ /2 PX
e3 aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

1H Mi2`BQ` T`Q+2bQ MQ 2b TQbB#H2 +mM/Q b2 T`2i2M/2 `2T`2b2Mi` HQb MȹK2`Qb

B``+BQMH2bX 1M ;2M2`H- MQ 2tBbi2M T`Q+2bQb ;2QKûi`B+Qb
√ T` ?+2`HQc mM[m2 bő
b2 Tm2/2 `2HBx` T` +bQb T`iB+mH`2b +QKQ 2.

a2 bmTQM2 [m2 O 2b 2H Q`B;2M v [m2 m(OU ) = 1. SQ` 2H TmMiQ U b2 i`x H

T2`T2M/B+mH` U A +mv K2/B/ 2b B;mH  R v b2 7Q`K 2H i`B€M;mHQ `2+i€M;mHQ
OAU. SQ` 2H i2Q`2K
√ /2 TBi€;Q`b i2M2KQb [m2 m(OA)2 = 12 + 12 = 2, v TQ` HQ
iMiQ m(OA) = 2. *QM +2Mi`Q 2M O v `/BQ OA b2 i`x mM +B`+mM72`2M+B √ H
+mH +Q`i H 2D2 x 2M 2H TmMiQ B, /2 2bi 7Q`K +QM+HmBKQb [m2
√ m(OB) = 2, HQ
[m2 bB;MB}+ [m2 2H TmMiQ B `2T`2b2Mi H MȹK2`Q B``+BQMH 2.

+iBpB// kXjXk,
RX .B#mD
√ mM `2+i √ MmKû`B+ v √
`2T`2b2Mi2
√ HQb
√ bB;mB2Mi2b
√ MȹK2`Qb
√ `2H2b,
4, 0. 1999 . . . , 5, 3/4, − 2, − 1, 8, 17, 3π, 2. 3

kX ǯ1b 2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 mM `+BQMH v mM B``+BQMH mM MȹK2`Q B``+BQMH\

jX ǯ1b bB2KT`2 H bmK /2 B``+BQMH2b mM MȹK2`Q B``+BQMH\ ǯ1H T`Q@

/m+iQ\

9X *HbB}+ HQb bB;mB2Mi2b MȹK2`Qb 2M Mim`H2b- 2Mi2`Qb- `+BQMH2b Q

B``+BQMH2b,
√ √ √
V 4+9 2V 2
3
BV − 8
2
#V 0. 6666 . . . 7V DV 3. 1416.
0, 333
2
+V √ 3π √
FV 2 − 2
√
3 ;V
√ √2
/V 1 ?V 16 HV 0. 10100 . . .
GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b +QKQ bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q eN

P`/2M 2M HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b

.2+B` [m2 R 2b mM +QMDmMiQ Q`/2M/Q bB;MB}+ [m2 //Qb /Qb 2H2K2MiQb +mH2b@
[mB2` /2 R- TQ/2KQb /2+B` +mH /2 2HHQb 2b 2H K2MQ` UdzIdzVc 2biQ 2b- T` x, y ∈ R-
/2+B/B` +mM/Q x 2b K2MQ` [m2 y, x < y- HQ +mH 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2  /2+B` [m2 y 2b
KvQ` [m2 x, y > xX
G `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;2QK2i`B+ /2 R T2`KBi2 /2}MB` BMimBiBpK2Mi2 mM Q`/2M
/2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`, ./Qb /Qb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b x v y- HQb +mH2b +Q``2bTQM/2M
 /Qb TmMiQb 2M H `2+i `2H- 2MiQM+2b x < y bB 2H TmMiQ [m2 `2T`2b2Mi y 2bi€ 
H /2`2+? /2H TmMiQ [m2 `2T`2b2Mi xX

.2 +m2`/Q  H `2H+BƦM /2 Q`/2M- <- 2bi#H2+B/- b2 Tm2/2M /2}MB` HQb bB@

;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb- [m2 b2 Tm2/2M pBbmHBx` 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 ;`€}+X

R+ = {x ∈ R : x > 0}
R− = {x ∈ R : x < 0}

P#b2`p+BƦM dX

RX liBHBx`2KQb x ≤ y T` #`2pB` x < y Q x = yX

kX .B`2KQb [m2 mM MȹK2`Q `2H x 2b TQbBiBpQ bB x > 0 v M2;iBpQ bB x < 0X 1b

/2+B`- bB x ∈ R+ - 2MiQM+2b x > 0 v bB x ∈ R− - 2MiQM+2b x < 0X

G `2H+BƦM /2 Q`/2M <- 2bi#H2+B/- +mKTH2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2 T`QTB2//2b,

S`QTB2// eX h`B+QiQKő, a2 p2`B}+ mM v bƦHQ mM /2 Hb `2H+BQM2b,

x = y- x < y- x > yX

S`QTB2// dX aB x < y- 2MiQM+2b- T` +/ z ∈ R- 2b x + z < y + zX

dy aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

S`QTB2// 3X aB x > 0 v y > 0- 2MiQM+2b xy > 0X /27

S`QTB2// NX aB x > y v y > z- 2MiQM+2b x > zX

P#b2`p+BƦM 3X h2MB2M/Q +QKQ `272`2M+B HQb +QMDmMiQb Mi2`BQ`2b b2 iB2M2 HQb

bB;mB2Mi2b `2bmHi/Qb,

RX bB x ∈ R− - 2MiQM+2b −x ∈∈ R+ - 2b /2+B`, bB x < 0- 2MiQM+2b −x > 0

kX bB x ∈ R+ - 2MiQM+2b −x ∈∈ R− - 2b /2+B`, bB x > 0- 2MiQM+2b −x < 0

.2 +m2`/Q  HQb `2bmHi/Qb Mi2`BQ`2b b2 iB2M2 [m2,

x < y bB v bQHQ bB y − x > 0

G +QMiBMmB// /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b

>BbiƦ`B+K2Mi2- 2H KvQ` T`Q#H2K THMi2/Q- /2b/2 H MiB;Ƀ2// ;`B2;- iB2M2
[m2 p2` +QM H TQbB#BHB// /2 +`+i2`Bx` `BiKûiB+K2Mi2 H 2b2M+B /2H +QMiBMmQ
;2QKûi`B+QX a2 T`i2 /2H ?2+?Q BMimBiBpQ /2 [m2 H `2+i 2b mM dz+QM;HQK2`/QǴ /2
TmMiQb- dz`2mMB/QbǴ /2 mM KM2` 2bT2+BH v 2M mM KBbK /B`2++BƦMX aB }DKQb
mM TmMiQ- [m2 `2T`2b2Mi 2H +2`Q- +mH[mB2` Qi`Q TmMiQ /2 H `2+i `2T`2b2Mi mM
MȹK2`Q `2H- /2i2`KBM/Q TQ` H /BbiM+B /2H TmMiQ H Q`B;2MX
*QKQ b2 /2KQbi`Ʀ Mi2b- H `2+i 2b BM}MBiK2Mi2 K€b `B+ 2M TmMiQb [m2
2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b Q. 1biQ bB;MB}+ [m2 bB `2T`2b2MiKQb H
iQiHB// /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b- H `2+i MmKû`B+ MQ b2 dzHH2MǴX S`2+BbK2Mi2-
2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2T`2b2Mi/Q TQ` HQb TmMiQb /2 H `2+i MmKû`B+ [m2
MQ bQM `+BQMH2b +QMbiBimv2 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb B``+BQMH2bX 1bi2 2b mM
T`BM+BTŢQ [m2 MQ b2 Tm2/2 /2KQbi`` v TQ` HQ iMiQ +QMbiBimv2 2H HHK/Q tBQK
Q T`BM+BTBQ /2 +QKTH2iBim/X

1H tBQK /2 +QMiBMmB//
1H S`BM+BTBQ /2 +QKTH2iBim/- HHK/Q iK#BûM tBQK /2 +QMiBMmB//- `2bTQM@
/2  mM T`Q#H2K 2bi`m+im`H /2 /Bbi`B#m+BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b 2M mM HőM2
`2+iX aB `2T`2b2MiKQb HQb MȹK2`Qb `+BQMH2b ;2QKûi`B+K2Mi2- /2 iH 7Q`K [m2
 +/ MȹK2`Q `+BQMH H2 +Q``2bTQM/ mM TmMiQ /2 H HBM2 `2+i- MQ 2b /B}+BH
/2KQbi`` [m2 [m2/`€M TmMiQb bBM +m#`B`b2X 1biQb TmMiQb [m2 MQ +Q``2bTQM/2M
 HQb MȹK2`Qb B``+BQMH2b- +Q``2bTQM/2M  HQb MȹK2`Qb B``+BQMH2bX 1bi B/2
BMimBiBp b2 7Q`KHBx  i`pûb /2H bB;mB2Mi2 tBQK,
GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b +QKQ bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q dR

S`QTB2// RyX  +/ TmMiQ /2H +QMiBMmQ ;2QKûi`B+Q UHőM2 `2HV H2 +Q@
``2bTQM/2 mM MȹK2`Q `2H v  +/ MȹK2`Q `2H H2 +Q``2bTQM/2 mM MȹK2`Q
bQ#`2 H HőM2 ;2QKûi`B+X

 T`iB` /2 Hb Ry T`QTB2//2b UtBQKbV 2bi#H2+B/Qb- b2 Tm2/2M /2KQbi``

Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTQbB+BQM2b,

kXjXj S`QTB2//2bX a2M x, y, z ∈ RX

RX aB x < y- 2MiQM+2b- T` iQ/Q z ∈ R+ - xz < yz.

kX aB x < y- 2MiQM+2b- T` iQ/Q z ∈ R− - xz > yz.

jX aB x < y, 2MiQM+2b −x > −y.

9X aB xy > 0, 2MiQM+2b, (x > 0 ∧ y > 0) ∨ (x < 0 ∧ y < 0)

8X aB xy < 0, 2MiQM+2b, (x > 0 ∧ y < 0) ∨ (x < 0 ∧ y > 0)

liBHBxM/Q H T`QTB2// Ry b2 Tm2/2M /2KQbi`` HQb /Qb bB;mB2Mi2b i2Q`2Kb,

h2Q`2K , S`QTB2// `[mBK2/BM, a2 x < 0 v mM MȹK2`Q `2H-

2MiQM+2b 2tBbi2 mM MȹK2`Q Mim`H n- iH [m2 nx > yX

h2Q`2K , S`i2 2Mi2`, a2 x mM MȹK2`Q `2H- 2MiQM+2b 2tBbi2 mM

ȹMB+Q 2Mi2`Q n- iH [m2 n ≤ x < n + 1X  2bi2 MȹK2`Q n b2 H2 HHK H T`i2
2Mi2` /2 x v b2 /2MQi +QKQ [x]X

kXjX9 1D2KTHQX

RX [1,5] = 1
√
kX [ 2] = 1

jX [−1,5] = −2

9X [0,25] = 0

8X [−0,25] = −1

eX [5] = 5
dk aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

kXjX8 .2}MB+BƦMX
a2M a, b ∈ R- a ≤ bX GGK`2KQb BMi2`pHQb +Qi/Qb  HQb bB;mB2Mi2b
+QMDmMiQb /2 MȹK2`Qb `2H2b,

RX AMi2`pHQ +2``/Q, [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}X

kX AMi2`pHQ #B2`iQ@+2``/Q, (a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}X

jX AMi2`pHQ +2``/Q@#B2`iQ, [a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}X

9X AMi2`pHQ #B2`iQ, (a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}X

GQb BMi2`pHQb MQ +Qi/Qb b2 /2}M2M /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Q`K,

RX AMi2`pHQ +2``/Q MQ +Qi/Q bmT2`BQ`K2Mi2,

[a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x ≥ a}.

kX AMi2`pHQ #B2`iQ MQ +Qi/Q bmT2`BQ`K2Mi2,

(a, +∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}.

jX AMi2`pHQ +2``/Q MQ +Qi/Q BM72`BQ`K2Mi2,

(−∞, b] = {x ∈ R : x ≤ b}.

9X AMi2`pHQ #B2`iQ MQ +Qi/Q BM72`BQ`K2Mi2,

(−∞, b) = {x ∈ R : x < b}.

1K H bB;mB2Mi2 i#H b2 T`2b2MiM HQb /B72`2Mi2b BMi2`pHQb,

GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b +QKQ bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q dj

kXjXe 1D2KTHQX _2bQHpKQb Hb bB;mB2Mi2b /2bB;mH//2bX

RX 3x − 2 < 5, bmKM/Q 2M K#Qb H/Qb 2H k i2M2KQb- 3x − 2 + 2 < 5 + 2,

Hm2;Q 3x < 7 v KmHiBTHB+M/Q TQ` Rfj- b2 iB2M2 [m2 x < 7/3 2b 2H
+QMDmMiQ bQHm+BƦMX

kX 0 < (x + 3)(2x + 4). h2M2KQb /Qb TQbB#BHB//2b,

V 0 < x + 3 v 0 < 2x + 4, +mv bQHm+BƦM 2b H BMi2`b2++BƦM /2

−3 < x +QM −2 < x, 2b /2+B`- −2 < x.
#V x + 3 < 0 v 2x + 4 < 0, +mv bQHm+BƦM 2b H BMi2`b2++BƦM /2
x < −3 +QM x < −2, 2b /2+B`- x < −3.

.2 2bi KM2` H bQHm+BƦM b2`ő H mMBƦM /2 −2 < x +QM x < −3, 2b

/2+B`- bQM iQ/Qb HQb x iH2b [m2 x < −3 Ʀ −2 < x.X 1M iû`KBMQb /2
BMi2`pHQb H bQHm+BƦM S b2`,

S : (−∞, −3) ∧ (−2, ∞).

d9 aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

+iBpB// kXjXj,
RX 1b+`B#B` +/ mMQ /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b bm#+QMDmMiQb /2 R 2M H MQi+BƦM
/2 BMi2`pHQb v `2T`2bûMi2HQb 2M H `2+i `2H,

V A = {x ∈ R : 1 < x < 4}. /V D = {x ∈ R : −x ≤ 2}.

#V B = {x ∈ R : x > 5}. 2V E = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x}.
+V C = {x ∈ R : −2 ≤ x}. 7 V F = {x ∈ R : 3 ≤ x < 7}.

kX _2HBx` Hb QT2`+BQM2b BM/B+/b +QM HQb +QMDmMiQb /2H 2D2`+B+BQ M@
i2`BQ` v `2T`2b2Mi2HQb 2M H `2+i `2H,

V A ∪ C /V D ∩ B
#V A ∪ (B ∩ C) 2V A ∪ (F ∪ C)
+V E − A 7 V (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

jX _2bQHp2` Hb bB;mB2Mi2 BM2+m+BQM2b 2M R v 2b+`B#B` H bQHm+BƦM 2M H

MQi+BƦM /2 BMi2`pHQbX _2HBx` bm `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM 2M H `2+i `2H,

V 2x − 2/3 > 6x 1 x
2V > 2 .
#V 1 − 35 x < 2 x x −1
+V x2 − 1 ≤ 0. x−2
/V 8 − 2x2 ≥ 0 7V
x + 1/3)(x + 5)

1H pHQ` #bQHmiQ
H T`BM+BTBQ /2 2bi mMB// 2bi#H2+BKQb H `2+i MmKû`B+- /2 iH bm2`i2 [m2-
iQKM/Q +QKQ `272`2M+B mM TmMiQ +QKQ 2H MȹK2`Q +2`Q v mM b2;K2MiQ +QKQ
mMB// /2 K2/B/-  +/ TmMiQ /2 H `2+i H2 +Q``2bTQM/ő mM MȹK2`Q `2HX
1M iû`KBMQb ;2QKûi`B+Qb 2biQ bB;MB}+ [m2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b TQbBiBpQb Tm2/2M
BMi2`T`2i`b2 +QKQ HQM;Bim/2b /2 b2;K2MiQb `2bT2+iQ /2 mM mMB// /2 K2/B/
/2i2`KBM/X

amTQM;KQb [m2 2M 2H TmMiQ A /2 H };m` bB;mB2Mi2 b2 ? m#B+/Q 2H yX 1H

MȹK2`Q bQ+B/Q  mM TmMiQ P `#Bi``BQ b2 HHK +QQ`/2M/ /2H TmMiQX aB P1 v
P2 bQM /Qb TmMiQb `#Bi``BQb 2M H `2+i MmKû`B+ +QM +QQ`/2M/b x1 v x2 , H
K2/B/ `2HiBp /2 P1 P2 b2 +H+mH K2/BMi2 H 2tT`2bBƦM
GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b +QKQ bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q d8

.2 +m2`/Q  H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ /2 H };m` Mi2`BQ` b2 iB2M2 [m2

m(AP2 ) = m(AP1 ) + m(P1 P2 ). 1b /2+B`- x2 = x1 + m(P1 P2 ) v TQ` HQ iMiQ-
m(P1 P2 ) = x2 − x1 .

1bim/BM/Q HQb Qi`Qb +bQb TQbB#H2b 2M HQ [m2 `2bT2+i  H m#B++BƦM `2HiBp /2

HQb TmMiQb P1 v P2 `2bT2+iQ /2H Q`B;2M A b2 Tm2/2 +QKT`Q#` [m2 H 7Ʀ`KmH Mi2@
`BQ` bB;m2 bB2M/Q p€HB/X .2 2bi 7Q`K b2 2bi#H2+2- /2 KM2` Mim`H- H MQ+BƦM
/2 /BbiM+B 2Mi`2 /Qb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b bQ#`2 H `2+i MmKû`B+X SQ` /2}MB+BƦM H
/BbiM+B 2Mi`2 /Qb TmMiQb b2`€ H K2/B/ /2H b2;K2MiQ /2i2`KBM/Q TQ` 2HHQb-
2M H /B`2++BƦM TQbBiBp /2 H `2+i v b2 HHK`€ K2/B/ #bQHmi /2H b2;K2MiQX
aB P 2b mM TmMiQ bQ#`2 mM `2+i MmKû`B+ v x 2b 2H MȹK2`Q `2H bQ+B/Q +QM
ûH- iH +QKQ b2 BM/B+ 2M H };m` bB;mB2Mi2- /2}MBKQb 2H pHQ` #bQHmiQ /2 x- v HQ
/2MQi`2KQb |x| , +QKQ H /BbiM+B /2 P H Q`B;2MX

liBHBxM/Q H /2}MB+BƦM /2 /BbiM+B // Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2- b2 Tm2/2 Q#b2`p`

[m2 bB P 2bi€  H /2`2+? /2H Q`B;2M A, x 2b TQbBiBpQ v bm /BbiM+B H Q`B;2M
2bi`€ // TQ` m(AP ) = x − 0 = x, KB2Mi`b [m2 bB P 2bi€  H Bx[mB2`/ /2 A,
x b2`€ M2;iBpQ v bm /BbiM+B H Q`B;2M 2bi`€ // TQ` m(P A) = 0 − x = −x.
a2 Tm2/2 +QM+HmB` TQ` HQ iMiQ [m2,

kXjXd .2}MB+BƦMX UoHQ` #bQHmiQV

1H pHQ` #bQHmiQ /2 x ∈ R b2 /2}M2 +QKQ,

x bB x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x bB x < 0.

kXjX3 1D2KTHQX

RX .2 +m2`/Q +QM Hb /2}MB+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b

   
3  3
 = −  = 3 ,
4  4 4

HQ +mH b2 /2bT`2M/2 +H`K2Mi2 /2H bB;MB}+/Q BMimBiBpQ [m2 H2 ?2KQb

//Q H pHQ` #bQHmiQ /2 mM MȹK2`Q v [m2 2M 2bi2 +bQ /B+2 [m2 H
/BbiM+B H Q`B;2M /2 HQb TmMiQb K`+/Qb +QM 3/4 v −3/4 2b H
KBbKX
de aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

kX aB P1 v P2 bQM TmMiQb +QM +QQ`/2M/b x1 = 23 v x2 = − 12 `2bT2+@

iBpK2Mi2- b2 iB2M2 [m2 H /BbiM+B 2Mi`2 P1 v P2 pB2M2 // TQ` H
2tT`2bBƦM,    
 1 2   7  7
|x2 − x1 | = − −  = −  = .

2 3 6 6

jX S` a ∈ R, H 2+m+BƦM |x − a| = 3 [mB2`2 /2+B` [m2 #mb+KQb HQb Mȹ@

K2`Qb `2H2b x iH2b [m2 H /BbiM+B /2 x  a, 2b B;mH  jX SQ` 2D2KTHQ
bB  4 k- i2M/`őKQb H 2+m+BƦM |x − 2| = 3 [m2 ;2QKûi`B+K2Mi2 b2
Tm2/2 pBbmHBx` 2M H ;`€}+ bB;mB2Mi2,

.2 2bi 7Q`K- iMiQ x = 5, +QKQ x = −1 +Q``2bTQM/2M  bQHm+BQM2b

/2 H 2+m+BƦM |x − 2| = 3.

S`QTB2//2b /2H pHQ` #bQHmiQ

1bib T`QTB2//2b bQM Kmv ȹiBH2b T` `2bQHp2` 2+m+BQM2bX B THMi2KQb
/Qb iBTQb /2 2bib 2+m+BQM2b- Hb +mH2b b2 T`2b2MiM 7`2+m2Mi2K2Mi2X
G T`BK2` 2+m+BƦM iB2M2 H 7Q`K |ax + b| ≤ r v |ax + b| ≥ r- /QM/2 a, b, r ∈
R- +QM r ≥ 0X H;mMQb 2D2KTHQb MQb /M Tmib T` H `2bQHm+BQM /2 2bib
2+m+BQM2bX

kXjXN 1D2KTHQX
_2bQHp2` Hb 2+m+BQM2b THMi2/b,
GQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b +QKQ bBbi2K tBQK€iB+Q dd

RX _2bQHp2` |2x − 3| = 5X
a2 iQKM /Qb +bQb,

V 2x − 3 ≥ 0- 2MiQM+2b |2x − 3| = 2x − 3 = 5c /2 HQ +mH b2 bB;m2

[m2 2x = 5 + 3 = 8X SQ` HQ iMiQ- x = 4.
#V 2x−3 < 0- 2MiQM+2b |2x − 3| = −(2x−3) = 5c /2 HQ +mH b2 bB;m2
[m2 −2x + 3 = 5X 1MiQM+2b 3 − 5 = 2xc TQ` HQ iMiQ- 2x = −2.c
/2 HQ +mH b2 /2/m+2 [m2 x = −1.

kX _2bQHp2` |2x − 3| < 5.

*QK#BMM/Q HQb /Qb +bQb /2H pHQ` #bQHmiQ- b2 +QM+Hmv2 [m2

−5 < 2x − 3 < 5
X
THB+M/Q T`QTB2//2b /2 Hb /2bB;m//2b- b2 iB2M2 [m2 −5 + 3 <
2x < 5 + 3- 2MiQM+2b −2 < 2x < 8- /BpB/B2M/Q +/ iû`KBMQ /2 Hb
/2bB;mH//2b TQ` 2- +QKQ 2b TQbBiBpQ- b2 +QMb2`pM Hb /2bB;mH//2b
v Q#i2M2KQb, −1 < x < 4- [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2 H BMi2`pHQ (1, 4).

jX _2bQHp2` |2x − 3| > 5X

*QK#BMM/Q HQb /Qb +bQ /2H pHQ` #bQHmiQ- b2 iB2M2 [m2

(2x − 3 < −5) ∨ (2x − 3 > 5)

X 1MiQM+2b (x < −1) ∨ (x > 4)- TQ` HQ iMiQ H bQHm+BƦM b2`€,

(−∞, −1) ∪ (4, +∞).

+iBpB// kXjX9,
1b+`B#B` +/ mMQ /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b bm#+QMDmMiQb /2 R 2M H MQi+BƦM /2
BMi2`pHQb v `2T`2bûMi2HQb 2M H `2+i `2H,

RX |5 − 2x| = 8X 9X |5x − 5| ≥ 5X

kX |−5 − 3x| = 10X 8X |7 − 3x| > 10X

jX |7 − 4x| ≤ 2X eX |7 − 3x| < 8X

d3 aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

kX9 SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb

bő- +QKQ  T`iB` /2 H bmK /2 +MiB//2b B;mH2b /2}MBKQb H KmHiBTHB+@
+BƦM- iK#BûM b2 /2}M2 mM Mm2p QT2`+BƦM  T`iB` /2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 7+iQ`2b
B;mH2bX .2 2bi 7Q`K- bB a `2T`2b2Mi mM MȹK2`Q `2H v n mM MȹK2`Q Mim`H- b2
/2}M2 2H bB;MB}+/Q /2 HQb bőK#QHQb an v  a−n /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`

SQi2M+Bb 2Mi2`b
bő +QKQ  T`iB` /2 H bmK /2 +MiB//2b B;mH2b /2}MBKQb H KmHiBTHB++BƦM-
iK#BûM b2 /2}M2 mM Mm2p QT2`+BƦM  T`iB` /2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 7+iQ`2b B;mH2bX
.2 2bi 7Q`K- bB a `2T`2b2Mi mM MȹK2`Q `2H v n mM MȹK2`Q Mim`H- b2 /2}M2
2H bB;MB}+/Q /2 HQb bőK#QHQb an v  a−n /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,

kX9XR .2}MB+BƦMX USQi2M+Bb 2Mi2`bV

a2 n ∈ N, b2 /2}M2,

RX a0 = 1, +mM/Q a = 0. U00 MQ b2 /2}M2VX

kX an = a × a × a× · · · × a .
n−p2+2b

1
jX a−n = (an )−1 = . 1b /2+B`- a−n 2b 2H BMp2`bQ /2 an .
an

1M H 2tT`2bBƦM an H MȹK2`Q a b2 H2 /2MQKBM #b2 v H MȹK2`Q n 2tTQM2Mi2X 1M

2bi2 +bQ 2H 2tTQM2Mi2 2b 2Mi2`QX

kX9Xk 1D2KTHQX
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
RX = · = = = 2.
4 4 4 4·4 16 4
4
3 3 3 3 3 3·3·3·3 81 34
kX = · · · = = = 4.
2 2 2 2 2 2·2·2·2 16 2
*QMQ+B2M/Q HQb `2bmHi/Qb Mi2`BQ`2b b2 Tm2/2 +H+mH` /2 KM2` BMK2/B@
i (3/2)−4 v (1/4)−2 [m2 bQM HQb BMp2`bQb /2 (3/2)4 v (1/4)2 - `2bT2+iBp@
K2Mi2X

.2 Hb /2}MB+BQM2b //b Mi2b- b2 /2`BpM Hb bB;mB2Mi2b +m2biBQM2b,

aB a v b /2MQiM MȹK2`Qb `2H2b v n mM MȹK2`Q Mim`H- 2MiQM+2b-
1 1 1
RX = an , Tm2biQ [m2 −n = 1 = an .
a−n a a
SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb dN

n−p2+2b
  
n
a a a a × ··· × a an
kX = × ··· × = = n.
b b  b b × ·
· · × b b
n−p2+2b n−p2+2b

−n n
a bn b
jX = =
b an a
/2K€b b2 +mKTH2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b #€bB+b,

kX9Xj h2Q`2KX
a2M a mM MȹK2`Q `2H v n v m MȹK2`Qb Mim`H2b- 2MiQM+2b,

RX an am = an+m .

kX (am )n = amn .

jX (ab)n = an bn .

kX9X9 1D2KTHQX

RX
3 2 3 3 6 3·2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= = · · · · = =
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

kX
3
3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 3 3 1 1 1
· = · · · = · · · ·
5 7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5 5 5 7 7 7
3 3 1 3
=
5 6

jX
5 1 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
− − = − − − − − · −
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
4 5+1 4 6
= − = − .
9 9

SQi2M+Bb `+BQMH2b
1M H b2++BƦM Mi2`BQ` /2}MBKQb H QT2`+BƦM an T` a ∈ R v n ∈ N. 1M 2bi
b2++BƦM 2ti2M/2`2KQb 2bi QT2`+BƦM T` 2tTQM2Mi2b `+BQMH2b- /2 KM2` [m2
3y aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

b2 +QMb2`p2M Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb 2tTQM2Mi2b 2Mi2`QbX 1M T`BK2` BMbiM+B 2b@

im/BKQb 2H +bQ 2M 2H +mH HQb 2tTQM2Mi2b bQM /2 H 7Q`K 1/n, n ∈ N.
√
_2+Q`/2KQb [m2 H `őx +m/`/ a /2 mM MȹK2`Q a TQbBiBpQ- b2 /2}M2 +QKQ
√ 2
2H MȹK2`Q [m2 2H2p/Q H +m/`/Q 2b B;mH  ac 2biQ 2b- ( a) = a. .2 H KBbK
KM2` b2 Tm2/2 2ti2M/2` 2bi /2}MB+BƦM T` +mH[mB2` MȹK2`Q Mim`H n.

kX9X8 .2}MB+BƦMX U_őx n@ûbBKV

.2+BKQb [m2 H `őx n@ûbBK /2 mM MȹK2`Q `2H a TQbBiBpQ- 2b 2H MȹK2`Q
√ √ n
`2H n a = a1/n , 2H +mH biBb7+2 H B;mH// ( n a) = a. S` 2H +bQ M 4
√
k- b2 +QHQ+ bBKTH2K2Mi2 a.

P#b2`p2 [m2 2H 2MmM+B/Q /2 H /2}MB+BƦM 2bi#H2+2 [m2 2M R, H 2+m+BƦM xn −a =

√
0, /QM/2 a 2b `2H TQbBiBpQ bB2KT`2 iB2M2 bQHm+BƦMX a2 Tm2/2 p2` [m2 − n a- +mM/Q
n 2b T`- iK#BûM biBb7+2 H +QM/B+BƦM /2 `őx 2MûbBK /2 a, Tm2b- TQ` b2` n /2
H 7Q`K n = 2k, k Mim`H- b2 Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`
 √ n  √ 2 k  √ 2 k  √ n
−na = −na = na = n a = a.

SQ` HQ Mi2`BQ` b2 bm2H2 ?#H` /2 dz`őx M2;iBpǴ v dz`őx TQbBiBpǴ- +mM/Q n 2b

√
T`- T2`Q 2H bőK#QHQ n a √ b2 `2b2`p 2t+HmbBpK2Mi2 T` H `őx TQbBiBp Q `őx
T`BM+BTHX .2 2bi 7Q`K 4 = 2, mM[m2 H 2+m+BƦM x2 = 4 i2M; /Qb bQHm+BQM2b
x = 2 v x = −2, Tm2b 22 = (−2)2 = 4.

kX9Xe 1D2KTHQX
1 √
RX (73 ) 3 = 73 = 7.
3

1 √
kX 36 2 = 36 = 6.
1 √
jX (32) 5 = 5 32 = 2.

*QKQ 2D2`+B+BQ- T`Q#` [m2 b2 +mKTH2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2bX

kX9Xd h2Q`2KX
S` a ∈ R+ :
 1
n 1 1
RX an =a a n an
9X = 1
b bn
1
kX (an ) = a n

1 1 1 1
 1
1
jX (ab) n = a n b n 8X a nm = a n m
SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb 3R

P#b2`p+BƦM NX >2KQb /2}MB/Q H `őx 2MûbBK T` mM a ∈ R, Tm2b +mM/Q

a 2b M2;iBpQ v n T`- a MQ iB2M2 `őx 2MûbBK- iH 2b 2H +bQ /2 −9- Tm2biQ [m2
MQ 2tBbi2 mM MȹK2`Q `2H [m2 2H2p/Q H +m/`/Q b2 B;mH  −9X aBM 2K#`;Q-
T`
√ 2H +bQ 2M 2H +mH a ∈ R− v n 2b BKT` bB 2tBbi2 H `őx 2MûbBKc TQ` 2D2KTHQ
3
−8 = −2, Tm2biQ [m2 (−2)3 = −8.
G /2}MB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` T2`KBi2 2ti2M/2` H /2}MB+BƦM /2 TQi2M+Bb +QM 2tTQ@
M2Mi2 2Mi2`Q  TQi2M+Bb +QM 2tTQM2Mi2 7`++BQM`BQ /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,

kX9X3 .2}MB+BƦMX U1tTQM2Mi2b `+BQMH2bV

√
a2M m v n 2Mi2`Qb +QM 0 < nX a2 a mM MȹK2`Q `2H iH [m2 n a 2biû #B2M
/2}MB/QX a2 iB2M2
1 1  √ m
a n = (am ) n = (a n )m = n a
m

P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H /2}MB+BƦM b2 2bi#H2+2 T` mM MȹK2`Q `2H TQbBiBpQ a- 2biQ b2

/2#2  [m2 +mM/Q a 2b M2;iBpQ MQ b2 +mKTH2 H B;mH// Mi2`BQ`,
1 √
(am ) n = ( n a)m ,
2 BM+HmbQ +mM/Q n 2b T`- H B;mH// +`2+2 /2 iQ/Q b2MiB/Q 2M 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 HQb
 2 √ 2
MȹK2`Qb `2H2bX hH 2b 2H +bQ +mM/Q a = −1, Tm2biQ [m2 (−1)1/2 = −1
  1 √
MQ 2tBbi2 2M R, KB2Mi`b [m2 (−1)2 2 = 1 = 1.

kX9XN h2Q`2KX
S` a v b `2H2b TQbBiBpQb v m/n v r/s 2M Q, b2 +mKTH2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b
T`QTB2//2b,

RX a n a s = a n + s X jX (ab) n = a n b n X
m r m r m m m

 r
kX = a ns X
m s mr
an

kX9XRy 1D2KTHQX aBKTHB}[m2KQb Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2tT`2bBQM2b,

√ √ 1 1 1 1 √
RX 3
54 = 27 · 2 = (33 · 2) 3 = (33 ) 3 · 2 3 = 3 · 2 3 = 3 3 2.
3

3 1 3 1 1 √
kX 81 14 · 81 28 = 81 14 + 28 = 81 4 = 4 81 = 3.
 √ 4 4
4 33 4 · 33 4 4 2
jX −1 2 = −1 2 = 4 · 2 · 3 3 · 3−2 = 8 · 3 3 −2 = 8 · 3− 3 .
2 3 2 3
 1 − 12 1 1 1 1
6−2 · 8 3 (6−2 )− 2 · (8 3 )− 2 6 · 8− 6 1 1
9X = = = 6·62 ·8− 6 = 216·8− 6
64 1
(64 )− 2 6 −2
3k aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

+iBpB// kX9XR,
RX 1M HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +bQb `2bTQM/ 7HbQ Q p2`//2`Q DmbiB}+M/Q bm
`2bTm2bi,

V 2n · 2n = 4n +V 2n + 2n = 2n+1
2 −1
2
#V 3 · (2)n = (3 · 2)n /V − = .
3 3

kX liBHB+2 Hb T`QTB2/2/2b /2 Hb TQi2M+Bb T` bBKTHB}+` +/ 2tT`2@

bBƦM,
 5 1 6 −3  −1
V 2s3 t−2 s 16t4
4
 √
3
#V 272 64x6
 −3
x2 y −3  6 −3 4
+V y x
4x−2
/V (81x)3/4 32 x5/4 .
 −1
1 1 2 
 + + 
4 3 4 
2V   .
 3+ 1
 

 5 
1+
3

1tTQM2Mi2b `2H2b
1M H /2}MB+BƦM /2H bőK#QHQ ax ?2KQb b2;mB/Q mM T`Q+2bQ /2 2ti2MbBQM2b bm+2bB@
pb [m2 ?M T2`KBiB/Q Tb` /2 TQi2M+Bb +QM 2tTQM2Mi2b 2Mi2`Qb  TQi2M+Bb +QM
2tTQM2Mi2 `+BQMH- T2`Q bBKmHi€M2K2Mi2-  K2/B/ [m2 b2 KTHB# 2H +QMDmMiQ
/2 MȹK2`Qb [m2 TQ/őM b2`pB` /2 2tTQM2Mi2- b2 `2bi`BM;ő 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 MȹK2`Qb
[m2 TQ/`őM b2`pB` /2 #b2X bő- T` 2H +bQ /2 2tTQM2Mi2b 2Mi2`Qb +mH[mB2` Mȹ@
K2`Q `2H Tm2/2 b2`pB` /2 #b2- 2t+2TiQ TQ` 2H +bQ 00 [m2 MQ 2bi€ /2}MB/Q- T2`Q
T` 2H +bQ /2 2tTQM2Mi2b `+BQMH2b HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b M2;iBpQb MQ Tm2/2M
b2`pB` /2 #b2 T` +mH[mB2` 2tTQM2Mi2 `+BQMHX

1M 2bi b2++BƦM b2 THMi2- bBM /2KQbi`+BƦM- [m2 2b TQbB#H2 /` mM /2}MB+BƦM
/2 TQi2M+B +QM 2tTQM2Mi2 `2H v #b2 TQbBiBp [m2 +QMb2`p Hb KBbKb T`QTB2@
//2b 7Q`KH2b /2 Hb TQi2M+Bb +QM 2tTQM2Mi2 `+BQMH v [m2  bm p2x- pB2M2 
+QMbiBimB` mM 2ti2MbBƦM /2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2 TQi2M+B +QM 2tTQM2Mi2 `+BQMHX
SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb 3j

kX9XRR h2Q`2KX
a2 a mM MȹK2`Q `2H TQbBiBpQ v x, y MȹK2`Qb `2H2b `#Bi``BQbX 1tBbi2 mM
MȹK2`Q `2H TQbBiBpQ ax [m2 HHK`2KQb TQi2M+B /2 #b2 a v 2tTQM2Mi2 x-
[m2 +mKTH2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTB2//2b,

ax ay = ax+y .
 x y
a = axy .
(ab)x = ax bx .

*mM/Q x 2b mM `+BQMH- ax +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H pHQ` //Q TQ` H /2}MB+BƦM kX9X SQ`
/2}MB+BƦM a−x = 1/ax X 1b BKTQ`iMi2 KMi2M2` T`2b2Mi2 [m2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2H
i2Q`2K kX9 [m2 biBb7+2M Hb TQi2M+Bb +QM 2tTQM2Mi2 `2H bQM Hb KBbKb [m2
biBb7+2M Hb TQi2M+Bb +QM 2tTQM2Mi2 `+BQMH Q 2Mi2`QX bő- [mB2M 2biû 7KBHB@
`Bx/Q +QM 2H KM2DQ /2 2bib ȹHiBKb- HQ 2bi`€ iK#BûM +QM 2H KM2DQ /2 Hb
TQi2M+Bb +QM 2tTQM2Mi2 `2HX AHmbi`KQb 2bi }`K+BƦM +QM H bB;mB2Mi2 bBKTHB@
}++BƦMX
√
a2 3 · bπ √ √
= a2 3 3 π
√ · a− · bπ · b− 2 ,
3
π
a ·b 2
√ √
= a2 3− 3 π
· bπ− 2
√
3
=a
π
· b2 .
√
ǯ*ƦKQ +H+mH` 3 2 \
a2;m`K2Mi2 i2 T`2;mMi`€b TQ` [mû ?v [m2 2ti2M/2` 2H +QM+2TiQ /2 TQi2M+B
+QM 2tTQM2Mi2 2Mi2`Q- +mvQ bB;MB}+/Q BMimBiBpQ 2b Kmv +H`Q v [m2 2M iû`KBMQb
;2M2`H2b Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i`b2 +QKQ mM MQi+BƦM #`2pB/ /2 H KmHiBTHB++BƦM-
H +QM+2TiQ /2 TQi2M+B +QM 2tTQM2Mi2 `2H +mvQ bB;MB}+/Q
√ T`2+2 #biMi2 #b@
i`+iQX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- MQ iB2M2 b2MiB/Q BMi2`T`2i` 3 2 +QKQ KmHiBTHB+` 2H MȹK2`Q
j- `őx /2 /Qb p2+2bX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2M H KQ/2HBx+BƦM /2 Km+?Qb 72MQK2MQb b2
HH2;  M2+2bBi` 2bi2 +QM+2TiQX

GQ;`BiKQb
G22 +QM /2i2MBKB2MiQ 2H bB;mB2Mi2 T`Q#H2K 2 BMi2Mi `2bQHp2`HQ,

G TQ#H+BƦM 7mim` /2 mM Tm2#HQ- [m2 +imHK2Mi2

2b /2 3yyy ?#BiMi2b Tm2/2 T`QtBK`b2 K2/BMi2 H
7Ʀ`KmH y = 8000(1,4)−0,2t - /QM/2 t 2b 2H MȹK2`Q /2
ƢQb T`iB` /2 ?QvX .2i2`KBM2  HQb +m€MiQb ƢQb i2M@
/`€ 9yyy ?#BiMi2bX
39 aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

aB MQ HQ;`b Q#i2M2` mM `2bTm2bi- MQ i2 BKT+B2Mi2bX S` `2bQHp2`HQ- 2M 2bi

b2++BƦM BMi`Q/m+B`2KQb H MQ+BƦM /2 HQ;`BiKQbX

kX9XRk .2}MB+BƦMX UGQ;`BiKQV

a2M a v b MȹK2`Qb `2H2b TQbBiBpQb +QM a = 1X aB T` mM MȹK2`Q `2H y
b2 +mKTH2 [m2 ay = b- /2+BKQb [m2 2bi2 MȹK2`Q 2b 2H ĿHQ;`BiKQ 2M #b2 a
/2 bŀ v b2 /2MQi +QM 2H bőK#QHQ,

y ≡ loga b.

a2 Tm2/2 `22b+`B#B`- TQ` HQ iMiQ- H B;mH// Mi2`BQ` +QKQ

aloga b = b.

1b /2+B` [m2 2H ĿHQ;`BiKQ /2 mM MȹK2`Q 2M mM #b2 //- 2b 2H 2tTQM2Mi2

H +mH ?v [m2 2H2p` H #b2 T` `2T`Q/m+B` 2H MȹK2`QŀX 1biQ 2b,

loga b = y ⇐⇒ ay = b.
*mM/Q a = 10 b2 ?#H /2 HQ;`BiKQb pmH;`2b Q /2+BKH2bX *mM/Q a = e
HQb HQ;`BiKQb b2 HHKM Mim`H2b v b2 2b+`B#2 ln b 2M Hm;` /2 loge bX

kX9XRj 1D2KTHQX

RX loga 1 = 0- Tm2b a0 = 1- T` +mH[mB2` #b2 aX

kX log8 2 = 3- Tm2b 23 = 8X

jX log10 10000 = 4- Tm2b 104 = 10000X

1 1 1
9X log2 = −5- Tm2b 2−5 = 5 = X
32 2 32
8X loga an = n- Tm2b +H`K2Mi2 an = an - T` +mH[mB2` #b2 aX

1tT`2bKQb 2M 7Q`K /2 i2Q`2K Hb T`QTB2//2b #€bB+b /2 HQb HQ;`BiKQbX

kX9XR9 h2Q`2KX
a2M a- x 2 y MȹK2`Qb `2H2b MQ M2;iBpQb v a = 1X 1MiQM+2b,

RX loga xy = loga x + loga yX

1
kX loga = − loga xX
x
x
jX loga = loga x − loga yX
y
SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb 38

9X loga xy = y loga x- 2M 2bi2 +bQ Ŀyŀ Tm2/2 b2` +mH[mB2` MȹK2`Q `2HX

.2KQbi`+BƦMX Gb /2KQbi`+BQM2b /2 Hb T`QTB2//2b Mi2`BQ`2b b2 `2/m+2M  mM

THB++BƦM /B`2+i /2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2 HQ;`BiKQ v T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb 2tTQM2Mi2bX
RX
aloga x+loga y = aloga x aloga y . S`QTB2//2b /2 Hb TQi2M+BbX
= xy. .2}MB+BƦM /2H HQ;`BiKQX

Sm2biQ [m2 2H HQ;`BiKQ /2 xy 2b ȹMB+Q v TQ` /2}MB+BƦM 2b 2H MȹK2`Q H

+mH ?v [m2 2H2p` H #b2 a T` Q#i2M2` xyX a2 ? /2KQbi`/Q [m2 2bi2
MȹK2`Q 2b loga x + loga yX SQ` HQ iMiQ-

loga xy = loga x + loga y.

kX
1 1
aloga x = . .2}MB+BƦM /2 HQ;`BiKQ.
x
1
= . .2}MB+BƦM /2 HQ;`BiKQX
aloga x
= a− loga x . S`QTB2// /2 HQb 2tTQM2Mi2bX
1
loga = − loga x. lMB+B// /2H HQ;`BiKQ /2 1/x Q +Q@
x
``2bTQM/2M+B #BmMőpQ+ 2Mi`2 TQ@
i2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQbX
jX
loga x x
a y = . .2}MB+BƦM /2 HQ;`BiKQX
y
aloga x
= log y . .2}MB+BƦM /2 HQ;`BiKQX
a a
= aloga x−loga y . S`QTB2// /2 Hb TQi2M+Bb `2H2bX
x
loga = loga x − loga y. lMB+B// /2H HQ;`BiKQ /2 x/yX
y
9X
aloga x = xy . .2}MB+BƦM /2 HQ;`BiKQX
y

 y
= aloga x . .2}MB+BƦM /2 HQ;`BiKQX
y loga x
=a . S`QTB2// /2 Hb TQi2M+Bb `2H2bX
loga x = y loga x.
y
lMB+B// /2H HQ;`BiKQ /2 xy X
3e aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

*K#BQ /2 #b2
1H bB;mB2Mi2 i2Q`2K 2tT`2b H KM2` +QKQ 2H HQ;`BiKQ /2 mM MȹK2`Q b2 Tm2/2
i`Mb7Q`K` /2 mM #b2  Qi`X

kX9XR8 h2Q`2KX
a2M a v b MȹK2`Qb `2H2b TQbBiBpQb v x mM MȹK2`Q `2H TQbBiBpQ- 2MiQM+2b,
loga x
logb x = .
loga b

.2KQbi`+BƦMX SQ` H /2}MB+BƦM /2 HQ;`BiKQ b2 Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`-

x = blogb x .
hQKM/Q HQ;`BiKQb 2M #b2 a  K#Qb H/Qb /2 H B;mH// Mi2`BQ`- b2 iB2M2,
 
loga x = loga blogb x ,
= logb x loga b.
SQ` HQ iMiQ-
loga x
logb x = .
loga b

kX9XRe 1D2KTHQX

RX log8 4 b2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b` 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQ;`BiKQb /2 #b2 2 /2 H

bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,
log2 4 2
log2 4 = = ,
log2 8 3
Tm2b 22 = 4 v 23 = 8X

√
kX log3 6 b2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b` 2M iû`KBMQb /2 HQ;`BiKQb /2 #b2 10 /2
H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,
√
√ log10 6
log3 6 = .
log10 3

*H+mHM/Q /B+?Q `2bmHi/Q +QM T`QtBK+BƦM  Hb KBHûbBKb i2M/`2@

KQb-
√ 1
√ log10 6 log10 6
log3 6 = = 2 ≈ 0, 815.
log10 3 log10 3
SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb 3d

*QKTH2K2Mi imb +QMQ@

kX8 LȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb
+BKB2MiQb /2 HQ;`BiKQb
`2pBbM/Q 2H bB;mB2Mi2
1M Hb mMB//2b Mi2`BQ`2b b2 ? 2bim/B/Q 2H bBb@
pB/2Q- 2M 2H +mH b2 /2@
i2K Ki2K€iB+Q /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2bX a2 ?
b``QHH mM T`Q#H2K /2
pBbiQ [m2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b `2bmHiM /2+m/Qb
THB++BƦM,
T` Km+?Qb T`Q#H2Kb Ki2K€iB+Qb v T`€+iB+Qb-
T2`Q 2tBbi2 mM HBKBi+BƦM 2M 2H bBbi2K +mM/Q
b2 i`i /2 /` bQHm+BƦM  H;mMb 2+m+BQM2bX SQ`
2D2KTHQ- H 2+m+BƦM x2 + 5 = 0 MQ iB2M2 bQHm+BƦM
`2H /2#B/Q  [m2 2H +m/`/Q /2 iQ/Q MȹK2`Q
`2H 2b MQ M2;iBpQX 1M Km+?Qb T`Q#H2Kb M2+2@
bBiKQb /2 mM bBbi2K 2M 2H +mH Hb 2+m+BQM2b
/2 2bi2 iBTQ i2M;M bQHm+BƦMX 1M 2bi mMB// T`2@
?iiTb,ffvQmimX#2f b2Mi`2KQb 2H bBbi2K /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb-
DPnCMCsK"u /2H +mH 2H bBbi2K /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b 2b mM
bm#bBbi2K- v MQ iB2M2 H HBKBi+BƦM K2M+BQM/X

.2#B/Q  [m2 2H Mm2pQ bBbi2K b2`pB`€ T` `2bQHp2` 2+m+BQM2b- 2M ûbi2 /2#2`2KQb
/2}MB` QT2`+BQM2b +QKQ H /B+BƦM v KmHiBTHB++BƦM 2Mi`2 `2H2b- [m2 b2;mB`2KQb
MQiM/Q +QM + v · `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2- +QM Hb KBbKb T`QTB2//2b 7Q`KH2bX

o2KQb +m€H 2b H 2b2M+B 2M H +QMbi`m++BƦM /2H bBbi2K /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QK@

TH2DQb [m2 /2MQi`2KQb +QM 2H bőK#QHQ CX Zm2`2KQb [m2 Hb 2+m+BQM2b /2 H
7Q`K x2 = a +QM a < 0 i2M;M bQHm+BƦM 2M C- 2M T`iB+mH` +mM/Q a = −1X
1b /2+B` [m2 /2#2 ?#2` H;ȹM √ 2H2K2MiQ 2M C [m2 /2MQi`2KQb +QM H H2i` i-
iH [m2 i2 = −1X aB /QTiKQb −1 +QKQ MȹK2`Q- TQ/2KQb /2bB;M` +mH[mB2`
`őx √
M2;iBp K2/BMi2 2bi 2tT`2bBƦMX 1KT2+2KQb 2bi#H2+B2M/Q H /2bB;M+BƦM
i = −1, HQ [m2 bB;MB}+ [m2 i2 = −1; T` mM `őx M2;iBp b2 mb 2H bB;mB2Mi2
T`Q+2bQX a2 a ∈ R,
  √ √ √
−a2 = (−1)(a2 ) = a2 −1 = a2 i

kX8XR 1D2KTHQX
√
RX −25 = 5i.
√ √
kX 2 − π = π − 2 i.

1H MȹK2`Q i 2b HHK/Q MȹK2`Q BK;BM`BQX

33 aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

+iBpB// kX8XR,

RX *H+mH2 i2 , i3 , i4 , i5 , i23 , i106 , i201 .

kX 1M+m2Mi`2 mM `2;H ;2M2`H T` in , /QM/2 n ∈ N.

*QKQ [m2`2KQb /2K€b [m2 R 2biû +QMi2MB/Q 2M C v [m2 C b2 +2``/Q #DQ H
KmHiBTHB++BƦM 2MiQM+2b- T` iQ/Q b 2M R- b i /2#2 2bi` 2M CX /2K€b C /2#2`€
b2` +2``/Q #DQ H /B+BƦM- Hm2;Q T` iQ/Q a ∈ R- a+b i /2#2`€ 2bi` 2M C- .2 2b@
i KM2` C /2#2`€ +QMi2M2` iQ/Qb HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 H 7Q`K a+b i +QM a v b 2M RX

SQ` ȹHiBKQ- bB /2b2KQb [m2 H KmHiBTHB++BƦM v /B+BƦM 2M C i2M;M Hb KBbKb

T`QTB2//2b 7Q`KH2b [m2 2M R U+QMKmiiBpB//- bQ+BiBpB//- /Bbi`B#miBpB//-
2i+XV- HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 C /2#2`€M bmK`b2 v KmHiBTHB+`b2 /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 7Q`K,

(a + b i) + (c + d i) = (a + c) + (b i + d i),
= (a + c) + (b + d ) i.
(a + b i)(c + d i) = (a + b i)c + (a + b i)d i.
= ac + bc i + ad i + bd i2 ,
= ac − bd + ad i + bc i,
= (ac − bd ) + (ad + bc) i.

_2bmKB2M/Q- Hb bB;mB2Mi2b `2;Hb T` H /B+BƦM v KmHiBTHB++BƦM b2 /2#2M

i2M2` 2M C,

(a + b i) + (c + d i) = (a + c) + (b + d ) i.
(a + b i)(c + d i) = (ac − bd ) + (ad + bc) i.

G /Bb+mbBƦM Mi2`BQ` MQb / H +Hp2 T` /2}MB` H 2bi`m+im` /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb

+QKTH2DQb- +QKQ HQ ?`2KQb 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 b2++BƦMX

1H bBbi2K /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb v bmb QT2`+BQM2b

*QK2MxKQb /2}MB2M/Q HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 C +QKQ bőK#QHQb /2 H 7Q`K a + b i
/QM/2 a v b bQM MȹK2`Qb `2H2bX 1M i2`KBMQHQ;ő +QMDmMiBbi C b2 2b+`B#2 bő,

C = {a + b i : a, b ∈ R}.

 HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 C HQb HHK`2KQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQbX H MȹK2`Q a- 2M 2H bőK@

#QHQ a + b i- HQ HHK`2KQb T`i2 `2H /2H +QKTH2DQ v H MȹK2`Q b T`i2 BK;BM`B
/2H +QKTH2DQX S` bBKTHB}+` H 2b+`Bim` /2 H;mMQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb miBHBx@
KQb H +QMp2M+BƦM a + (−b) i = a − b iX
SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb 3N

.B`2KQb [m2 /Qb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb bQM B;mH2b bB bmb T`i2b `2H2b 2 BK;B@
M`Bb `2bT2+iBpb bQM B;mH2bX aBK#ƦHB+K2Mi2

a + b i = c + d i bB v bƦHQ bB a = c v b = d.

S` +QM7Q`K` 2H bBbi2K /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb- /QiKQb H +QMDmMiQ C

/2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b /2 /B+BƦM (+) v KmHiBTHB++BƦM (·) /2}MB/b Mi2bX 1H +QMDmMiQ
/2 MȹK2`Qb `2H2b b2 Tm2/2 p2` +QKQ mM bm#+QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb
miBHBxM/Q H bB;mB2Mi2 B/2MiB}++BƦM,

a + 0 i ≡ a.

1bib B/2MiB}++BQM2b ?+2M +QKTiB#H2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 HQb bBbi2Kb (R, +, ·)
v (C, +, ·) 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 b2MiB/Q,

aB a + 0 i ≡ a v b + 0 i ≡ b- 2MiQM+2b

(a + 0 i) + (b + 0 i) ≡ a + b

v
(a + 0 i)(b + 0 i) ≡ ab.
1M 272+iQ

(a + 0 i) + (b + 0 i) = (a + b) + 0 i. .2}MB+BƦM /2 bmK /2
+QKTH2DQbX
= a + b. SQ` H B/2MiB}++BƦMX
v
(a + 0 i)(b + 0 i) = (ab) + 0 i. .2}MB+BƦM /2H T`Q/m+iQ
/2 +QKTH2DQbX
= ab. SQ` H B/2MiB}++BƦMX

G 2bi`m+im` H;2#`B+ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb 2b H KBbK [m2 H /2 HQb

MȹK2`Qb `2H2bX 1b /2+B` [m2 H /B+BƦM v KmHiBTHB++BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb
bQM +QMKmiiBpb v bQ+BiBpb- [m2 H KmHiBTHB++BƦM /Bbi`B#mv2  H /B+BƦM- [m2
?v 2H2K2MiQb M2mi`Qb T` K#b QT2`+BQM2b v [m2 iQ/Qb HQb +QKTH2DQb iB2M2M
`2+őT`Q+Q v QTm2biQX aBM 2K#`;Q- 2H bBbi2K /2 MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb MQ iB2M2 mM
Q`/2M [m2 b2 +QKTiB#H2 +QM Hb /Qb QT2`+BQM2b +QKQ HQ iB2M2 2H bBbi2K /2
MȹK2`Qb `2H2b- bB bő HQ 7m2`- b2 i2M/`ő [m2 0 < i2 U2H +m/`/Q /2 iQ/Q MȹK2`Q
2b TQbBiBpQ- ?2+?Q [m2 b2 /2/m+2 /2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 Q`/2MV- 2b /2+B` 0 < −1-
HQ [m2 2b mM +QMi`/B++BƦMX

o2KQb ?Q` H;mMb /2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 H KmHiBTHB++BƦM v H /B+BƦM /2

+QKTH2DQbX .2DKQb 2H `2biQ /2 2HHb +QKQ 2D2`+B+BQX
Ny aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

RX 1H 2H2K2MiQ M2mi`Q T` H /B+BƦM 2b 0 v T` H KmHiBTHB++BƦM 2b 1X 1M

272+iQ,

(a + b i) + 0 = (a + b i) + (0 + 0 i). SQ` H B/2MiB}++BƦMX

= a + b i. SQ` H /2}MB+BƦM /2 H
/B+BƦMX
v
(a + b i) · 1 = (a + b i)(1 + 0 i). SQ` H B/2MiB}++BƦMX
 
= (a · 1) − (b · 0)
 
+ (b · 1) + (a · 0) i. SQ` H /2}MB+BƦM /2 H
KmHiBTHB++BƦMX
= a + b i.

kX 1H 2bim/BMi2 iK#BûM Tm2/2 +QKT`Q#` 7€+BHK2Mi2 [m2 2H BMp2`bQ /BiBpQ

−(a + b i)- /2H +QKTH2DQ a + b i- 2b −a − b iX SQ` HQ iMiQ H `2bi /2 MȹK2`Qb
+QKTH2DQb b2 Tm2/2 /2}MB` bő,
 
(a + b i) − (c + d i) = (a + b i) + −(c + d i) .

kX8Xk 1D2KTHQX S` 2D2KTHB}+` HQb +€H+mHQb 2M 2H bBbi2K (C, +, ·) /2

HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb 272+im2KQb Hb bB;mB2Mi2b QT2`+BQM2b,

RX *QM Hb /2}MB+BQM2b [m2 ?2KQb //Q- p2KQb [m2 i2 = −1X

i2 = (0 + 1 i)2 ,
= (0 + 1 i)(0 + 1 i),
= (0 · 0 − 1 · 1) + (0 · 1 + 1 · 0) i,
= −1 + 0 i,
= −1.
 
kX (3+2 i)−(2+7 i) = (3+2 i)+ −2−7 i) = (3−2)+(2−7) i = 1−5iX

jX (1 − 6i)2 = 12 − 2 · 1 · 6 i + (6i)2 = 1 − 12 i − 36 = −35 − 12 iX

9X (2 + 5 i) 2 i = 2 · 2 i + 5 i · 2 i = 4 i + 10 i2 = −10 + 4 iX

S` +QKT`Q#` H 2tBbi2M+B /2H BMp2`bQ KmHiBTHB+iBpQ BMi`Q/m+B`2KQb 2M H bB@

;mB2Mi2 b2++BƦM 2H +QM+2TiQ /2 +QMDm;/Q /2 mM MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQX mM[m2 2bi2
+QM+2TiQ MQ 2b 2bi`B+iK2Mi2 M2+2b`BQ T` iH 272+iQ- 7+BHBi`€ HQb +€H+mHQb /2
BMp2`bQb v +Q+B2Mi2bX
SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb NR

*QMDm;/Qb v `2+őT`Q+Qb

kX8Xj .2}MB+BƦMX U*QMDm;/QV

./Q mM MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ a + b i- /2}MBKQb bm +QMDm;/Q a + b i +QKQ 2H
MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ a − b iX aBK#ƦHB+K2Mi2,

a + b i = a − b i.

1H +QMDm;/Q /2 mM MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ MQb b2`pB`€ T` +H+mH` BMp2`bQb- v [m2 2H

T`Q/m+iQ /2 mM MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ TQ` bm +QMDm;/Q 2b mM MȹK2`Q `2HX 1M 272+iQ,

(a + b i) (a + b i) = (a − b i)(a + b i),
= (a2 + b 2 ) + 0 i,
= a2 + b 2 .

.2 [mő [m2- bB a + b i = 0 U2b /2+B` a = 0 Ʀ b = 0V 2MiQM+2b,

1
(a + b i) (a + b i) = 1.
a2 + b2

SQ` +QMbB;mB2Mi2 2H `2+őT`Q+Q /2 a+b i- bB a+b i = 0- [m2 /2MQiKQb +QM (a+b i)−1
Ʀ 1/(a + b i)- p2M/`€ //Q TQ`

1 1
(a + b i)−1 = = (a − b i). UkX9V
a + bi a2 + b2

*QMQ+B2M/Q 2H BMp2`bQ /2 mM MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ /BbiBMiQ /2 +2`Q- TQ/2KQb /2}MB`

2H +Q+B2Mi2 /2 MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb,
a + bi
= (a + b i) (c + d i)−1 , c + d i = 0. UkX8V
c + di
1tTHő+BiK2Mi2
a + bi
= (a + b i) (c + d i)−1 ,
c + di
1
= (a + b i) 2 (c − d i),
c + d2
c d
= (a + b i) − 2 i ,
c +d
2 2 c + d2
ac + bd bc − ad
= 2 + 2 i.
c +d 2 c + d2
o2KQb HQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2D2KTHQbX
Nk aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

kX8X9 1D2KTHQX

RX aB [m2`2KQb +H+mH` 2/(1+5 i)- #bi THB+` H 7Ʀ`KmH ;2M2`H T`

BMp2`bQb kX9 bő,
2 2
= 2 (1 − 5 i),
1 + 5i 1 + 52
2
= (1 − 5 i),
26
2 10
= − i.
26 26

SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- iK#BûM- TQ/2KQb 272+im` 2H +€H+mHQ bő,

2 2 1 − 5i
= · ,
1 + 5i 1 + 5i 1 − 5i
2 − 10 i
= .
(1 + 5 i) (1 − 5 i)
2 − 10 i
= ,
12 + 52
2 10
= − i.
26 26

kX *H+mH2KQb ?Q` (5 − i)/(4 + 3 i)X

5− i
= (5 − i) (4 + 3 i) ,
−1

4 + 3i
1
= (5 − i) 2 (4 − 3 i),
4 + 32
4 3
= (5 − i) − i ,
25 25
17 19
= − i.
25 25
1H 2bim/BMi2 Tm2/2 ?+2` 2H KBbKQ +€H+mHQ KmHiBTHB+M/Q MmK2`/Q`
v /2MQKBM/Q` TQ` 2H +QMDm;/Q /2 4 + 3 iX

SQ` ȹHiBKQ b2ƢHKQb H;mMb T`QTB2//2b /2H +QMDm;/Q [m2 +QMbB;MKQb 2M 2H

bB;mB2Mi2 i2Q`2KX S` bBKTHB}+` H MQi+BƦM /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb 2b+`B#B@
`2KQb z 2M Hm;` /2 a + b iX

kX8X8 h2Q`2KX
aB z v w bQM MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb 2MiQM+2b,
SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb Nj

RX z + w = z + wX

kX z w = z · wX
z z
jX = X
w w
9X z = z bB v bQHQ bB z 2b `2HX

oKQb  /2KQbi`` H T`i2 4X 1H `2biQ HQ /2DKQb +QKQ 2D2`+B+BQX

.2KQbi`+BƦMX a2 z = a + b i v bmTQM;KQb [m2 z = z- 2b /2+B`- a + b i = a − b iX

amKM/Q  K#Qb H/Qb /2 H B;mH// 2H QTm2biQ /2 a − b i Q#i2M2KQb 2b i = 0X
SQ` HQ iMiQ b = 0 v z = a [m2 2b mM MȹK2`Q `2HX G Qi` BKTHB++BƦM 2b 2pB/2Mi2
v [m2 bB z 2b `2H-
z = a + 0 i = a − 0 i = z.

>2KQb +QMbi`mB/Q mM bBbi2K (C, +, ·) +QM Hb KBbKb T`QTB2//2b 7Q`KH2b

[m2 2H bBbi2K (R, +, ·) T2`Q [m2 MQ iB2M2 H HBKBi+BƦM /2H ȹHiBKQX 1b /2+B` [m2 2M
(C, +, ·) TQ/2KQb 2M+QMi`` bQHm+BQM2b  iQ/b Hb 2+m+BQM2b /2 H 7Q`K xn = a
+QKQ HQ p2`2KQb K€b /2HMi2X

_2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb

u ?2KQb pBbiQ [m2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b b2 Tm2/2M `2T`2b2Mi` TQ` K2/BQ /2 TmM@
iQb 2M H `2+iX hK#BûM 2b TQbB#H2 i2M2` mM `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM M€HQ; T` HQb
MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb- bƦHQ [m2 2M Hm;` /2 mM `2+i miBHBx`2KQb mM THMQ +QM mM
bBbi2K /2 +QQ`/2M/b +`i2bBMb `2+iM;mH`2bX

P#b2`p2KQb Mi2 iQ/Q [m2 iQ/Q MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ a + b i /2i2`KBM mM T`

Q`/2M/Q /2 MȹK2`Qb `2H2b (a, b) v `2+őT`Q+K2Mi2X _2+Q`/2KQb iK#BûM [m2 
iQ/Q TmMiQ P /2H THMQ +QQ`/2M/Q H2 +Q``2bTQM/2 mM T` Q`/2M/Q /2 MȹK2`Qb
`2H2b v pB+2p2`bX 1M +QMb2+m2M+B  iQ/Q MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ a + b i H2 TQ/2KQb
bB;M` 2H TmMiQ P (a, b) +QM +QQ`/2M/b (a, b) /2H THMQ +QQ`/2M/Q v pB+2p2`bX
S` bm#`v` 2bi bB;M+BƦM HHKKQb THMQ +QKTH2DQ H THMQ +QQ`/2M/Q- 2M
Hm;` /2 THMQ xy- 2H 2D2 x HQ HHK`2KQb 2D2 `2H v H 2D2 y 2D2 BK;BM`BQX
1M 2bi `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb- Hb QT2`+BQM2b /2
/B+BƦM v bmbi`++BƦM iB2M2M mM BMi2`T`2i+BƦM b2M+BHHX aB /Qb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb
z1 v z2 HQb `2T`2b2MiKQb K2/BMi2 ~2+?b [m2 mM2M 2H Q`B;2M +QM 2H TmMiQ z1 v
z2 - `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2- 2MiQM+2b H bmK z1 + z2 2bi€ /2i2`KBM/ TQ` H H2v /2H
T`H2HQ;`KQX 1b /2+B`- H ~2+? [m2 mM2 2H Q`B;2M +QM z1 + z2 2b mM /B;QMH
/2H T`H2HQ;`KQ /2i2`KBM/Q TQ` 0- z1 v z2 X .2 H KBbK KM2`- H ~2+? /2
N9 aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

6B;m` kXRX _2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ /2 mM MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQX

z1  z2 2b T`H2H v /2 B;mH HQM;Bim/ [m2 H ~2+? [m2 mM2  0 +QM z2 − z1 X G

~2+? 2M 2H b2MiB/Q QTm2biQ b2 `2H+BQM /2 H KBbK 7Q`K +QM z2 − z1 X

6B;m` kXkX _2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ /2 H bmK /2 /Qb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb

_2+m2`/ [m2 Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2 /2}MBKQb 2H +QM+2TiQ /2 pHQ` #bQHmiQ |a| /2 mM

MȹK2`Q `2H a v Q#b2`pKQb [m2- ;2QKûi`B+K2Mi2- |a| 2b H HQM;Bim/ /2H b2;K2MiQ
AP /QM/2 A 2b 2H TmMiQ /2 `272`2M+B v P 2H TmMiQ +QM +QQ`/2M/ a 2M H `2+i
MmKû`B+X :2M2`HBxKQb 2bi2 +QM+2TiQ  HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb /2}MB2M/Q 2H
KƦ/mHQ |z| /2 mM MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ zX .2 +m2`/Q +QM H BMi2`T`2i+BƦM [m2 H2
/BKQb  HQb +QKTH2DQb T` p2` ;2QKûi`B+K2Mi2 H /B+BƦM v H bmbi`++BƦM- 2biƦ
HQ TQ/2KQb ?+2` bő,

JƦ/mHQ /2 z = HQM;Bim/ /2 H ~2+? /2 0  zX

aB z = a + b i- H HQM;Bim/ /2 H ~2+? /2 OB H TQ/2KQb +H+mH` mbM/Q 2H

h2Q`2K /2 SBi€;Q`b- Tm2biQ [m2 2H i`B€M;mHQ OAB 2b `2+i€M;mHQX bő b2 iB2M2
SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb N8

[m2, 
|z| = a2 + b2 .

6B;m` kXjX G HQM;Bim/ /2 H ~2+? OB `2T`2b2Mi 2H KQ/mHQ /2 z = a + b iX

o2KQb ?Q` [m2 bB +H+mHKQb 2H KƦ/mHQ |a| /2 mM MȹK2`Q `2H a UpBbiQ +QKQ
MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQV ûbi2 +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H pHQ` #bQHmiQX 1M 272+iQ- TQ` H B/2MiB}@
++BƦM [m2 ?2KQb ?2+?Q- a = a + 0 i- 2MiQM+2b

|a| = a2 + b2 . .2}MB+BƦM /2 KƦ/mHQX
√
= a2 .
= |a| .

kX8Xe 1D2KTHQX
√ √ √ √
RX |3 − 3 i| = 32 + 32 = 18 = 9 · 2 = 3 2X
√ √
kX |5 i| = |0 + 5 i| = 02 + 52 = 25 = 5X
√ √
jX |4| = |4 + 0 i| = 42 + 02 = 16 = 4X

H B;mH [m2 2H pHQ` #bQHmiQ- 2H KƦ/mHQ iB2M2 T`QTB2//2b BKTQ`iMi2b [m2 +QM@
bB;MKQb 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 i2Q`2KX

kX8Xd h2Q`2KX
aB z v w bQM MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb- 2MiQM+2b,
Ne aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

 
RX 0 ≤ |z|X z
9X   =
|z|
X
w |w|
kX |z − w| = |w − z|X 8X |z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|X

jX |zw| = |z| |w|X eX z · z = |z|2 X

+iBpB// kX8Xk,
RX 1M HQb 2D2`+B+BQb UV  U/V `2bTQM/ p2`//2`Q Q 7HbQ DmbiB}+M/Q bm
`2bTm2biX

V S` iQ/Q MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ z v iQ/Q 2Mi2`Q TQbBiBpQ n, z n =

(z)n .
#V S` iQ/Q MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ z, z = z.
+V S` iQ/Q MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ z, |z n | = |z|n .
1 1
/V 1H BMp2`bQ /2 mM MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ z = a + bi 2b + i.
a b
kX 172+iȹ2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQbX

V (2 − 8i)(7 + i). 3
7V
#V (13 + 4i) − (5 − i). (1 − i)2
+V (2i) + (−3 + 9i). 9 − 4i
8 2 ;V
/V (1 + 3i)3 +i 5 + 5i
3
1 3 + 4i 7i
2V ?V +
2 − 2i i 2 + 5i

jX *H+mH2 2H KƦ/mHQ /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb v `2T`2b2Mi2HQb

;2QKûi`B+K2Mi2X

V 18i /V −(3 + i)
#V −3 − 6i 2V (3i)(2i).
+V 6 + 2i 7 V i2
 SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb Nd

kXe 1D2`+B+BQb /2H +TőimHQ k

1M HQb 2D2`+B+BQb 1 H 9- `2bTQM/ p2`@ aBKTHB}[m2 Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b miBHBxM/Q

//2`Q Ʀ 7HbQ DmbiB}+M/Q bm `2bTm2b@ H K€tBKQ Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb 2t@
iX TQM2Mi2bX
 4
RX a2 x ∈ R- bB x3 = −27 2MiQM+2b R9X −9a9 3
X
x = −3X   −1
R8X a−3 b6 c−27 3
X
kX a2 x ∈ R- bB x2 = 16 2MiQM+2b 3
x = −4X ReX 0,00004 2 X
 
√  1 3
jX a2 x ∈ R 2MiQM+2b n
xn = |x|X RdX
4
1,5 e 0,5 e
3
4
3
1
6
1
3
4
X
9X a2 x ∈ R- bB xn = a 2MiQM+2b
√ 
x = n aX  −1 2
a−6 b 2 2

 1 R3X    −1
 X
8X a2 x ∈ R 2MiQM+2b xn n = xX b4 a6 8

 9  6
eX aB
 xy, ∈ R 2MiQM+2b b2 iB2M2 [m2 a3
1
a
−1
6
2
x2 + y 2 = x + yX RNX X
b3 b6
2

3 6
dX (−12) 5 = (−12) 10 X aBKTHB}+` miBHBxM/Q H K€tBKQ Hb
T`QTB2//2b Hb TQi2M+Bb
√ 421 √
3X log2 3
9 + log2 4 + log6 8 = X    3
100
√
1 2 √1 √3
kyX 2 3 X
√
3 b 3 2 b 5

aBKTHB}+` miBHBxM/Q H K€tBKQ Hb

T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb `/B+H2b v /2i2`@ √  π √  π  √ − π 
kRX 2 3
2 3
+ 3
2 X
KBM`- +mM/Q b2 THB[m2- HQb bB;MQb
[m2 Tm2/2 bmKB` a v b +QMDmMiK2M@ 27π+2
i2 T` [m2 Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b BMpQHm+`@ kkX X
3π+3
/b i2M;M b2MiB/QX 1M HQb 2D2`+B+BQb /2H 25 H 30 `2bTQM/
√ √ p2`//2`Q Q 7HbQ DmbiB}+M/Q bm `2b@
NX 3 −8 × 4 48X
Tm2biX
√ 
RyX 5 −625 × 3 (1,5)6 X kjX 1H +QMDmMiQ /2 MȹK2`Qb `+BQM@
√ √ √ H2b 2b bm}+B2Mi2 T` `2T`2b2Mi` H
RRX 2a3 b4 × 4a3 bc3 × 8a5 b4 X

iQiHB// /2 `2bmHi/Qb TQbB#H2b 2M
6 3  2 mM T`Q+2bQ /2 K2/B+BƦMX
RkX a22 b10 c4 4 X
k9X 1H pHQ` #bQHmiQ /2 mM MȹK2`Q
√
5
8a15 b7 `2H /BbiBMiQ /2 +2`Q 2b mM MȹK2@
RjX √
3
X `Q `2H M2;iBpQX
12a15 b4
 N3 aBbi2Kb LmKû`B+Qb

172+iȹ2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +€H+mHQb, *H+mH` HQb bB;mB2Mi2b HQ;`BiKQbX

k8X |9 − 5|X k3X 1 − |−1|X jNX log8 4X 9RX log25 5X

keX |2| − |−3|X kNX −15 × |4|X 729
9yX log4 32X 9kX log3 X
9
|5| 1
kdX jyX X
|−11| |−3| _2bQHp2` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2+m+BQM2b ?@
+B2M/Q mbQ /2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb
jRX lM Km+?+?Q b2 /B`B;2 /2 mM Tm2@ HQ;`BiKQbX
#HQ   Qi`Q Tm2#HQ "X T`BK2`Q
/2HMi 9 FBHƦK2i`Qb- T2`Q 2M b2@ 9jX log3 (8 + x) − log2 x = 1.
;mB/ b2 2M+m2Mi` +QM mMQb KB@
99X log x2 − log x = 3.
;Qb [m2 pM 2M /B`2++BƦM +QMi``B
v TQ` +QKTƢ`HQb mM `iQ `2i`Q@ log(8 − x2 )
98X = 5.
+2/2 34 /2 FBHƦK2i`Qc /2bTmûb /2@ log(3x − 5)
HMi 43 /2 FBHƦK2i`Q- T2`Q Qi`Q 2M@
9eX log6 x + log6 35 = 7.
+m2Mi`Q HQ Q#HB;  `2i`Q+2/2` 56 /2
FBHƦK2i`Qc }MHK2Mi2 pMx- 2M 9dX 3(2x−1) = 4(x+2) .
/Qb 2iTb K€b- 43 v 54 /2 FBHƦK2i`QX
ǯ*m€MiQb FBHƦK2i`Qb ?#`€ pM@ 93X 7(5−6x) = 2x .
x/Q 2M iQiH 2M H /B`2++BƦM /2  1M HQb 2D2`+B+BQb /2H 54 H 58 `2bTQM/
?bi "\ p2`//2`Q Q 7HbQ DmbiB}+M/Q bm `2b@
*H+mH2 Hb /BbiM+Bb /2 A  B- /2 B Tm2biX
 C- /2 C  B v /2 A  C bB A- B v C 9NX G bmK /2 /Qb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb
bQM i`2b TmMiQb 2M mM `2+i MmKû`B+ bB2KT`2 2b mM MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQX
+QM +QQ`/2M/b `2bT2+iBpb
8yX G KmHiBTHB++BƦM /2 /Qb MȹK2`Qb
jkX −3- −2- −5X +QKTH2DQb MQ bB2KT`2 2b mM MȹK2@
1 3 5 `Q +QKTH2DQX
jjX − - - X
4 2 4
8RX 1H +QMDm;/Q /2 mM MȹK2`Q +QK@
j9X 2,5- −7,54- −5,65X TH2DQ 2b 2H QTm2biQ /2 ûbi2X
aQ#`2 mM `2+i MmKû`B+ `2T`2b2Mi2 8kX 1H +QMDm;/Q /2 mM MȹK2`Q +QK@
2H +QMDmMiQ /2 TmMiQb +mvb +QQ`/2@ TH2DQ 2b 2H `2+őT`Q+Q /2 ûbi2X
M/b x biBb7+2M,
8jX S` iQ/Q MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQ z v iQ@
j8X |3 − 2x| = 1X
/Q 2Mi2`Q TQbBiBpQ n- z n = (z)n X
1
jeX |x − 1| < X 172+iȹ2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b QT2`+BQM2b 2M@
2
i`2 MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb,
jdX |x| = 5X
  89X (8 − 7 i) + (−8 + 3 i)X
 2
j3X x +  ≤ 2X 88X −(4 + 2 i) − (−6 − 7 i)X
3
 SQi2M+Bb v HQ;`BiKQb NN

8eX (a + b i) + (a − b i)X *H+mH2 2H KƦ/mHQ /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b

MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb,
172+iȹ2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b QT2`+BQM2b 2M@
i`2 MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQbX eNX (2 + i)2 X dRX 1 + 18 iX

8dX (2 + 5 i)(−7 + i)X dyX 2 − iX dkX i9 X

83X (2 + 5 i)3 X _2T`2b2Mi2 ;2QKûi`B+K2Mi2 HQb bB@

2
;mB2Mi2b +QKTH2DQbc
3 3
8NX − i X
2 5 djX −(1 − 9 i)X d8X (−13 i)(12 − i)X

eyX i27 X d9X −4 − 5 iX deX 2 (11 + 3 i)X

1M+m2Mi`2 HQb pHQ`2b /2 x 2 y T` 1M+QMi`` iQ/Qb HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2@

[m2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b B;mH//2b b2M p€@ DQb [m2 biBb7+2M +/ mM /2 Hb bB@
HB/b, ;mB2Mi2b B;mH//2b,
eRX 2x + 7 i = −5 + 4y iX ddX 3z + 5 i = 3z i + 2X

ekX 3 + 7y i = −4x + 9 iX d3X z i − 5 = 3 i + 5X

ejX i (x − 2y) = x + 3 + 9y iX dNX (z − 12 i)2 = (z + 13 i)2 X

3yX z (z + 14) = (z + 11)(z − 13 i)X

e9X 5(x + y) + (13x − 14y) i = 2xX
_2T`2b2Mi2 ;2QKûi`B+K2Mi2 2H +QM@
172+iȹ2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +€H+mHQb 2Mi`2 DmMiQ /2 HQb z [m2 ?+2M p€HB/b Hb
MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQbX bB;mB2Mi2b B;mH//2b,
2+3 i 5−3 i 7+3 i
e8X 11+15 i X edX 2+i + 5+5 i 3RX |z| = 2X 3jX |z + 4 i| = 2X
11+19 i 2
eeX −13 i X e3X 11−i + 7 iX 3kX z = −zX 39X z = zX
 j
JQ?KK2/ B#M@Jmb H@E?Qr`BxKB Ud3y@38yVX
Ji2K€iB+Q T2`b KmbmHK€bMX *QMbB/2`/Q 2H
ǴS/`2 /2H €H;2#`Ǵ- Tm2b 2M bm Q#` H@D#`
rǶH@Km[#H- TQ` T`BK2` p2x b2 /2b``QHHM
H;Q`BiKQb T` H `2bQHmBƦM /2 2+m+BQM2bX

1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

P#D2iBpQb
1M 2bi2 +TőimHQ b2 2bim/BM HQb 2H2K2MiQb ;2M2`H2b /2H €H;2#` +QKQ /Bb@
+BTHBM [m2 TmMi  H `2bQHm+BƦM /2 2+m+BQM2b v  H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM bBK@
#ƦHB+X H }MHBx` 2H +TőimHQ b2 2bT2` [m2 HQbfHb 2bim/BMi2b H+M+2M
Hb +QKT2i2M+Bb M2+2b`Bb [m2 H2b T2`KBiM,

• A/2MiB}+` /BbiBMiQb iBTQb /2 2tT`2bBQM2b H;2#`B+bX

• _2HBx` QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 2tT`2bBQM2b H;2#`B+b- T` Q#i2M2` /Bb@

iBMib `2T`2b2Mi+BQM2b /2 2bibX

• lb` 2tT`2bBQM2b H;2#`B+b T` THMi2`- `22b+`B#B` v `2bQHp2` 2+m@

+BQM2b 2 BM2+m+BQM2bX

RyR
Ryk 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

jXR H;mMb MQi+BQM2b ?BbiƦ`B+b bQ#`2 2H

/2b``QHHQ /2H €H;2#`
1H €H;2#` 2b mM T`i2 /2 Hb Ki2K€iB+b [m2 2bim/B H 2bi`m+im` /2 Hb QT2`@
+BQM2b v Hb `2H+BQM2b MmKû`B+bX 1M 2H bB;HQ oAAA- b2 ?+2 2pB/2Mi2 H T`iB+BT+BƦM
2M 2H BMB+BQ /2H /2b``QHHQ /2H €H;2#` /2 Hb MiB;mb +BpBHBx+BQM2b ##BHQMBb- K2@
bQTQi€KB+b v 2TB;+Bb- [mB2M2b HQ;``QM `2bQHp2` 2+m+BQM2b /2 T`BK2` v b2;mM/Q
Q`/2MX 1M 2H bB;HQ As- 2H Ki2K€iB+Q €`#2 JQ?KK2/ B#M@Jmb H@E?Qr`BxKB-
2b+`B#BƦ 2M ";// 2H HB#`Q H@D#` rǶH@Km[#H?- [m2 / MQK#`2  2bi €`2 /2
Hb Ki2K€iB+bX 1M 2bi2 i2tiQ T`2b2Mi H i2Q`ő 7mM/K2MiH /2 2+m+BQM2b /2
T`BK2` v b2;mM/Q Q`/2M- BM+Hmv2M/Q /2KQbi`+BQM2b v p`BQb 2D2KTHQbX 1Mi`2 HQb
bB;HQb sAAA v sAo- H;mMQb Ki2K€iB+Qb BiHBMQb- 2Mi`2 2HHQb G2QM`/Q 6B#QM++B-
pMx`QM 2M H bQHm+BƦM /2 H 2+m+BƦM +ȹ#B+X 1H Ki2K€iB+Q BiHBMQ LB++QHQ
h`i;HB THMi2Ʀ 2M 2H bB;HQ soA- 2H H;Q`őiKQ T` `2bQHp2` 2+m+BQM2b TQHBMƦ@
KB+b /2 i2`+2` ;`/QX J€b /2HMi2- b2 2bi#H2+BƦ mM H;Q`BiKQ [m2 /2i2`KBMƦ
H bQHm+BƦM /2 2+m+BQM2b /2 +m`iQ ;`/Q- T2`Q MQ T` Hb /2 ;`/Q bmT2`BQ`X 1H
Ki2K€iB+Q H2K€M *`H 6`B2/`B+? :mbb /2KQbi`Ʀ- 2M 2H bB;HQ soAAA- [m2 iQ/b
Hb 2+m+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b iB2M2M H K2MQb mM bQHm+BƦM 2M HQb MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2@
DQbX 1M 2H bB;HQ sAs 2H Ki2K€iB+Q MQ`m2;Q LB2Hb #2H T`Q#Ʀ- [m2 MQ 2tBbi2 mM
H;Q`BiKQ T` `2bQHp2`- /2 7Q`K ;2M2`H- 2+m+BQM2b /2 ;`/Q KvQ` Q B;mH 
+BM+QX 1M 2bi2 KBbKQ bB;HQ- bm`;2 2H €H;2#` KQ/2`M- iK#BûM +QMQ+B/ +QKQ €H@
;2#` #bi`+i- +QM HQb /2b``QHHQb /2 :mbb v :HQBbX 1M HQb i`#DQb /2 :HQBb
b2 2M+m2Mi`M /2b``QHH/Qb /2 KM2` BKTHő+Bi- H;mMQb +QM+2TiQb +2Mi`H2b /2H
€H;2#` #bi`+i +QKQ bQM H i2Q`ő /2 ;`mTQb v +m2`TQbX

*QMQ+2 H;mMQb bT2+@ Jm+?Qb /2 HQb T`Q#H2Kb [m2 b2 i`i#M 2M H

iQb /2H Q`B;2M /2H €H@ MiB;Ƀ2// b2 `2H+BQM#M +QM +m2biBQM2b +Q@
;2#` `2pBbM/Q 2H bB@ K2`+BH2b- +QKQ T`ûbiKQb 2 BKTm2biQbX GQ BM@
;mB2Mi2 pB/2QX i2`2bMi2 `/B+ 2M [m2 HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2H €H;2#`
b2 `2bQHpőM ȹMB+K2Mi2 2M H2M;mD2 `2iƦ`B+Qc 2b
/2+B`- bBM MBM;mM +Hb2 /2 bőK#QHQX 1H T`Q#H2K
Mi2`BQ` 2b mM /Ti+BƦM /2H Q`B;BMH [m2 T@
`2+2 2M 2H HB#`Q, 1H ?QK#`2 [m2 +H+mH# /2 JH#
h?MX o2KQb H;mMQb +QM+2TiQb /2H €H;2#` v
p`BQb 2D2KTHQb- Mi2b /2 /`H2 bQHm+BƦMX

+iBpB// jXRXR,
?iiTb,
ffrrrXvQmim#2X+QKf .2 +m2`/Q  HQb THMi2KB2MiQb /2H pB/2Q
ri+?\p42[iwSmQK`S /2b+`B#2 mM THB++BƦM /2H €H;2#`X
1tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2b Ryj

jXk 1tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2b

1M 2H 2bim/BQ /2 H `BiKûiB+ b2 /2}M2M Hb QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 MȹK2`Qb v b2 2bim@
/BM bmb T`QTB2//2bX 1H H;2#` b2 #b 2M 2bib T`QTB2//2b- T2`Q Hb +QMbB/2`
2M 2tT`2bBQM2b ;2M2`H2b- mbM/Q H2i`b Q bőK#QHQb T` `2T`2b2Mi` +MiB//2bX
.2 2bi KM2`- b2 Tm2/2M KQ/2H` Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 +B2`iQb 72MƦK2MQb Ki2K€@
iB+K2Mi2X 1M iû`KBMBQb /2 T`Q+2bQb +Q;MBiBpQb b2 Tb /2H T2MbKB2MiQ MmKû`B+Q
H T2MbKB2MiQ p`B+BQMHX GQb Q#D2iQb /2H €H;2#` MQ bQM HQb MȹK2`Qb bBMQ Hb
p`B#H2bX

jXkXR .2}MB+BƦMX Uo`B#H2V

a2 /2}M2 mM p`B#H2 +QKQ mM bőK#QHQ mb/Q T` `2T`2b2Mi` HQb 2H2@
K2MiQb /2 mM +QMDmMiQ- HHK/Q /QKBMBQ /2 H p`B#H2X GHK`2KQb 2t@
T`2bBQM2b Ki2K€iB+b p`B#H2b Q bBKTH2K2Mi2 2tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2b-  H
+QK#BM+BƦM /2 MȹK2`Qb v p`B#H2b K2/BMi2 QT2`+BQM2b MmKû`B+bX

H bB;M` pHQ`2b MmKû`B+Qb- /2H /QKBMBQ +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2-  Hb p`B#H2b

2M mM 2tT`2bBƦM v `2HBx` Hb QT2`+BQM2b BM/B+/b- b2 Q#iB2M2 mM MȹK2`Q
HHK/Q pHQ` MmKû`B+Q /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2X

SQ` 2D2KTHQ- +QMbB/2` H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2,

 
−4x + 5x − log2 4y + y; x ∈ (0, ∞) v y ∈ R.

aB H2 bB;MKQb  Hb p`B#H2b x 2 y HQb pHQ`2b 2 v 8 `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2- 2M+QMi`KQb

[m2 H 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2 iQK 2H pHQ` MmKû`B+Q 20- Tm2b

−4 × 2 + 52 − log2 32 + 8 = 20.

bő KBbKQ- bB H2 bB;MKQb  Hb p`B#H2b x v y HQb pHQ`2b 1 v 256 `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2-

2M+QMi`KQb [m2 H KBbK 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2 iQK 2H pHQ` MmKû`B+Q 247- Tm2b

−4 × 1 + 51 − log2 1024 + 256 = 247.

GQb /QKBMBQb /2 Hb p`B#H2b /2T2M/2M /2 HQ [m2 `2T`2b2Mi2M 2M 2H +QMi2t@

iQ 2M 2H [m2 b2 2bi€ +QMbB/2`M/Q H 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2 Q /2 Hb +QM/B+BQM2b [m2
/2#2M +mKTHB`X aB 2H /QKBMBQ MQ b2 / 2tTHő+BiK2Mi2- b2 +QMbB/2`M +QKQ 2H +QM@
DmMiQ /2 iQ/Qb HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b T` HQb +mH2b H 2tT`2bBƦM 2bi€ #B2M /2}MB/X
*QMbB/2`2KQb HQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2D2KTHQb `2H+BQM/Qb  2bib Q#b2`p+BQM2b,

jXkXk 1D2KTHQX
Ry9 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

RX *QMbB/2`2KQb H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2,


5x − 4 y 2 x6
; x, y ∈ R,
(x2 + 1)3

MQi2KQb [m2 2H /QKBMBQ /2 Hb p`B#H2b x 2 y- 2b //Q /2 7Q`K

2tTHő+BiX

kX SQ/2KQb /` H TQbB+BƦM /2 mM Q#D2iQ +QM mM 2tT`2bBƦM /QM/2 H

p`B#H2 `2T`2b2Mi2 2H iB2KTQX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- 5t + 2X 1M 2bi2 +bQ /2#2
b2` t > 0 TQ`[m2 2H iB2KTQ 2b mM +MiB// TQbBiBpX

jX G 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2
x−1
x−5
`2[mB2`2 [m2 x b2 mM +MiB// /BbiBMi /2 8 T` [m2 i2M;X _2+Q`@
/2KQb [m2 H /BpBbBƦM 2Mi`2 +2`Q MQ 2bi€ /2}MB/X bő 2H /QKBMBQ b2`€
N − {5}X

9X *QKQ H `őx +m/`/ bƦHQ b2 /2}M2 T` +MiB//2b TQbBiBpb Q +2`QX

1H /QKBMBQ /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM
√
6x − 1

b2 Q#iB2M2 H +QMbB/2`` 6x − 1 ≥ 0X GQ +mH 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2  [m2 x

b2 KvQ` Q B;mH  1/6 Q [m2 T2`i2M2x+ H BMi2`pHQ [1/6, ∞)

+iBpB// jXkXR,
.2i2`KBM` 2H /QKBMBQ /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2b,

log (5x + 2) x2 − 9
RX √ 2 kX
x2 − x − 6 x−3

jXj SQHBMQKBQb
 +QMiBMm+BƦM b2 +HbB}+M H;mMQb iBTQb /2 2tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2- /2 +m2`/Q 
bmb +`+i2`őbiB+bX
SQHBMQKBQb Ry8

jXjXR .2}MB+BƦMX U1tT`2bBƦM H;2#`B+V

lM 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2 2b H;2#`B+ bB b2 Q#iB2M2 +QK#BMM/Q MȹK2`Qb v
p`B#H2b K2/BMi2 mM MȹK2`Q }MBiQ /2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b `BiKûiB+b, bmK-
`2bi- T`Q/m+iQ- /BpBbBƦM v `/B++BƦMX

 +QMiBMm+BƦM /KQb H;mMQb 2D2KTHQb /2 2tT`2bBQM2b H;2#`B+bX

jXjXk 1D2KTHQX
√
RX 2πx6 + 5x2 − 8x + 10X jX 7x3 − π2 x2 − 4x−2 + 2xX

4x3 − 1 √ x3 z 2
kX X 9X ln 5x y +
8x2 + x + 1 y

 +QMiBMm+BƦM +HbB}+KQb H;mMQb iBTQb /2 2tT`2bBQM2b H;2#`B+bX

jXjXj .2}MB+BƦMX UJQMQKBQ v TQHBMQKBQV

aB i2M2KQb mM +QMDmMiQ }MBiQ /2 p`B#H2b- TQ` 2D2KTHQ x, y v z- b2 /2}M2
mM KQMQKBQ 2M x, y v z UQ iû`KBMQ /2 mM 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2V- +QKQ mM
2tT`2bBƦM /2 H 7Q`K
axn y m z k ,

/QM/2 a ∈ R v n, m, k ∈ N. 1M 2bi2 +bQ 2H MȹK2`Q  2b HHK/Q +Q2}+B2Mi2

/2H KQMQKBQX lM TQHBMQKBQ b2 /2}M2 +QKQ mM bmK }MBi /2 KQMQKBQbX

1M 2H 2D2KTHQ Mi2`BQ`- H 2tT`2bBƦM 2πx6 + 5x2 − 8x + 10 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM 9

KQMQKBQb 2M H p`B#H2 xX Pi`Q 2D2KTHQ /2 TQHBMQKBQ 2b H 2tT`2bBƦM
3 √
πx4 y + 5x2 y 2 − 5y.
3

4
1M 2bi2 +bQ 2H TQHBMQKBQ iB2M2 j iû`KBMQb v 2bi€ 2M Hb p`B#H2b x 2 yX

jXjX9 .2}MB+BƦMX USQHBMQKBQV

aB n ∈ N- b2 /2}M2 mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n 2M mM p`B#H2 x +QKQ mM
2tT`2bBƦM H;2#`B+ [m2 Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`b2 +QKQ,

an xx + an−1 xn−1 + . . .

/QM/2 a0 , . . . , an bQM MȹK2`Qb `2H2b Q +QKTH2DQb v an = 0X Gb +QMbiMi2b

/BbiBMib /2 +2`Q- bQM TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q +2`Q v 2H MȹK2`Q +2`Q b2 +QMbB/2`
+QKQ mM TQHBMQKBQ H +mH MQ b2 H2 bB;M ;`/QX
Rye 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

o2KQb H;mMQb 2D2KTHQb /2 TQHBMQKBQb 2M mM p`B#H2X

jXjX8 1D2KTHQX
√
RX 5x − 2x3 + x4 - /2 ;`/Q 4X

kX −3 + 4y 2 − 25 y 3 − 6iy 5 - /2 ;`/Q 5X
π √
2 6
jX cos 3 z + z4 − 2 z + 3z 8 - /2 ;`/Q 8X

9X 7- /2 ;`/Q 0X

8X 0X LQ b2 H2 bB;M ;`/QX

GQb TQHBMQKBQb iK#BûM Tm2/2M b2` /2 p`Bb p`B#H2bX hB2M2M 2H KBbKQ 2b@
[m2K /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb /2 mM p`B#H2 bQHQ [m2 +QK#BMM p`Bb p`B#H2b +QM
Hb QT2`+BQM2b /2 bmK v T`Q/m+iQX 1H ;`/Q /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 p`Bb p`B#H2b
+Q``2bTQM/2 H KvQ` ;`/Q /2 H bmK /2 HQb 2tTQM2Mi2 /2 Hb p`B#H2b- +QKQ
b2 Km2bi` 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 2D2KTHQ,

Pi`Q iBTQ /2 2tT`2bBƦM H;2#`B+  /2bi+` bQM Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b `+BQMH2bX

jXjXe .2}MB+BƦMX U1tT`2bBƦM `+BQMHV

1H +Q+B2Mi2 /2 /Qb TQHBMQKBQb 2b HHK/Q mM 2tT`2bBƦM H;2#`B+ `+BQMHX
SQHBMQKBQb Ryd

jXjXd 1D2KTHQX
aQM 2D2KTHQb /2 2tT`2bBQM2b `+BQMH2b,
√ 2
5x + 7x3 − x4 −2x3 z + xz 7 + c
RX . jX √ X
3x − x3 πx − 5x3 z 2 + 2xz
√
kX 4yz4 + 3y − 13 z 3 . 9X (w + 3 8w)4 .

LQi2 [m2 iQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ +Q``2bTQM/2  mM 2tT`2bBƦM `+BQMHX 1M 2bi2 +bQ
Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`b2 2H TQHBMQKBQ bQ#`2 H +QMbiMi2 RX

+iBpB// jXjXR,
RX 1tT`2b` 2M i2`KBMQHQ;ő H;2#`B+ HQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2MmM+B/Qb 2tT`2@
b/Qb 2M H2M;mD2 Mim`H,

V 1H T2`őK2i`Q /2 mM i`B€M;mHQ BbƦb+2H2b iH [m2 bm H/Q /2bB;mH

KB/2 e +K K2MQb [m2 +/ mMQ /2 HQb /Qb H/Qb B;mH2bX
#V lM MȹK2`Q K€b bm +QMb2+miBpQ 2b B;mH H MȹK2`Q K2MQb /QbX
+V 1H T`Q/m+iQ /2 H +m`i T`i2 /2 mM MȹK2`Q TQ` 2H i`BTH2 /2
Qi`Q MȹK2`QX
/V 1H €`2 /2 mM `2+iM;mHQ /2H [m2 b2 b#2 [m2 bm #b2 2b H KBi/
/2 bm Him`X

kX a2 p  7#`B+` mM +D bBM iT +QM mM ?QD +m/`/ /2 [mBM+2
K2i`Qb /2 H/Q- +Q`iM/Q +m/`/Qb B;mH2b /2 +/ 2b[mBM /2 H
?QD v /Q#HM/Q HQb H/QbX 1M+m2Mi`` H 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2 [m2 /€
2H €`2 bmT2`}+BH /2 H +D 2M iû`KBMQb /2 H HQM;Bim/ /2H H/Q /2H
+m/`/Q [m2 b2 +Q`i2X

PT2`+BQM2b +QM TQHBMQKBQb

Sm2biQ [m2 mM 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2 v bmb `2bT2+iBpb p`B#H2b bQM bőK#QHQb [m2
`2T`2b2MiM MȹK2`Qb- 2b TQbB#H2 /2}MB` QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 2tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2b
+QMbB/2`€M/QHb +QKQ QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 HQb MȹK2`Qb [m2 `2T`2b2MiMX a2 Tm2/2-
TQ` HQ iMiQ- bmK`- `2bi`- KmHiBTHB+` v /BpB/B` 2tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2b- 2bi#H2@
+B2M/Q  p2+2b +B2`ib `2bi`B++BQM2b 2M HQb /QKBMBQb /2 bmb p`B#H2b- K2/BMi2 H
THB++BƦM /2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 MȹK2`Qb 2bi#H2+B/b 2M
HQb +TőimHQb Mi2`BQ`2bX
1bib QT2`+BQM2b v 2bi€M BKTHő+Bib 2M HQb 2D2KTHQb /2 2tT`2bBQM2b 2[mBp@
H2Mi2b //b Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2X bő- TQ` 2D2KTHQ- bB `2HBxKQb H KmHiBTHB++BƦM 2Mi`2
Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b x + y v x − y- +QMbB/2`M/Q  x v  y +QKQ MȹK2`Qb v THB+M/Q
Ry3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

Hb T`QTB2//2b [m2 `B;2M bmb QT2`+BQM2b- b2 Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`

(x + y)(x − y) = x (x − y) + y (x − y),
= x2 − xy + yx − y 2 ,
= x2 − xy + xy − y 2 ,
= x2 − y 2 ,

HQ [m2 pB2M2  b2` mM /2KQbi`+BƦM /2 H 2[mBpH2M+B 2Mi`2 K#b 2tT`2bBQM2bX

amK /2 TQHBMQKBQb
G bmK /2 /Qb TQHBMQKBQb 2M x b2 Q#iB2M2 bmKM/Q HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 H KBbK
TQi2M+B /2 xX *QKQ b2 BHmbi` 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 `2;H ;2M2`H, 2H `2bmHi/Q /2 H
bmK /2 /Qb TQHBMQKBQb 2M x 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ 2M x /2 ;`/Q K2MQ` Q B;mH [m2 2H
K€tBKQ /2 HQb ;`/Qb /2 HQb bmKM/QbX 1b /2+B`- //Qb HQb TQHBMQKBQb 2M x

a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an−1 xn−1 + an xn U;`/Q nV-

v
b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bm−1 xm−1 + bm xm U;`/Q mVX
aB m ≤ n- 2MiQM+2b H bmK /2 2HHQb 2bi€ // TQ` 2H TQHBMQKBQ

(a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + (a2 + b2 )x2 + · · · + (ak + bk )xk U;`/Q kV-

/QM/2 k ≤ nX

jXjX3 1D2KTHQX

RX aB b2 [mB2`2 2M+QMi`` H bmK /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb 2M x

x + 4x2 − 5x3 − π x5 U;`/Q 5V-

v
5 + 3x2 − 3x4 + π x5 U;`/Q 5V-

b2 THB+M Hb T`QTB2//2b K2M+BQM/b- T` Q#i2M2`

   
x + 4x2 − 5x3 − π x5 + 5 + 3x2 − 3x4 + π x5 =
5 + x + 4x2 + 3x2 − 5x3 − 3x4 − π x5 + π x5 =
 
5 + x + (4 + 3)x2 − 5x3 − 3x4 + −π + π x5 =
5 + x + 7x2 − 5x3 − 3x4 U;`/Q 9VX

kX 1M+QMi`2KQb H bmK /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb 2M x

3 + (2 + i)x − 2x2 + 8x3 − (1 + 2 i)x5 U;`/Q 8V-

SQHBMQKBQb RyN

v
(2 − i) − 6x2 + 6x3 − 3x4 U;`/Q 9VX

*QKQ 2M 2H 2D2KTHQ Mi2`BQ`- b2 iB2M2

ƒ „ ƒ „
3 + (2 + i)x − 2x2 + 8x3 − (1 + 2 i)x5 + (2 − i) − 6x2 + 6x3 − 3x4 =
         
3 + (2 − i) + (2 + i) x − (2 + 6) x2 + (8 + 6) x3 − 3 x4 − (1 + 2 i)x5 =
(5 − i) + (2 + i)x − 8x2 + 12x3 + 3x4 − (1 + 2 i)x5 U;`/Q 8VX

.2 KM2` b2K2DMi2 b2 bmKM TQHBMQKBQb 2M p`Bb p`B#H2bX amK2KQb HQb TQ@

HBMQKBQb
3 − 5x + 4x2 y 3 z 2 + 2xyz + 3z − 6z 5
v
1 + 4x2 y 3 z 2 − 8z + 7w3 .
*QKQ HQb 2D2KTHQb Mi2`BQ`2b- b2 iB2M2
   
3 − 5x + 4x2 y 3 z 2 + 2xyz + 3z − 6z 5 + 1 + 4x2 y 3 z 2 − 8z + 7w3 =
(3 + 1) − 5x + (4x2 y 3 z 2 + 4x2 y 3 z 2 ) + 2xyz + (3z − 8z) − 6z 5 + 7w3 =
(3 + 1) − 5x + (4 + 4)x2 y 3 z 2 + 2xyz + (3 − 8)z − 6z 5 + 7w3 =
4 − 5x + 8x2 y 3 z 2 + 2xyz − 5z − 6z 5 + 7w3 .

bő +QKQ H `2bi /2 MȹK2`Qb b2 `2/m+2  mM bmK /2 MȹK2`Qb- H `2bi /2

TQHBMQKBQb b2 `2/m+2  mM bmK /2 TQHBMQKBQb +QKQ b2 BHmbi` 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2
2D2KTHQX

jXjXN 1D2KTHQX G /B72`2M+B

   
8 − 2x2 + x4 − 10 − 3x2 + 4x3 ,

2b B;mH  H bmK
   
8 − 2x2 + x4 + −10 + 3x2 − 4x3 ,

H +mH / +QKQ `2bmHi/Q, −2 + x2 − 4x3 + x4 X

S`Q/m+iQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb
S` KmHiBTHB+` /Qb TQHBMQKBQb mbKQb Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2bX
RRy 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

jXjXRy 1D2KTHQX 1M+QMi`` 2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 HQb TQHBMQKBQb

2 + 6x − 5x2 U;`/Q 2V-

v
−3 − 5x2 + 4x3 U;`/Q 3V-
mbKQb Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b- bő,
      
2 + 6x − 5x2 −3 − 5x2 + 4x3 = 2 −3 − 5x2 + 4x3 + 6x −3 − 5x2 + 4x3
 
− 5x2 −3 − 5x2 + 4x3 ,
= −6 − 10x2 + 8x3 − 18x − 30x3 + 24x4
+ 15x2 + 25x4 − 20x5 ,
= −6 − 18x + (−10 + 15)x2 + (8 − 30)x3
+ (24 + 25)x4 − 20x5 ,
= −6 − 18x + 5x2 − 22x3 + 49x4 − 20x5
U;`/Q 5VX

1H `2bmHi/Q /2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 /Qb TQHBMQKBQb 2M x 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ 2M x /2 ;`/Q

B;mH  H bmK /2 HQb ;`/Qb /2 HQb 7+iQ`2bX 1biQ 2b- //Qb HQb TQHBMQKBQb 2M x

a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an−1 xn−1 + an xn U;`/Q nV-

v
b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bm−1 xm−1 + bm xm U;`/Q mV-
bm T`Q/m+iQ 2bi€ //Q TQ` 2H TQHBMQKBQ

a0 b0 + (a0 b1 + b0 a1 )x + (a0 b2 + b0 a2 + a1 b1 )x2 + · · · + an bm xm+n U;`/Q m + nVX

SQ/2KQb Q#b2`p` [m2 2M 2H `2bmHi/Q Mi2`BQ` H H2v /2 7Q`K+BƦM /2H +Q2}+B2Mi2

/2 xk 2bi€ // TQ` H bmK /2 HQb T`Q/m+iQb ai bi - /QM/2 i + j = kX SQ` 2D2KTHQ-
2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 /2 x2 2b H bmK /2 HQb T`Q/m+iQb a0 b2 - b0 a2 v a1 b1 X

jXjXRR 1D2KTHQX JmHiBTHB[m2KQb HQb TQHBMQKBQb 2M p`Bb p`B#H2b,

x2 − z v x3 + xz 2 − z 3 .

     
(x2 − z) x3 + xz 2 − z 3 = x2 x3 + xz 2 − z 3 − z x3 + xz 2 − z 3 ,
= x5 + x3 z 2 − x2 z 3 − zx3 − xz 3 + z 4 .
S`Q/m+iQb MQi#H2b v 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM RRR

+iBpB// jXjXk,
RX 1M +/ mMQ /2 HQb +bQb bB;mB2Mi2b bBKTHB}[m2 H 2tT`2bBƦM //
bmT`BKB2M/Q HQb T`ûMi2bBb v `2/m+B2M/Q iû`KBMQb b2K2DMi2b,

V 5x + [2 + x − (x + y)]
 
5 2
#V − z − [−x + (−x + z) − 3x − 2z] + x − z − − − x + 4z
3 3
kX 1M +/ +bQ- `2HB+2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b BM/B+/b v bBKTHB}[m2 H K€@
tBKQ,

V 5(z + 3)(z − 3) #V (x − y)(x2 + 4x + 4)(x + y)

jX 1M+m2Mi`2 H 2tT`2bBƦM H;2#`B+ [m2 bmK/ +QM 2x3 − 4x2 + 6 /û

H 2tT`2bBƦM H;2#`B+ 4x + 9.

9X 1M+m2Mi`2 H 2tT`2bBƦM [m2 ?v [m2 `2bi` /2 x3 − x2 y + 6 T` [m2

2 1
H /B72`2M+B b2 x3 − x2 y − x + .
5 3

jX9 S`Q/m+iQb MQi#H2b v 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM

1M 2bi2 T`i/Q p2`2KQb H;mMQb T`Q/m+iQb [m2 Q+m``2M +QM 7`2+m2M+B 2M €H;2@
#`- b2 bm2H2M HHK` T`Q/m+iQb MQi#H2bc v 2H HHK/Q T`Q+2bQ /2 7+iQ`Bx+BƦMX
*QM 7`2+m2M+B b2 MQb T`2b2MiM TQHBMQKBQb Q 2tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2b 2M ;2M2`H-
[m2 TQ` +QMp2MB2M+B [m2`2KQb 2b+`B#B` +QKQ T`Q/m+iQ /2 2tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2b
K€b b2M+BHHbX 1H T`Q+2bQ T` iH 272+iQ 2b HHK/Q 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM UT`Q+2bQ BMp2`bQ
/2 H KmHiBTHB++BƦMV v 2M ûH HQb T`Q/m+iQb MQi#H2b iB2M2M mM TT2H /2bi+/QX 1M
Hb b2++BQM2b TQbi2`BQ`2b b2 2M+QMi``€M T`Q#H2Kb [m2 b2 TQ/`€M bBKTHB}+` K2@
/BMi2 7+iQ`Bx+BƦMX 1M T`iB+mH`- p2`2KQb H miBHB// /2 H 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM +mM/Q
b2 i`i2 /2 `2bQHp2` 2+m+BQM2b v /2bB;mH//2b Q +mM/Q b2 2bim/B2M 7mM+BQM2bX
 +QMiBMm+BƦM 2b+`B#BKQb H HBbi /2 HQb T`Q/m+iQb MQi#H2b K€b mbmH2bX 1M
2HHQb Hb H2i`b `2T`2b2MiM MȹK2`QbX
RRk 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2
*m/`/Qb T2`72+iQb
(x − y)2 = x2 − 2xy + y 2
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3
*m#Qb T2`72+iQb
(x − y)3 = x3 − 3x2 y + 3xy 2 − y 3
.B72`2M+B /2 +m/`/Qb (x − y)(x + y) = x2 − y 2
.B72`2M+B /2 +m#Qb (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) = x3 − y 3
amK /2 +m#Qb (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 ) = x3 + y 3
S`Q/m+iQ /2 /Qb #BMQKBQb (x + α)(x + β) = x2 + (α + β)x + αβ

G p2`B}++BƦM /2 H T`BK2` B;mH// b2 `2HBx 272+imM/Q H KmHiBTHB++BƦM

/2 (x + y) TQ` (x + y) iH +QKQ b2 BM/B+  +QMiBMm+BƦM,
(x + y)2 = (x + y)(x + y),
= x (x + y) + y (x + y),
= x2 + xy + yx + y 2 ,
= x2 + xy + xy + y 2 ,
= x2 + 2xy + y 2 .
+iBpB// jX9XR,
o2`B}+` 2H `2biQ /2 HQb T`Q/m+iQb MQi#H2bX

Zm2`2KQb 2M7iBx` [m2 +/ mM /2 Hb Mi2`BQ`2b B;mH//2b b2 mbM b2;ȹM HQ [m2
b2 [mB2`- `22KTHxM/Q 2H KB2K#`Q /2 H Bx[mB2`/ TQ` 2H KB2K#`Q /2 H /2`2+?
UKmHiBTHB++BƦMV Q pB+2p2`b U7+iQ`Bx+BƦMV Tm2b Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b [m2 T`2+2M 2M
ûbib bQM 2[mBpH2Mi2bX .2 Qi`Q H/Q- //Q [m2 Hb H2i`b mb/b 2M Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb
Mi2`BQ`2b `2T`2b2MiM MȹK2`Qb- ûbib Tm2/2M bmbiBimB`b2 TQ` 2tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2b
2M ;2M2`H- +QKQ BHmbi`KQb +QM HQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2D2KTHQbX

jX9XR 1D2KTHQX
RX aB [m2`2KQb 2M+QMi`` 2H T`Q/m+iQ
  
16a4 c2 + 2b 2 16a4 c2 − 2b 2 ,

TQ/2KQb mb` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 H /B72`2M+B /2 +m/`/Qb- +QM

4x = 16a4 c2 2 y = 2b 2

- T` Q#i2M2`
    2  2
16a4 c2 + 2b 2 16a4 c2 − 2b 2 = 16a4 c2 − 2b 2 ,
= 256a8 c4 − 4b4 .
S`Q/m+iQb MQi#H2b v 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM RRj

kX aB [m2`2KQb 7+iQ`Bx` 2H TQHBMQKBQ 9z 2 w6 +9zw2 b6 +b12 - 2M T`BM+BTBQ-

mbKQb Hb H2v2b /2 HQb 2tTQM2Mi2b T` 2b+`B#B`
 2    2
9z 2 w6 + 9zw2 b6 + b5 = 3zw3 + 3 3zw2 b6 + b6 .

?Q` mbKQb 2H T`Q/m+iQ MQi#H2 +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2  H T`BK2` 2+m@

+BƦM /2 +m/`/Qb T2`72+iQb- +QM x = 3zw3 v y = b6 - T` Q#i2M2`
 2
9z 2 w6 + 9zw2 b6 + b12 = 3zw3 + b6 .

jX S` 2M+QMi`` 2H T`Q/m+iQ

 2 2
  2
2  2
 2
  2
2 
a −b
3 3 a 3 + a 3 b 3 + b 3

2 2
TQ/2KQb mb` H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 /B72`2M+B /2 +m#Qb +QM x = a 3 v y = b 3 -
T` Q#i2M2`
 2 2
  2
2  2
 2
  2
2   2
3  2
3
a −b
3 3 a 3 + a 3 b 3 + b 3 = a3 − b3 = a2 − b2 .

9X 6+iQ`B+2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M x /2 ;`/Q /Qb x2 − x − 2X

a2;ȹM H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 /Qb #BMQKBQb,

x2 − x − 2 = (x + α)(x + β),

/QM/2 HQb MȹK2`Qb α v β bQM iH2b [m2 α + β = −1 v αβ = −2X

>+B2M/Q p`BQb 2MbvQb T` +H+mH` α v β b2 HH2;  [m2 α = 1 v
β = −2- 2b /2+B`
ƒ „ƒ „
x2 − x − 2 = x + (1) x + (−2) = (x + 1)(x − 2).

8X 6+iQ`B+2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M x /2 ;`/Q /Qb 3x2 +5x−2X 1b+`B#B2M/Q

3 2  1ƒ „
3x2 + 5x − 2 = 3x + 5x − 2 = (3x)2 + (15x) − 6 ,
3 3
v T`Q+2/B2M/Q +QKQ 2M 2H 2D2KTHQ Mi2`BQ`- b2 iB2M2
1ƒ „ 1ƒ „ƒ „
(3x)2 + (3x)5 − 6 = (3x) + α (3x) + β ,
3 3
/QM/2 HQb MȹK2`Qb α v β bQM iH2b [m2 α + β = 5 v αβ = −6X 1tT2@
`BK2MiM/Q b2 2M+m2Mi` [m2 α = 6 v β = −1X *QMb2+m2Mi2K2Mi2-
1ƒ „ƒ „
3x2 + 5x − 2 = (3x) + 6 (3x) − 1 ,
3
  
= x + 2 3x − 1 .
RR9 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

eX 6+iQ`B+2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ x2 + 3xy + 2y 2 X

*QMbB/2`M/Q H Mi2`BQ` 2tT`2bBƦM +QKQ 2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M x /2 ;`/Q
/Qb
x2 + bx + c,
/QM/2 b = 3y v c = 2y 2 - v T`Q+2/B2M/Q +QKQ 2M HQb 2D2KTHQb Mi2@
`BQ`2b- b2 iB2M2

x2 + (3y)x + (2y 2 ) = (x + α)(x + β),

/QM/2 α v β bQM iH2b [m2 α + β = 3y v αβ = 2y 2 X aBM Km+?

/B}+mHi/ b2 2M+m2Mi` [m2 α = 2y v β = yX 1M +QMb2+m2M+B
ƒ „ƒ „
x2 + 3xy + 2y 2 = x + 2y x + (y) ,
= (x + 2y)(x + y).

dX 6+iQ`B+2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M x /2 ;`/Q /Qb x2 + 2x + 2X

aB b2;mBKQb 2H 2b[m2K /2 HQb 2D2KTHQb Mi2`BQ`2b- b2 iB2M2

x2 + 2x + 2 = (x + α)(x + β),

/QM/2 HQb MȹK2`Qb α v β bQM iH2b [m2 α + β = 2 v αβ = 2X

1bi p2x 2MbvM/Q 2b 2M `2HB// Kmv /B7ő+BH 2M+QMi`` /B+?Qb Mȹ@
K2`QbX 1M T`iB+mH`- TQ/2KQb +QM+HmB` [m2 α v β MQ bQM MȹK2`Qb
2Mi2`QbX
S` 7+iQ`Bx` 2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M +QMbB/2`+BƦM- 2b+`B#BKQb

x2 + 2x + 2 = x2 + 4x + 1 − 1 + 2,

UbmKKQb v `2biKQb RV +QM 2H Q#D2iQ /2 +QKTH2i` mM +m/`/Q

T2`72+iQX bő,
x2 + 2x + 2 = (x + 1)2 + 1.

+iBpB// jX9Xk,
.2b+QKTQM; +/ mM /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2tT`2bBQM2b 2M 7+iQ`2bX

RX x2 − xy − y + x 2 1 dX x10 − x2 y 8
9X x2 − x +
5 25
kX 3z(x−1)−x+1 8X 4z 6 − 1 3X 32x5 + y 5

jX x3 − 8 eX a6 − b6 NX (a + b)4 − 1
S`Q/m+iQb MQi#H2b v 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM RR8

6+iQ`Bx+BƦM /2 mM TQHBMQKQ /2 b2;mM/Q ;`/Q

G iû+MB+ /2H 2D2KTHQ Mi2`BQ` b2 Tm2/2 ;2M2`HBx` T` 7+iQ`Bx` +mH[mB2`
TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q /Qb 2M x- ax2 + bx + cc a = 0X S` 2HHQ 2b+`B#BKQb

b c
ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + x+ ,
a a
2 2 
b b b c
= a x2 + x+ − + ,
a 2a 2a a
2 2 
b b c
=a x+ − + ,
2a 2a a
2 
b b2 4ac
=a x+ − + 2 ,
2a 4a 2 4a
2 
b b2 − 4ac
=a x+ − ,
2a 4a2
 2
b 2 b2 − 4ac
=a x+ − ,
2a 4a2
 
b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac
=a x+ − x+ + ,
2a 2a 2a 2a
 
b− b2 − 4ac b+ b2 − 4ac
=a x+ x+ ,
2a 2a

2biQ 2b

ax2 + bx + c = a(x + α)(x + β), a = 0, UjXRV

/QM/2

 
b− b2 − 4ac b+ b2 − 4ac
α= v β= . UjXkV
2a 2a
aB MHBxKQb HQb MȹK2`Qb α v β [m2 T`2+2M 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH UjXkV TQ/2KQb Q#@
b2`p` [m2 bB 2H MȹK2`Q ∆ = b2 − 4ac- HHK/Q 2H /Bb+`BKBMMi2 /2H TQHBMQKBQ
+Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2- 2b K2MQ` [m2 +2`Q- 2MiQM+2b iMiQ α +QKQ β bQM MȹK2`Qb +QK@
TH2DQbX aB ûbi2 2b 2H +bQ- /2+BKQb [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ MQ b2 Tm2/2 7+iQ`Bx` 2M HQb
`2H2bX 1b /2+B`- bB //Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ

ax2 + bx + c; a, b, c ∈ R,

MQ 2tBbi2M TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q mMQ x + α v x + β- /QM/2 α ∈ R v β ∈ R- iH2b

[m2
RRe 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

ax2 + bx + c = a(x + α)(x + β),

b2 /B+2 [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ MQ b2 Tm2/2 7+iQ`Bx` 2M HQb `2H2bX bő TQ` 2D2KTHQ-
2H TQHBMQKBQ x2 + x + 1 MQ b2 Tm2/2 7+iQ`Bx` 2M HQb `2H2bX Sm2b bB mbKQb H
7Q`KmH UjXkV- i2M2KQb a = 1- b = 1 v c = 1 v TQ` HQ iMiQ

√
1− 12 − 4 × 1 × 1 1− 3i
α= = ,
2×1 2
v 
√
1+ 12 − 4 × 1 × 1 3i 1+
β= = .
2×1 2
1M 2bi2 +bQ α v β bQM MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQbX .2 iQ/b 7Q`Kb- 2H TQHBMQKBQ //Q
b2 Tm2/2 7+iQ`Bx` 2M HQb +QKTH2DQb- mbM/Q H 7Q`KmH UjXRV Q#i2M2KQb
√ √
2 1− 3i 1+ 3i
x +x+1= x+ x+ .
2 2
1M ;2M2`H- 2H T`Q#H2K /2 H 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM /2 TQHBMQKBQb MQ 2b 7€+BH v b2`€
i`i/Q 2M 7Q`K K€b bBbi2K€iB+ K€b /2HMi2X

+iBpB// jX9Xj,
.2b+QKTQM; 2M 7+iQ`2b Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b bB;mB2Mi2bX

RX 2x2 − 32x + 126 8X 2x2 − 3x − 5

kX 3x2 − 3x − 18 eX 6 + 31a − 30a2

jX a6 − 2a3 + 1 dX z 4 + 3z 2 + 4
3 2
9X 2x2 − 3x + 5 3X z − 4z − 1
2

jX8 .BpBbBƦM SQHBMQKBQb

1M 2bi mMB// i`#D`2KQb bƦHQ +QM TQHBMQKBQb 2M mM p`B#H2X mM[m2 2M
H b2++BƦM jXj ?2KQb 2b+`BiQ H;Q bQ#`2 TQHBMQKBQb- 2b M2+2b`BQ [m2 2KT2+2KQb
DmbiM/Q H i2`KBMQHQ;ő #€bB+ [m2 miBHBx`2KQb 2M 2bi mMB//X
S` `272`B`MQb  TQHBMQKBQb 2M x 2b+`B#B`2KQb, p (x)- q(x)- r(x)- 2i+X .B`2@
KQb [m2 mM TQHBMQKBQ 2M x- p (x)- iB2M2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b 2Mi2`Qb- `+BQMH2b- `2H2b
Ʀ +QKTH2DQb bB iQ/Qb HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 p (x) HQ bQMX 1M HQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2D2KTHQb
BHmbi`KQb 2biQX
.BpBbBƦM SQHBMQKBQb RRd

SQHBMQKBQ o`B#H2 :`/Q *Q2}+B2Mi2b

3x + 4x2 − 8x6 x 6 1Mi2`QbX
1 8
− 2w3 + w4 − w5 w 5 _+BQMH2bX
3√ 5
8 4 16 z 2 − 12z 8 z 8 _2H2bX
3
√ + (5 − i)α + α
−4i α 3 *QKTH2DQbX
7 5 AM/2i2`KBM/X 0 _2H2bX
0 AM/2i2`KBM/X LQ b2 /2}M2X 1Mi2`QbX

lb`2KQb 2H bB;mB2Mi2 +`Bi2`BQ /2 B;mH// /2 /Qb TQHBMQKBQb, /Qb TQHBMQKBQb

2M x- p (x) v q(x)- bQM B;mH2b bB HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 p (x) v q(x) +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b
 H KBbK TQi2M+B /2 x bQM B;mH2bX .2 2bi2 +`Bi2`BQ b2 bB;m2 [m2 /Qb TQHBMQKBQb
B;mH2b /2#2M i2M2` B;mH ;`/QX SQ` HQ iMiQ- TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B`- /Qb TQHBMQKBQb
2M x /2 ;`/Q n

p (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an−1 xn−1 + an xn

q(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bn−1 xn−1 + bn xn ,

bQM B;mH2b- 2b /2+B` p (x) = q(x)- bB v bƦHQ bB a0 = b0 - a1 = b1 - a2 = b2 - . . .-
an = bn X P#b2`p2KQb [m2 bB /Qb TQHBMQKBQb p (x) v q(x) bQM B;mH2b- 2MiQM+2b Hb
2tT`2bBQM2b p`B#H2b p (x) v q(x) bQM 2[mBpH2Mi2bX _2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- b2 Tm2/2 /2@
KQbi`` [m2 bB Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b p (x) v q(x) bQM 2[mBpH2Mi2b- 2MiQM+2b
HQb TQHBMQKBQb p (x) v q(x) bQM B;mH2b 2M 2H b2MiB/Q Mi2`BQ`X

./Q mM TQHBMQKBQ p (x) v mM MȹK2`Q c- 2H pHQ` MmKû`B+Q [m2 iQK H 2t@

T`2bBƦM TQHBMƦKB+ p (x) H bmbiBimB` x TQ` c HQ /2MQi`2KQb TQ` p (c)- bő TQ`
2D2KTHQ- //Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ

p (x) = 13 − x2 + 5x3 ,

2H pHQ` MmKû`B+Q [m2 iQK H 2tT`2bBƦM TQHBMƦKB+ p (x) H bmbiBimB` x TQ` 2H

MȹK2`Q 3 2b 139- 2b /2+B`- p (3) = 139- Tm2b

p (5) = 13 − 32 + 5 · 33 = 139.
bő KBbKQ- p (−2) = −31- Tm2b p (−2) = 13 − (−2)2 + 5 · (−2)3 = −31X

1M T`iB+mH`- //Q mM TQHBMQKBQ p (x) v mM MȹK2`Q c- bB b2 iB2M2 [m2 p (c) = 0-

2MiQM+2b /B`2KQb [m2 2H MȹK2`Q c 2b mM +2`Q /2 p (x)X SQ` 2D2KTHQ- 2H MȹK2`Q −4
2b mM +2`Q /2H TQHBMQKBQ

p (x) = −12 − 11x + 2x2 + x3

RR3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

Tm2b

p (−4) = −12 − 11 · (−4) + 2 · (−4)2 + (−4)3 = 0,

T2`Q 2H MȹK2`Q R MQ 2b mM +2`Q /2H TQHBMQKBQ //Q- Tm2b

p (1) = −12 − 11 · 1 + 2 · 12 + 13 = −20.

GQb TQHBMQKBQb 2M mM p`B#H2 iB2M2M Km+?b T`QTB2//2b H;2#`B+b +QKm@
M2b +QM HQb MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`QbX >`2KQb MQi` 2biQ 2M 2H /2b``QHHQ /2 2bi mMB//X

1H H;Q`BiKQ /2 H /BpBbBƦM
1M 2H #+?BHH2`iQ pBKQb [m2 //Qb /Qb MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`Qb f v g- 2tBbi2M /Qb MȹK2`Qb
2Mi2`Qb ȹMB+Qb q v r iH2b [m2

f = g × q + r, UjXjV

/QM/2 0 ≤ r < gX 1biQ 2b- f 2b KȹHiBTHQ /2 g bB r = 0 Ʀ f 2bi€ 2Mi`2 /Qb KȹHiBTHQb

+QMb2+miBpQb /2 g bB r = 0X
1H H;Q`BiKQ T` 2M+QMi`` HQb MȹK2`Qb q v r- [m2 T`2+2M 2M UjXjV 2b 2H
T`Q+2bQ 7KBHB` /2 H /BpBbBƦM [m2 /BbTQM2KQb bő,
f g
r q
1M 2bi2 T`Q+2bQ H MȹK2`Q f b2 H2 HHK /BpB/2M/Q- H MȹK2`Q g /BpBbQ`- H MȹK2`Q
q +Q+B2Mi2 v H MȹK2`Q r `2bB/mQX 1M T`iB+mH`- //Qb HQb MȹK2`Qb f = 19 v g = 7-
2M+QMi`KQb [m2 q = 2 v r = 5-
19 7
5 2
1M +QMb2+m2M+B-
19 = 7 × 2 + 5.
a2 Tm2/2 KQbi`` [m2 bBKBbKQ //Qb /Qb TQHBMQKBQb f (x) v g(x)- 2tBbi2M /Qb
TQHBMQKBQb ȹMB+Qb q(x) v r(x) iH2b [m2

f (x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x), UjX9V

/QM/2c Q #B2M r(x) = 0 Ʀ 2H ;`/Q r(x) 2b K2MQ` [m2 2H ;`/Q /2 g(x)X aBKBH`@
K2Mi2- +mM/Q 2M UjX9V r(x) = 0- 2MiQM+2b b2 /B+2 [m2 f (x) 2b KȹHiBTHQ /2 g(x) Ʀ
[m2 g(x) 2b mM 7+iQ` /2 f (x)X
1H H;Q`BiKQ T` 2M+QMi`` HQb TQHBMQKBQb q(x) v r(x) [m2 T`2+2M 2M UjX9V
2b bBKBH` H +bQ /2 MȹK2`Qb 2Mi2`Qb v HQb /BbTQM2KQb bő,
.BpBbBƦM SQHBMQKBQb RRN

f (x) g(x)
r(x) q(x)

1M 2bi2 T`Q+2bQ H TQHBMQKBQ f (x) b2 H2 HHK /BpB/2M/Q- H TQHBMQKBQ g(x) /BpBbQ`-

H TQHBMQKBQ q(x) +Q+B2Mi2 v H TQHBMQKBQ r(x) `2bB/mQX AHmbi`KQb iH T`Q+2bQ +QM
2H bB;mB2Mi2 2D2KTHQ

jX8XR 1D2KTHQX *QMbB/2`2KQb HQb TQHBMQKBQb f (x) = −3+4x+15x2 +2x3

v g(x) = 5 + x- v 2M+QMi`2KQb HQb TQHBMQKBQb q(x) v r(x) iH2b [m2

f (x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x),

/QM/2 r(x) = 0 Ʀ grad r(x) < grad g(x)X 1H +€H+mHQ `2[m2`B/Q b2 ?+2 bő,

2x3 + 15x2 + 4x − 3 x+5

−2x3 − 10x2 2x2 + 5x − 21
5x2 + 4x
− 5x2 − 25x
− 21x − 3
21x + 105
102 ←− r(x)X
1H 2bim/BMi2 Tm2/2 p2`B}+` [m2

2x3 + 15x2 + 4x − 3 = (x + 5)(2x2 + 5x − 21) + 102,

2biQ 2b- f (x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x)X

Rky 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

GQb TbQb  b2;mB` 2M 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 H /BpBbBƦM /2 /Qb TQHBMQKBQb- Tm2/2M `2bmKB`b2

bő,
RX 1b+`B#BKQb HQb iû`KBMQb /2H /BpB/2M/Q v /2H /BpBbQ` /2 Bx[mB2`/  /2`2+?
/2 +m2`/Q  Hb TQi2M+Bb /2b+2M/2Mi2b /2 H p`B#H2- /2DM/Q 2bT+BQ T`
HQb iû`KBMQb +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 MmHQX
kX P#i2M2KQb 2H T`BK2` iû`KBMQ /2H +Q+B2Mi2 /BpB/B2M/Q 2H iû`KBMQ BMB+BH /2H
/BpB/2M/Q 2M 2H iû`KBMQ BMB+BH /2H /BpBbQ`X
jX JmHiBTHB+KQb 2H /BpBbQ` TQ` 2bi2 iû`KBMQ /2H +Q+B2Mi2 v `2biKQb 2H T`Q@
/m+iQ /2H /BpB/2M/QX
9X lbKQb 2H `2bB/mQ /2 2bi `2bi +QKQ Mm2pQ /BpB/2M/Q v `2T2iBKQb HQb TbQb
2  4X
8X *mM/Q 2H `2bB/mQ i2M; ;`/Q K2MQ` [m2 2H /2 /BpBbQ` Q b2 2H TQHBMQKBQ
MmHQ- 2H T`Q+2bQ ? i2`KBM/QX
Pi`Qb 2D2KTHQb [m2 BHmbi`M 2H T`Q+2bQ bQM HQb bB;mB2Mi2bX

jX8Xk 1D2KTHQX *QMbB/2`2KQb HQb TQHBMQKBQb f (x) = 15 + x − 2x4 v

g(x) = 3x + 2x2 v 2M+QMi`2KQb HQb TQHBMQKBQb q(x) v r(x) iH2b [m2
f (x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x),
/QM/2 r(x) = 0 Ʀ grad r(x) < grad g(x)X
−2x4 + x + 15 2x2 + 3x
3 9
2x4 + 3 x3 − x2 + x −
2 4
3 x3
9 2
− 3 x3 − x
2
9 2
− x + x
2
9 2 27
x + x
2 4
31
x + 15 ←− r(x)X
4
SQ` HQ iMiQ-
3 9 31
−2x4 + x + 15 = (2x2 + 3x) − x2 + x− + x + 15 ,
2 4 4
2biQ 2b- f (x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x)X
.BpBbBƦM SQHBMQKBQb RkR

+iBpB// jX8XR,

RX .BpB/ 2H TQHBMQKBQ 4x8 y 8 − 4x6 y 6 − x2 y 3 2Mi`2 2x2 y 3 .

kX .BpB/ x10 − z 10 2Mi`2 x2 − z 2 .

1 3 3 2 1 1
jX .BpB/ x − xy + xy − 2y 2 + 3 2Mi`2 x − y.
12 4 3 3

G /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ U`2;H /2 _m}MBV

G /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ 2b mM KûiQ/Q bBKTHB}+/Q T` /BpB/B` mM TQHBMQKBQ f (x)
TQ` mM TQHBMQKBQ g(x) /2 H 7Q`K

g(x) = (x − c).

S` 2tTHB+` 2M [mû +QMbBbi2 2H KûiQ/Q- +QMbB/2`2KQb 2H +bQ T`iB+mH` 2M

[m2 f (x) 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q i`2b- Q b2

f (x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 , a3 = 0.

172+im2KQb H /BpBbBƦM f (x) TQ` g(x) mbM/Q 2H H;Q`BiKQ pBbiQ 2M H b2++BƦM

Mi2`BQ`X
a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 x−c
−a3 x3 + ca3 x2 a3 x2 + (a2 + ca3 )x
(a2 + ca3 )x2 + a1 x +(a1 + ca2 + c 2 a3 )
−(a2 + ca3 )x2 + (ca2 + c 2 a3 )x
(a1 + ca2 + c 2 a3 )x + a0
−(a1 + ca2 + c 2 a3 )x + ca1
+ c 2 a2 + c3 a3
a0 + ca1 + c 2 a2 + c3 a3 ←− r(x),

b2 iB2M2 [m2 2H +Q+B2Mi2 2b B;mH 

q(x) = a3 x2 + (a2 + ca3 )x + (a1 + ca2 + c 2 a3 ),

v 2H `2bB/mQ

r(x) = a0 + a1 c + a2 c 2 + a3 c3 .
P#b2`p2 [m2 2H `2bB/mQ r(x) /2 iH /BpBbBƦM 2b mM MȹK2`Q- [m2 2b T`2+BbK2Mi2
f (c)- Tm2b

r(x) = a0 + a1 c + a2 c 2 + a3 c3 = f (c).
Rkk 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

aQ#`2 2bi2 bT2+iQ pQHp2`2KQb 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 b2++BƦMX ?Q` #B2Mc 2tBbi2 mM
H2v /2 7Q`K+BƦM /2 HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2H +Q+B2Mi2 v /2H `2bB/mQX S` /2/m+B`H v
7+BHBi` bm 2b+`Bim`- /2MQi2KQb 2H +Q+B2Mi2 /2 H /BpBbBƦM TQ`

q(x) = b2 x2 + b1 x + b0

v 2H `2bB/mQ TQ`

r(x) = r.
bő i2M2KQb [m2

q(x) = b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 = a3 x2 + (a2 + ca3 )x + (a1 + ca2 + c 2 a3 )

r(x) = r = a0 + a1 c + a2 c 2 + a3 c3 .
.2 2biQ b2 bB;m2 [m2 b0 = a1 + ca2 + c 2 a3 - b1 = a2 + ca3 v b2 = a3 X GQ [m2 T2`KBi2
pBbmHBx` H K2M+BQM/ H2v /2 7Q`K+BƦMX *QM 2H Q#D2iQ /2 ;BHBx` HQb +€H+mHQb-
BM/B+KQb /B+? H2v /2 7Q`K+BƦM +QKQ T`2+2 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 /B;`K,

a3 a2 a1 a0 ×c
+ ca3 + c (a2 + ca3 ) + (a1 + ca2 + c 2 a3 )c
a3 a2 + ca3 a1 + ca2 + c 2 a3 a0 + a1 c + a2 c 2 + a3 c3 = f (c)X

1bi2 /B;`K MQb T2`KBi2 +H+mH` 2M 7Q`K `€TB/ mM /2 iH2b /BpBbBQM2bX
AHmbi`KQb 2H KûiQ/Q +QM 2H bB;mB2Mi2 2D2KTHQX

jX8Xj 1D2KTHQX
RX *QMbB/2`2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 2x − 3 v 272+im2KQb H
/BpBbBƦM /2 f (x) TQ` 2H TQHBMQKBQ g(x) = (x − 5) mbM/Q H /BpBbBƦM
bBMiûiB+X
1 −2 2 −3 ×5
+5 + 15 + 85
1 3 17 82 = f (5)X
*QMb2+m2Mi2K2Mi2
f (x) = (x − 5)(x2 + 3x + 17) + 82.
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 T` 2H mbQ +Q``2+iQ /2 H /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ /2#2
i2M2`b2 2M +m2Mi [m2- 2M 2H /B;`K //Q Mi2b- 2b+`B#BKQb HQb +Q@
2}+B2Mi2b /2 HQb iû`KBMQb /2H /BpB/2M/Q /2 Bx[mB2`/  /2`2+? b2;ȹM
1H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#` Rkj

Hb TQi2M+Bb /2b+2M/2Mi2b /2 H p`B#H2- +QHQ+M/Q +2`Q T` HQb

iû`KBMQb +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2 MmHQX GQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2H +Q+B2Mi2 T`2+2M
#DQ Q`/2M/Qb /2 B;mH 7Q`KX 1H ȹHiBKQ MȹK2`Q [m2 T`2+2 2M H
T`i2 /2 #DQ 2b 2H `2bB/mQ /2 H `2bT2+iBp /BpBbBƦMX /2K€b- bB 2H
/BpB/2M/Q iB2M2 ;`/Q n- 2MiQM+2b- 2M 2bi2 +bQ 2bT2+BH- 2H +Q+B2Mi2
iB2M2 ;`/Q n − 1X

kX *QMbB/2`2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ f (w) = 2w5 −3w3 +2w2 +7- v 272+im2KQb

H /BpBbBƦM /2 f (w) 2Mi`2 2H TQHBMQKBQ g(w) = (w + 3) = w − (−3)X

2 0 −3 2 0 7 ×(−3)
−6 + 18 − 45 + 129 − 387
2 −6 15 −43 129 −380 = f (−3)X

1M +QMb2+m2M+B

f (w) = (w + 3)(2w4 − 6w3 + 15w2 − 43w + 129) + (−380).

jXe 1H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#`

lMQ /2 HQb T`Q#H2Kb +2Mi`H2b /2 Hb Ki2K€iB+b 2b H `2bQHm+BƦM /2 2+m@
+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+bX Jm+?Qb bT2+iQb /2 2bi i2K€iB+ b2 Tm2/2M `2bQHp2` +QM
?2``KB2Mib +QKTmi+BQMH2bc bBM 2K#`;Q- HQ K€b BKTQ`iMi2 2b +QKT`2M/2`
HQb T`Q+2bQb v 2H M€HBbBb /2 `2bmHi/QbX 1M 2bi2 b2MiB/Q 2b M2+2b`BQ 2Mi2M/2`
2H bB;MB}+/Q /2H h2Q`2K 6mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#`- mMQ /2 HQb `2bmHi/Qb K€b
BKTQ`iMi2b /2 H ?BbiQ`B /2 Hb Ki2K€iB+bX S`2pBK2Mi2 b2 /2b+`B#2M Qi`Qb
i2Q`2Kb- +QKQ 2H i2Q`2K /2H 7+iQ` v 2H i2Q`2K /2H `2bB/mQ- v +Q`QH`BQb [m2
bQTQ`iM 2bi2 `2bmHi/QX LQ b2 ?+2 H /2KQbi`+BƦM /2 iQ/Qb HQb i2Q`2Kb TQ`
T`Q#H2Kb /2 iB2KTQ v TQ`[m2 b2 `2[mB2`2M H;mMQb 2H2K2MiQb i2Ʀ`B+Qb /2 Ki2@
K€iB+b pMx/bX

jXeXR h2Q`2KX Uh2Q`2K /2H `2bB/mQV

./Qb 2H TQHBMQKBQ f (x) v 2H MȹK2`Q c- 2H `2bB/mQ [m2 b2 Q#iB2M2 H /BpB/B`
f (x) TQ` 2H TQHBMQKBQ g(x) = x − c 2b f (c)X

1M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 2D2KTHQ p2`B}+KQb 2H `2bmHi/Q /2H i2Q`2K Mi2`BQ`X

jXeXk 1D2KTHQX *QMbB/2`2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ

f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 5x + 8
Rk9 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

v 2H MȹK2`Q c = 3X 172+im2KQb H /BpBbBƦM /2 f (x) TQ` g(x) = (x − c) =

(x − 3)X lbM/Q H /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+- b2 iB2M2

1 −3 −5 8 ×3
+3 0 − 15
1 0 −5 −7 ←− _2bB/mQX

SQ` 2H i2Q`2K /2H `2bB/mQ b2 iB2M2 [m2 f (3) = −7X >+B2M/Q 2H +€H+mHQ
/B`2+iK2Mi2 b2 Q#iB2M2

f (2) = 33 − 3 · 32 − 5 · 3 + 8 = −7.

+iBpB// jXeXR,
RX 1M +/ mMQ /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +bQb- bBM 272+im` H /BpBbBƦM- 2M+m2Mi`2
2H `2bB/mQ /2 +/ mM /2 Hb /BpBbBQM2b BM/B+/b,

V x5 − x3 + x + 1 2Mi`2 x − 3.
#V −x8 − 4x6 + x3 − 3 2Mi`2 x − 1.
+V 2x3 − 3x2 − 2x − 51 2Mi`2 x + 5.
/V −3x10 + x − 1 2Mi`2 x − 1.

kX liBHBxM/Q /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ 2M+m2Mi`2 2H +Q+B2Mi2 /2 +/ mM /2 Hb

/BpBbBQM2b Mi2`BQ`2bX

jX .2Km2bi`2 [m2 2H TQHBMQKBQ x100 − 2x + 1 2b /BpBbB#H2 TQ` 2H 7+iQ`

x − 1.

jXeXj h2Q`2KX Uh2Q`2K /2H 7+iQ`V

./Qb 2H TQHBMQKBQ f (x) v 2H MȹK2`Q c- f (c) = 0 bB v bƦHQ bB g(x) = x − c
2b mM 7+iQ` /2 f (x)X

jXeX9 1D2KTHQX
RX *QMbB/2`2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 2x + 6X
1H TQHBMQKBQ g(x) = x − 3 2b mM 7+iQ` /2 f (x) Tm2biQ [m2
f (2) = 33 − 3 · 32 − 2 · 3 + 6 = 0.
1H 2bim/BMi2 Tm2/2 p2`B}+` [m2
f (x) = (x − 3)(x2 − 2).
1H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#` Rk8

kX ./Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ f (x) = 2x5 + 3x4 − 30x3 − 57x2 − 2x + 24X aB

b#2KQb [m2 f (x) b2 7+iQ`Bx bő-
  √   √ 
3 3 + 17 3 − 17
f (x) = (x−4) x + (x+1) x− x− ,
2 2 2

TQ` 2H i2Q`2K /2H 7+iQ`- BMK2/BiK2Mi2 TQ/2KQb /2+B` [m2 HQb

+2`Qb /2 f (x) bQM
√ √
3 3 − 17 3 + 17
c1 = −1, c2 = − , c3 = 4, c4 = , c5 = .
2 2 2
.2 Qi`Q H/Q- bB b#2KQb [m2 iQ/Qb HQb +2`Qb /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ f (x)
bQM √
c1 = −1, c2 = 5, c3 = 3,
2MiQM+2b- TQ` 2H i2Q`2K /2H 7+iQ`- M2+2b`BK2Mi2 f (x) 2b /2 H
7Q`K  √ 
f (x) = c (x − 5)(x + 1) x − 3 ,
/QM/2 c 2b mM MȹK2`Q /B72`2Mi2 /2 +2`QX

1H T`Q#H2K /2 2M+QMi`` HQb +2`Qb /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ 2b /2 ;`M BKTQ`iM+B 2M 2H

2bim/BQ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b v `+BQMH2bX .2b7Q`imM/K2Mi2-  2t+2T@
+BƦM /2 H;mMQb +bQb- 2b /B7ő+BH +H+mH` HQb +2`Qb /2 mM TQHBMQKBQX

jXeX8 h2Q`2KX Uh2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#`V

aB mM TQHBMQKBQ f (x) iB2M2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b +QKTH2DQb v iB2M2 ;`/Q KvQ` [m2
+2`Q- 2MiQM+2b f (x) iB2M2 H K2MQb mM +2`Q +QKTH2DQX

*QKQ +bQ T`iB+mH`- bB iQ/Qb HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 f (x) bQM `2H2b v f (x) iB2M2
;`/Q KvQ` [m2 +2`Q- 2MiQM+2b f (x) iB2M2 H K2MQb mM +2`Q +QKTH2DQX >+2KQb
MQi` [m2 bB a + b i 2b mM +2`Q +QKTH2DQ /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ- Tm2/2 bm+2/2` [m2 b = 0-
2M +mvQ +bQ a + b i b2 `2/m+2 H MȹK2`Q `2H a v MQb `272`B`2KQb  ûbi2 +QKQ mM
+2`Q `2HX

*QK#BMM/Q 2H i2Q`2K /2H 7+iQ` v 2H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#` b2

Q#iB2M2 2H bB;mB2Mi2 +Q`QH`BQX

jXeXe *Q`QH`BQX hQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b +QKTH2DQb [m2 i2M;

;`/Q KvQ` [m2 +2`Q- iB2M2 M2+2b`BK2Mi2 mM 7+iQ` /2 H 7Q`K g(x) =
x − c- /QM/2 c 2b mM MȹK2`Q +QKTH2DQX
Rke 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

>+B2M/Q mbQ `2Bi2`/Q /2H +Q`QH`BQ Mi2`BQ`- TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b`- 2M i2Q`ő- +mH@
[mB2` TQHBMQKBQ f (x) /2 ;`/Q n- 0 < n- +QKQ mM T`Q/m+iQ /2 n TQHBMQKBQb /2
;`/Q 1X 1M 272+iQ- bB f (x) iB2M2 ;`/Q n- 0 < n- TQ` 2H +Q`QH`BQ Mi2`BQ` TQ/2KQb
2b+`B#B`
f (x) = (x − c1 ) q1 (x),
/QM/2 c1 ∈ C v q1 (x) 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n − 1X aB 0 < n − 1- THB+KQb /2
Mm2pQ 2H +Q`QH`BQ H TQHBMQKBQ q1 (x)- T` Q#i2M2`
q1 (x) = (x − c2 ) q2 (x),
/QM/2 c2 ∈ C v q2 (x) 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n − 2X SQ` iMiQ
f (x) = (x − c1 )(x − c2 ) q2 (x).
*QMiBMmM/Q +QM 2H T`Q+2bQ- /2bTmûb /2 n 2iTb HH2;KQb  mM TQHBMQKBQ q(x)
/2 ;`/Q +2`Q- /B;KQb [m2 qn (x) = c- /QM/2 c ∈ C v c = 0X SQ/2KQb TQ` HQ iMiQ
2b+`B#B`
f (x) = (x − c1 )(x − c2 ) · · · (x − cn )c,
/QM/2 c1 , c2 , . . . , cn , c ∈ CX
1bi2 `2bmHi/Q HQ TQ/2KQb bBMi2iBx` 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 +Q`QH`BQ- bő,

jXeXd *Q`QH`BQX aB f (x) 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b +QKTH2@

DQb v 2H ;`/Q /2 f (x) 2b n- 0 < n- 2MiQM+2b 2tBbi2M MȹK2`Qb +QKTH2DQb
c1 , c2 , . . . , cn v c iH2b [m2

f (x) = (x − c1 )(x − c2 ) · · · (x − cn )c.

LQiKQb [m2 2M 2H 2MmM+B/Q /2H +Q`QH`BQ Mi2`BQ` MQ M2+2b`BK2Mi2 HQb MȹK2`Qb

ci bQM /B72`2Mi2bX aB mM 7+iQ` (x−ci ) T`2+2 m p2+2b 2M H 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM- 2MiQM+2b
/2+BKQb [m2 2H MȹK2`Q ci 2b mM +2`Q /2 KmHiBTHB+B// m /2 f (x)X aB mM +2`Q /2
KmHiBTHB+B// m 2b +QMi/Q +QKQ m +2`Qb- 2MiQM+2b 2H +Q`QH`BQ Mi2`BQ` 2bi#H2+2
[m2 mM TQHBMQKBQ f (x) /2 ;`/Q n- 0 < n- iB2M2 2t+iK2Mi2 n +2`Qb +QKTH2DQbX
GQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2D2KTHQb BHmbi`M 2bi Q#b2`p+BƦMX

jXeX3 1D2KTHQX
RX 1H TQHBMQKBQ f (x) = x5 −3x4 −x3 +3x2 −12x+36- b2 Tm2/2 7+iQ`Bx`-
+QKQ T`Q/m+iQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q mMQ- bő
 √  √ 
f (x) = (x − 3)(x − 2)(x + 2) x − 3 i x + 3 i .

1M 2bi2 +bQ f (x) iB2M2 i`2b +2`Qb `2H2b /2 KmHiBTHB+B// mMQ-  b#2`-
c1 = 3- c2 = 2-√c3 = −2 v /Qb √ +2`Qb +QKTH2DQb /2 KmHiBTHB+B// mMQ-
 b#2`- c4 = 3 i v c5 = − 3 iX
1H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#` Rkd

kX 1H TQHBMQKBQ /2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b +QKTH2DQb UǯTQ` [mûV

f (x) = (x − 1)2 (x + 2)4 (x − 2i)(x + 2i)3 (x + 3 + i)

2b /2 ;`/Q 11 v iB2M2 /Qb +2`Qb `2H2b /B72`2Mi2b- c1 = 1 /2 KmHiBTHB@

+B// /Qb v c2 = −2 /2 KmHiBTHB+B// +mi`Q- v i`2b +2`Qb +QKTH2DQb
/B72`2Mi2b- c3 = 2i /2 KmHiBTHB+B// mMQ- c4 = −2i /2 KmHiBTHB+B//
i`2b v c5 = −(3 + i) /2 KmHiBTHB+B// mMQX

jXeXN h2Q`2KX
aB f (x) 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b `2H2b /2 ;`/Q n- 0 < n- v bB c 2b
mM +2`Q +QKTH2DQ /2 f (x) 2MiQM+2b M2+2b`BK2Mi2 2H +QMDm;/Q /2 c- c- 2b
iK#BûM mM +2`Q +QKTH2DQ /2 f (x)X

o2KQb 2H bB;mB2Mi2 2D2KTHQX

jXeXRy 1D2KTHQX 1M+QMi`2KQb mM TQHBMQKBQ f (x) +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b `2H2b

/2 ;`/Q 4- b#B2M/Q [m2 c1 = 3 − i v c2 = 4 i bQM +2`Qb /2 f (x)X SQ` 2H
i2Q`2K Mi2`BQ`- HQb MȹK2`Qb c1 = 3 + i v c2 = −4 i iK#BûM bQM +2`Qb /2
f (x)X SQ` 2H i2Q`2K /2H 7+iQ`- f (x) iB2M2 TQ` 7+iQ`2b 
ƒ „
(x − c1 ) = x − (3 − i) .
ƒ „
(x − c2 ) = x − (4 i) .
ƒ „
(x − c1 ) = x − (3 + i) .
ƒ „
(x − c2 ) = x − (−4 i) .

JmHiBTHB+M/Q 2biQb 7+iQ`2b 2M+QMi``MQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ #mb+/QX bő-

ƒ „ƒ „ƒ „ƒ „
f (x) = x − (3 − i) x − (4 i) x − (3 + i) x − (−4 i) ,
ƒ „ƒ „ƒ „ƒ „
= x − (3 − i) x − (3 + i) x − 4i x + 4i ,
  2 
= x2 − 6x + 10 x + 16 ,
= x4 − 6x3 + 26x2 − 96x + 160.

jXeXRR *Q`QH`BQX hQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b `2H2b /2 ;`/Q n-

0 < n- Tm2/2 2tT`2b`b2 +QKQ mM T`Q/m+iQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q mMQ
Q /2 ;`/Q /Qb +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b `2H2b- /QM/2 HQb 7+iQ`2b /2 ;`/Q /Qb MQ
iB2M2M +2`Qb `2H2bX
Rk3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

jXeXRk 1D2KTHQX 1tT`2b2KQb 2H TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b `2H2b

f (x) = x4 + x2 − 6,

+QKQ mM T`Q/m+iQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q mMQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b +QKTH2@

DQb v +QKQ mM T`Q/m+iQ /2 TQHBMQKBQb /2 ;`/Q mMQ v /2 ;`/Q /Qb +QM
+Q2}+B2Mi2b `2H2bc +QM H +QM/B+BƦM [m2 HQb /2 ;`/Q /Qb MQ i2M;M +2`Qb
`2H2bX
>+B2M/Q w = x2 - Q#i2M2KQb

x4 + x2 − 6 = w2 + w − 6.

lbM/Q 2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 /Qb #BMQKBQb b2 iB2M2

w2 + w − 6 = (w − 2)(w + 3),

Q b2
x4 + x2 − 6 = (x2 − 2)(x2 + 3).
1M +QMb2+m2M+B-
 √  √ 
f (x) = x4 + x2 − 6 = x − 2 x + 2 (x + 3i)(x − 3i),

v  √  √  
f (x) = x4 + x2 − 6 = x − 2 x + 2 x2 + 3 .

*2`Qb `+BQMH2b /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b 2M@

i2`Qb
*QKQ v ?2KQb /B+?Q- ;2M2`HK2Mi2 2b /B7ő+BH 2M+QMi`` HQb +2`Qb /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ
/2 ;`/Q ;`M/2X aBM 2K#`;Q- /`2KQb mM KûiQ/Q 272+iBpQ T` T` +H+mH`
HQb +2`Qb `+BQMH2b- bB HQb ?v- /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b 2Mi2`QbX *QKQ
p2`2KQb- 2bi2 KûiQ/Q MQb T2`KBiB`€ iK#BûM +H+mH` HQb +2`Qb `+BQMH2b- bB HQb
?v- /2 mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b `+BQMH2bX 1H KûiQ/Q b2 /2/m+2 /2H bB;mB2Mi2
i2Q`2KX

jXeXRj h2Q`2KX Uh2Q`2K /2 HQb +2`Qb `+BQMH2bV

a2 2H TQHBMQKBQ 2M x /2 ;`/Q n +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b 2Mi2`Qb

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 .

aB p/q 2b mM +2`Q `+BQMH /2 f (x)- /QM/2 p v q MQ iB2M2M 7+iQ`2b T`BKQb

+QKmM2b- 2MiQM+2b p /BpB/2  a0 v q /BpB/2  an X
1H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#` RkN

1H bB;mB2Mi2 2D2KTHQ BHmbi` 2H `2bmHi/Q /2H i2Q`2K Mi2`BQ`X

./Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b 2Mi2`Qb f (x) = 6x3 + 11x2 − 4x − 4- 2M+QM@

i`2KQb iQ/Qb HQb +2`Qb `+BQMH2b- bB HQb ?v- /2 f (x)X .2 +m2`/Q +QM 2H i2Q`2K
Mi2`BQ`- bB p/q 2b mM +2`Q `+BQMH /2 f (x)- /QM/2 p v q MQ iB2M2M 7+iQ`2b T`BKQb
+QKmM2b- 2MiQM+2b p /BpB/2  a0 = −4 v q /BpB/2  a3 = 6X SQ` HQ iMiQ- HQb
TQbB#H2b pHQ`2b /2 p bQM, ±1- ±2 v ±4- v HQb TQbB#H2b pHQ`2b /2 q bQM, ±1- ±2-
±3 v ±6X 1M +QMb2+m2M+B- HQb +2`Qb `+BQMH2b /2 f (x)- bB HQb ?v- 2bi`€M 2Mi`2
HQb MȹK2`Qb
1 1 1 2 4
±1, ±2, ±4, ± , ± , ± , ± v ± .
2 3 6 3 3
1b M2+2b`BQ +QKT`Q#` +m€H2b /2 2biQb MȹK2`Qb bQM +2`Qb /2 f (x)X S` iH 272+iQ
b2 `2+QKB2M/ mb` H /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+c `2+Q`/2KQb [m2 TQ` 2H i2Q`2K /2H 7+iQ`-
p/q 2b mM +2`Q /2 f (x) bB v bƦHQ bB (x−p/q) 2b mM 7+iQ` /2 f (x)X o2KQb 2M T`BK2`
Hm;` bB c = 1 2b mM +2`Q /2 f (x)- Q HQ [m2 2b HQ KBbKQ- bB (x − 1) 2b mM 7+iQ` /2
f (x)X >+B2M/Q H /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ /2 f (x) 2Mi`2 (x − 1) b2 2M+m2Mi` [m2

f (x) = (x − 1)(6x2 + 17x + 13) + 9,

HQ +mH /2Km2bi` [m2 c = 1 MQ 2b mM +2`Q /2 f (x)- Tm2b f (1) = 9 = 0X 1MbvM/Q

?Q` +QM c = −2- b2 iB2M2
ƒ „ƒ „
f (x) = x − (−2) 6x2 − x − 2 = (x + 2)(6x2 − x − 2),

HQ +mH /2Km2bi` [m2 c = −2 2b mM +2`Q /2 f (x)X

u i2M2KQb mM 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM /2 f (x)X GQb `2biMi2b +2`Qb /2 f (x) /2#2M b2`
+2`Qb /2H b2;mM/Q 7+iQ`-
q(x) = 6x2 − x − 2,
v TQ` HQ iMiQ TQ/2KQb mb` 2H TQHBMQKBQ q(x) T` +H+mH` 2H `2biQ /2 +2`Qb /2
f (x)X >+B2M/Q H /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ /2 q(x) 2M (x + 1/2) Q#i2M2KQb

1
q(x) = x + (6x − 4),
2
Q b2-
1
f (x) = (x + 2) x + (6x − 4)
2
1 2
= (x + 2) x + 6 x− .
2 3
1H KûiQ/Q /2b+`BiQ Mi2b T` +H+mH` HQb +2`Qb `+BQMH2b- +mM/Q HQb ?v-
/2 mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b 2Mi2`Qb b2 Tm2/2M 2ti2M/2`  TQHBMQKBQb +QM
+Q2}+B2Mi2b `+BQMH2bX 1bi 2ti2MbBƦM b2 #b 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 Q#b2`p+BƦMX
Rjy 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

P#b2`p+BƦM RyX aB k 2b mM MȹK2`Q MQ MmHQ v f (x) 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ +mH[mB2`-

2MiQM+2b 2H MȹK2`Q c 2b mM +2`Q /2 f (x) bB v bƦHQ bB 2H MȹK2`Q c 2b mM +2`Q /2H
TQHBMQKBQ g(x) = kf (x)X 1M 272+iQ- bB k = 0- g(c) = kf (c) = 0 bB v bƦHQ bB f (c) = 0X

bő- bB f (x) 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b `+BQMH2b v k 2b 2H KőMBKQ

+QKȹM /2MQKBM/Q` /2 iQ/Qb HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2 f (x)- 2MiQM+2b g(x) = kf (x) 2b
mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b 2Mi2`QbX S` +H+mH` HQb +2`Qb /2 g(x)- HQb +mH2b
bQM HQb KBbKQb +2`Qb /2 f (x)- mbKQb 2H KûiQ/Q 2D2KTHB}+/Q Mi2bXX

jXeXR9 1D2KTHQX ./Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b `+BQMH2b

1 3 2 2 1 1
f (x) = x4 − x + x − x− ,
6 3 6 3
2M+QMi`2KQb iQ/Qb HQb +2`Qb `+BQMH2b- bB HQb ?v- /2 f (x)X
1M 2bi2 +bQ 2H KőMBKQ +QKȹM /2MQKBM/Q` /2 iQ/Qb HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2
f (x) 2b k = 6X SQ` HQ Mi2b /Bb+miB/Q- HQb +2`Qb /2 f (x) bQM HQb +2`Qb /2H
TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b 2Mi2`Qb

g(x) = 6f (x) = 6x4 − x3 + 4x2 − x − 2.

?Q` #B2M- bB p/q 2b mM +2`Q `+BQMH /2 g(x)- /QM/2 p v q MQ iB2M2M

7+iQ`2b T`BKQb +QKmM2b- 2MiQM+2b Hb TQbB#BHB//2b T` p bQM, ±1 v ±2
v Hb TQbB#BHB//2b T` q bQM ±1 v ±2- ±3 v ±6X 1M +QMb2+m2M+B- HQb
TQbB#H2b +2`Qb `+BQMH2b /2 g(x) bQM,
2 1 1 1
±1, ±2, ± , ± , ± v ± .
3 2 3 6
1MbvM/Q  i`pûb /2 H /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ i2M2KQb [m2 c1 = −1/2 2b mM
+2`Q /2 g(x)X bő,

1
g(x) = x + (6x3 − 4x2 + 6x − 4),
2
1
= x+ q(x).
2

aB mbKQb H /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ +QM HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b /2H TQHBMQKBQ q(x) Q#@
i2M2KQb [m2 c2 = 2/3 2b mM +2`Q /2 q(x) v TQ` HQ iMiQ /2 g(x)X /2K€b-

2
q(x) = x − (6x2 + 6)
3
1H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#` RjR

1M +QMb2+m2M+B-

1 2
g(x) = x + x− (6x2 + 6),
2 3
1 2
=6 x+ x− (x2 + 1),
2 3
1 2   
=6 x+ x− x−i x+i .
2 3

.2 H ȹHiBK B;mH// b2 /2bT`2M/2 [m2 2H `2biQ /2 +2`Qb /2 g(x) bQM c3 = i

v c4 = −iX 1M `2bmK2M- HQb +2`Qb /2 f (x) bQM c1 = −1/2- c2 = 2/3- c3 = i
v c4 = −iX /2K€b-

1 2   
g(x) = 6f (x) = 6 x + x− x−i x+i ,
2 3
Q b2
1 2   
f (x) = x + x− x−i x+i .
2 3

+iBpB// jXeXk,
1M+m2Mi`2 HQb +2`Qb `+BQMH2b /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b TQHBMQKBQbX liBHB+2 2bi2
/iQ T` 7+iQ`Bx`HQbX

RX 2x3 + 3x2 − 3x − 2.

kX 2x5 − 16x4 + 42x3 − 24x2 − 44x + 40.

jX 3x4 − 6x3 − 13x2 + 8x + 12.

1bi b2++BƦM MQ MQb / BM7Q`K+BƦM T` H Q#i2M+BƦM /2 +2`Qb B``+BQMH2b /2 mM

TQHBMQKBQX GQb 2D2KTHQb //Qb MQ `2T`2b2MiM T`Q#H2Kb iőTB+Qb /2 THB++BƦMX
.2 ?2+?Q- 2b HQ K€b +QKȹM [m2 mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b `+BQMH2b MQ i2M;
+2`Qb `+BQMH2bX 7Q`imM/K2Mi2- 2tBbi2M KûiQ/Qb T` /` mM pHQ` T`QtBK@
/Q /2 HQb +2`Qb B``+BQMH2b +QM 2H ;`/Q /2 2t+iBim/ [m2 b2 /2b22X 1M H T`€+iB+-
iH T`QtBK+BƦM b2 272+iȹ mbM/Q mM +H+mH/Q` Q mM +QKTmi/Q`X 1M 2H
+TőimHQ /2/B+/Q H 2bim/BQ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b 2H2K2MiH2b p2`2KQb mMQ /2 iH2b
KûiQ/QbX
Rjk 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

jXd 1tT`2bBQM2b `+BQMH2b

Sm2biQ [m2 Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b 7`++BQM`Bb bQM +Q+B2Mi2b [m2 +QMiB2M2M bőK#QHQb
[m2 `2T`2b2MiM MȹK2`Qb- Tm2/2M THB+`b2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 Hb 7`++BQM2b `2H2b
pBbib Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2X 1M T`Q#H2Kb /2 bBKTHB}++BƦM 2b /2 T`iB+mH` BKTQ`iM+B
H bB;mB2Mi2 7Q`KmH-
ad a
= ,
bd b
/QM/2 a- b v d `2T`2b2MiM MȹK2`Qb +QM b = 0 v d = 0X 1bi `2;H b2 2MmM+B 
p2+2b bő, mM 7+iQ` +QKȹM MQ MmHQ 2M 2H MmK2`/Q` v 2M 2H /2MQKBM/Q` Tm2/2
b2` +M+2H/Q 2M 2H +Q+B2Mi2X
S` mb` 2bi T`QTB2// 2M 2tT`2bBQM2b 7`++BQM`Bb b2 7+iQ`Bx 2H MmK2@
`/Q` v 2H /2MQKBM/Q` /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM v b2 +M+2HM HQb 7+iQ`2b +QKmM2b [m2
T`2x+M 2M 2H MmK2`/Q` v 2M 2H /2MQKBM/Q`X SQ` 2D2KTHQ- +QMbB/2`2KQb H
bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦM `+BQMH 2M y

3y 2 − 5y − 2
.
y2 + y − 6
6+iQ`BxM/Q 2H MmK2`/Q` v 2H /2MQKBM/Q` v +M+2HM/Q HQb 7+iQ`2b +QKmM2b
Q#i2M2KQb
3y 2 − 5y − 2 (3y + 1)(y − 2) 3y + 1
= = .
y +y−6
2 (y + 3)(y − 2) y+3
1M 2bi2 2D2KTHQ b2 +M+2HƦ 2H 7+iQ` +QKȹM (y − 2)X 1b /2+B`- /BpB/BKQb MmK2`/Q`
v /2MQKBM/Q` TQ` y − 2X 1bi bBKTHB}++BƦM 2b p€HB/ ȹMB+K2Mi2 bB y − 2 = 0- Q
b2- bB y = 2X SQ` HQ iMiQ 2 MQ 2bi€ 2M 2H /QKBMBQ /2 H ȹHiBK 2tT`2bBƦM Tm2b 2M
+bQ +QMi``BQ 2H /2MQKBM/Q` /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM Q`B;BMH b2 MmH`ő +mM/Q b2 bmb@
iBimv y TQ` 2X 1bib `2bi`B++BQM2b b2 /`€M TQ` b2Mi/b +mM/Q b2 bBKTHB}[m2M
2tT`2bBQM2b 7`++BQM`BbX

G KmHiBTHB++BƦM v H /BpBbBƦM /2 2tT`2bBQM2b 7`++BQM`Bb b2 272+iȹM ?@

+B2M/Q mbQ /2 Hb `2;Hb T` H KmHiBTHB++BƦM v /BpBbBƦM /2 7`++BQM2b `2H2bX G
7`++BƦM Q#i2MB/ b2 bBKTHB}+ +QKQ v b2 ? 2tTHB+/QX _2+Q`/2KQb [m2
a c ac
× = .
b d bd
*QKQ mM 2D2KTHQ 272+im2KQb H bB;mB2Mi2 KmHiBTHB++BƦM 2Mi`2 /Qb 2tT`2bBQM2b
1tT`2bBQM2b `+BQMH2b Rjj

`+BQMH2bX
x2 − 6x + 9 2x − 2 (x2 − 6x + 9)(2x − 2)
= ,
x2 − 1 x−3 (x2 − 1)(x − 3)
 2
x − 3 2 (x − 1)
= ,
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 3)
2(x − 3)
= .
(x + 1)
AHmbi`2KQb ?Q` H /BpBbBƦM /2 2tT`2bBQM2b 7`++BQM`Bb 272+imM/Q H QT2`@
+BƦM
x+2 x2 − 4
÷ .
2x − 3 2x2 − 3x
_2+Q`/2KQb [m2,
a c a d
÷ = × .
b d b c
1MiQM+2b,
x+2 x2 − 4 x+2 2x2 − 3x
÷ = ,
2x − 3 2x2 − 3x 2x − 3 x2 − 4
x + 2 2x2 − 3x
= · ,
2x − 3 x2 − 4
(x + 2) x (2x − 3)
= ,
(2x − 3)(x − 2)(x + 2)
x
= .
x−2
o2KQb 2bi2 Qi`Q 2D2KTHQ,
 2 
x2 + 3yx − 10y 2 x2 − x + 1 x + 3yx − 10y 2 (x − 2y)
÷ = ,
x+1 x − 2y (x + 1)(x2 − x + 1)
(x − 2y)(x + 5y)(x − 2y)
= ,
(x + 1)(x2 − x + 1)
(x − 2y)2 (x + 5y)
= .
x3 + 1
S` bmK` Q `2bi` /Qb 2tT`2bBQM2b 7`++BQM`Bb- b2 `2+QKB2M/ 2M+QMi``
mM /2MQKBM/Q` +QKȹM v THB+` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b `2;Hb,
a c a+c a c a−c
+ = v − = .
d d d d d d
aB HQb /2MQKBM/Q`2b bQM /B72`2Mi2b- b2 Tm2/2 Q#i2M2` mM /2MQKBM/Q` +QKȹM-
KmHiBTHB+M/Q 2H MmK2`/Q` v 2H /2MQKBM/Q` /2 +/ mM /2 Hb 7`++BQM2b //b
Rj9 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

TQ` 2tT`2bBQM2b T`QTB/bX S` 2HHQ b2 #mb+ 2H KőMBKQ +QKȹM /2MQKBM/Q` /2

Hb /Qb 7`++BQM2bX 1H KőMBKQ +QKȹM /2MQKBM/Q` b2 Tm2/2 2M+QMi``- K2/BMi2
H 7+iQ`Bx+BƦM /2 +/ /2MQKBM/Q` v Hm2;Q KmHiBTHB+M/Q HQb 7+iQ`2b /BbiBMiQb
mbM/Q 2H KvQ` 2tTQM2Mi2 [m2 T`2x+ 2M +/ 7+iQ`X AHmbi`KQb 2H KûiQ/Q
272+imM/Q H bB;mB2Mi2 QT2`+BƦM v bBKTHB}+M/Q 2H `2bmHi/Q,
11 7
+ ,
24 18
Gb 7+iQ`Bx+BQM2b T`BKb /2 HQb /2MQKBM/Q`2b bQM, 24 = 23 ·3 v 18 = 2·32 X S`
2M+QMi`` 2H KőMBKQ +QKȹM /2MQKBM/Q` ?+2KQb 2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 HQb /B72`2Mi2b
7+iQ`2b T`BKQb- mbM/Q 2H KvQ` 2tTQM2Mi2 bQ+B/Q +QM +/ 7+iQ`X 1M 2bi2
+bQ 2H KőMBKQ +QKȹM /2MQKBM/Q` 2b 23 · 32 = 72X 1b+`B#B2M/Q +/ 7`++BƦM +QM
/2MQKBM/Q` 72 v mbM/Q mM /2 Hb `2;Hb //b Mi2b- b2 iB2M2,
11 7 11 · 3 7·4
+ = + ,
24 18 24 · 3 18 · 4
33 28
= + ,
72 72
33 + 28
= ,
72
61
= .
72
Pi` Hi2`MiBp 2b mb` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b `2;Hb T` H bmK v /B72`2M+B /2 7`+@
+BQM2b
a c ad + cb a c ad − cb
+ = v − = .
b d bd b d bd
1H KûiQ/Q T` 2M+QMi`` 2H KőMBKQ +QKȹM /2MQKBM/Q` T` 2tT`2bBQM2b
7`++BQM`Bb 2b M€HQ;Q H BHmbi`/Q 2M 2H 2D2KTHQ MmKû`B+QX *QKQ mM 2D2KTHQ
272+im2KQb H bB;mB2Mi2 bmK v bBKTHB}[m2KQb H `2bTm2biX
7x − 2 x
+ 2 .
x2 + 6x + 9 x + 2x − 3

6+iQ`BxM/Q HQb /2MQKBM/Q`2b- b2 Q#iB2M2 [m2 x2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3)2 v x2 + 2x −

3 = (x + 3)(x − 1)X P#b2`p2 [m2 2H KőMBKQ +QKȹM /2MQKBM/Q` 2b (x + 3)2 (x − 1)X

JmHiBTHB+M/Q 2H MmK2`/Q` v 2H /2MQKBM/Q` /2 H T`BK2` 7`++BƦM TQ` (x − 1)

1tT`2bBQM2b `+BQMH2b Rj8

v HQb /2 H b2;mM/ TQ` (x + 3)- v bmKM/Q b2 Q#iB2M2

7x − 2 x 7x − 2 x
+ = + ,
x2 + 6x + 9 x2 + 2x − 3 (x + 3)2 (x + 3)(x − 1)
(7x − 2)(x − 1) x(x + 3)
= + ,
(x + 3) (x − 1) (x + 3)(x − 1)(x + 3)
2

(7x − 2)(x − 1) + x(x + 3)

= ,
(x + 3)2 (x − 1)
8x2 − 6x + 2
= .
(x + 3)2 (x − 1)

*mM/Q HQb /2MQKBM/Q`2b MQ bQM Kmv /B7ő+BH2b /2 7+iQ`Bx` b2 `2+QKB2M/

+H+mH` 2H KőMBKQ +QKȹM /2MQKBM/Q`X

GQb bB;mB2Mi2b 2D2KTHQb BHmbi`M Qi`Qb bT2+iQb bQ#`2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2
2tT`2bBQM2b 7`++BQM`BbX

jXdXR 1D2KTHQX

RX 172+iȹ2 v bBKTHB}[m2,
3 2
√ − .
x−1 x−1

6+iQ`BxM/Q 2H /2MQKBM/Q` /2 H b2;mM/ 2tT`2bBƦM- b2 Q#iB2M2 [m2

√ √
x − 1 = ( x − 1)( x + 1)X u [m2 2H KőMBKQ +QKȹM /2MQKBM/Q` 2b
√ √
( x − 1)( x + 1)- KmHiBTHB+KQb 2H MmK2`/Q` v 2H /2MQKBM/Q` /2
√
H T`BK2` 2tT`2bBƦM TQ` x + 1- b2 `2bi v b2 Q#iB2M2,
√ 
3 2 3 x+1 2
√ − = √ √ − ,
x−1 x−1 x−1 x+1 x−1
√
3 x+3 2
= − ,
x−1 x−1
√
3 x+3−2
= ,
x−1
√
3 x+1
= .
x−1
1M H;mMQb +bQb 2b M2+2b`BQ bBKTHB}+` +Q+B2Mi2b Mi2b /2 272+im`
Hb QT2`+BQM2b- +QKQ b2 BHmbi` 2M 2H bB;mB2Mi2 2D2KTHQX
Rje 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

kX 172+iȹ2 v bBKTHB}[m2,
√ x3
x 2 − 3x2 − √
2 − 3x2 + x3
2 − 3x2  3 .
2 − 3x2 2

aBKTHB}+M/Q 2H MmK2`/Q` /2 H T`BK2` 2tT`2bBƦM- b2 HH2; 

√ √
 x3 x 2 − 3x2 2 − 3x2 − x3
x 2 − 3x − √
2 = √ ,
2 − 3x2 2 − 3x2
x(2 − 3x2 ) − x3
= √ ,
2 − 3x2
2x − 4x3
=√ .
2 − 3x2
.2 2bi2 KQ/Q b2 Q#iB2M2 mM bBKTHB}++BƦM /2 H T`BK2` 2tT`2bBƦM

2x − 4x2
√ 3
2 − 3x2 = √ 2x − 4x 2x − 4x3
= 3 .
2 − 3x2 2 − 3x2 (2 − 3x2 ) 
2 − 3x2 2

SQ` iMiQ- 2H `2bmHi/Q /2 H bmK 2b

2x − 4x3 x3 2x − 3x3
 3 +  3 =  3 .
2 − 3x2 2 2 − 3x2 2 2 − 3x2 2

+iBpB// jXdXR,
aBKTHB}[m2 iMiQ +QKQ b2 TQbB#H2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2tT`2bBQM2bX
†  2 1 1
† x2 9X −
RX ‡1 + √ x2 + 3x + 2 x2 − 2x − 3
1 − x4
a−b a+b
1 −
−5 8X a b
kX x + 1 a−b a+b
+
1
−x b a
x
5 2 4
9y 2 − 81 4y 2 + 2y − 6 3 3 a 3 b− 3
jX ÷ eX
4y 2 + 18y − 36 y 2 + 5y − 6
−1 −8 −8
3 3 a 3 b 9
1tT`2bBQM2b `+BQMH2b Rjd

_+BQMHBx+BƦM /2 /2MQKBM/Q`2b v MmK2`/Q`2b

1M H;mMQb +bQb HQb /2MQKBM/Q`2b /2 +B2`ib 2tT`2bBQM2b 7`++BQM`Bb +QMiB2@
M2M bmKb Q `2bib [m2 BM+Hmv2M `/B+H2b v Tm2/2M b2` `+BQMHBx/b- 2b /2+B` -
TQ/2KQb 2M+QMi`` Qi` 2tT`2bBƦM 7`++BQM`B 2[mBpH2Mi2  H // +mvQ /2MQKB@
M/Q` Q MmK2`/Q`- b2;ȹM HQ `2[m2`B/Q- MQ +QMi2M; `/B+H2bX 1M 2bi2 T`Q+2bQ /2
`+BQMHBx+BƦM 2b BKTQ`iMi2 i2M2` T`2b2Mi2b HQb T`Q/m+iQb MQi#H2bX AHmbi`KQb
2biQ +QM H;mMQb 2D2KTHQbX

jXdXk 1D2KTHQX

RX o2KQb T`BK2`Q mM 2D2KTHQ MmKû`B+Q 2M 2H b2 KmHiBTHB+ 2H /2MQKB@

M/Q` v 2H MmK2`/Q` TQ` mM KBbK 2tT`2bBƦMX S` 2HHQ Q#b2`p2KQb
[m2 2M 2H /2MQKBM/Q`
√b2 Tm2/2
√ Q#i2M2` mM /B72`2M+B /2 +m/`/Qb
bB KmHiBTHB+KQb TQ` 7 + 6.

√ √  √ √ 
5 5 7+ 6 5 7+ 6
√ √ = √ √ √ √  = √ 2  √ 2 ,
7− 6 7− 6 7+ 6 7 − 6
√ √ 
5 7+ 6
= ,
7−6
√ √ 
=5 7+ 6 .

kX P#bû`p2b2 [m2 2H KBbKQ T`Q+2/BKB2MiQ b2 Tm2/2 2KTH2` T` `+BQ@

MHBx` H bB;mB2Mi2 2tT`2bBƦM 7`++BQM`B,
√ √ 
3y 3y 2x + 2 − 2x − 1
√ √ = √ √ √ √ ,
2x + 2 + 2x − 1 2x + 2 + 2x − 1 2x + 2 − 2x − 1
√ √ 
3y 2x + 2 − 2x − 1
= √ 2  √ 2 ,
2x + 2 − 2x − 1
√ √ 
3y 2x + 2 − 2x − 1
= ,
(2x + 2) − (2x − 1)
√ √ 
3y 2x + 2 − 2x − 1
= ,
3
√ √ 
= y 2x + 2 − 2x − 1 .
√
3
a−1
jX S` `+BQMHBx` H 2tT`2bBƦM , +QKTH2iKQb +m#Qb 2M 2H Mm@
1
Rj3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

K2`/Q`X
√ √  √ √ 
3
a−1 ( 3 a − 1) ( 3 a)2 + 3 a + 1
= √ √
1 1 · (( 3 a)2 + 3 a + 1)
√ 3
( 3 a) − (1)3 a3 − 1
= √ √ = √ √
(( 3 a)2 + 3 a + 1) (( 3 a)2 + 3 a + 1)

+iBpB// jXdXk,
1M HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +bQb `+BQMHB+2 2H /2MQKBM/Q` Q 2H MmK2`/Q` b2;mM 2H
+bQX
√ √ √
x−1 3 x− x+h
RX kX √ √ jX
x−1 2− 32 h

jX3 1+m+BQM2b

jX3XR .2}MB+BƦMX U1+m+BƦMV

lM 2+m+BƦM 2b mM B;mH// 2Mi`2 2tT`2bBQM2b H;2#`B+bX GQb bőK#QHQb
HBi2`H2b b2 /2MQKBMM BM+Ʀ;MBibX Gb 2tT`2bBQM2b [m2 2bi€M  K#Qb H/Qb
/2H bB;MQ B;mH b2 HHKM HQb KB2K#`Qb /2 H 2+m+BƦMX .2MQKBMKQb bQ@
Hm+BƦM /2 mM 2+m+BƦM  mM pHQ` Q +QMDmMiQ /2 pHQ`2b /2 Hb BM+Ʀ;MBib-
T` HQb +mH2b b2 p2`B}+ H B;mH//X lM 2+m+BƦM Tm2/2 i2M2` MBM;mM-
mM Q p`Bb bQHm+BQM2bX

1tBbi2M /Bp2`bQb iBTQb /2 2+m+BQM2b /2T2M/B2M/Q /2H ;`/Q- 2H MȹK2`Q /2 p@

`B#H2b Q 2H iBTQ /2 2tTQM2Mi2bX H;mMb /2 2HHb iB2M2M MQK#`2b 2bT2+BH2bX GQb
iBTQb /2 2+m+BQM2b K€b +QKmM2b bQM HQb bB;mB2Mi2b, 2+m+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b- 2+m@
+BQM2b `/B+H2b- 2+m+BQM2b 7`++BQM`Bb- 2+m+BQM2b 2tTQM2M+BH2b v 2+m+BQM2b
i`B;QMQKûi`B+bX 1M Mm2bi`Q +bQ 2bim/B`2KQb bƦHQ HQb i`2b T`BK2`Qb iBTQb /2
2+m+BQM2b, TQHBMƦKB+b- `/B+H2b v 7`++BQM`BbX

jX3Xk .2}MB+BƦMX U1+m+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+V

a2 p(x) mM TQHBMQKBQ 2M H p`B#H2 x. lM 2+m+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+ 2b mM
2+m+BƦM [m2 iB2M2 H 7Q`K p(x) = 0.

.2T2M/B2M/Q /2H ;`/Q- Hb 2+m+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b Tm2/2M b2` HBM2H2b- +m/`€iB@
+b- +ȹ#B+b- 2i+X
1+m+BQM2b RjN

jX3Xj .2}MB+BƦMX UhBTQb /2 2+m+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+bV

lM 2+m+BƦM HBM2H 2b mM 2+m+BƦM /2 H 7Q`K ax + b = 0, /QM/2 a v b
bQM MȹK2`Qb `2H2b v a = 0.

lM 2+m+BƦM +m/`€iB+ iB2M2 H 7Q`K ax2 + bx + c = 0, /QM/2 a, b v c

bQM MȹK2`Qb `2H2b v a = 0.

lM 2+m+BƦM +ȹ#B+ iB2M2 H 7Q`K ;2M2`H ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, /QM/2

a, b, c v d bQM MȹK2`Qb `2H2b v a = 0.

jX3X9 1D2KTHQX

RX 4x − 4 = 2 2b mM 2+m+BƦM HBM2HX

kX −x2 + 7x − 9 = 0 2b mM 2+m+BƦM +m/`€iB+X

jX (x − 1)(x + 3) = 0 2b mM 2+m+BƦM +m/`€iB+X aB `2HBxKQb Hb

QT2`+BQM2b Q#i2M2KQb [m2 0 = (x − 1)(x + 3) = x2 + 2x − 3.

9X 17x3 − (2/3)x2 + 9x − 1 = 0 2b mM 2+m+BƦM +ȹ#B+X

8X 0 = (x + 1)3 = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 2b mM 2+m+BƦM +ȹ#B+X

jX3X8 .2}MB+BƦMX U1+m+BQM2b `/B+H2bV

Gb 2+m+BQM2b `/B+H2b bQM [m2HHb 2M Hb [m2 H BM+Ʀ;MBi 2bi€ #DQ mM
bB;MQ `/B+HX

jX3Xe 1D2KTHQX Gb bB;mB2Mi2b 2+m+BQM2b bQM 2D2KTHQb /2 2+m+BQM2b

`/B+H2b,
√ √ √ √
RX 3 x3 + 3 = 6 x + 5 9X x2 − 1 + x2 + 1 = 1
 √ √
√ √
kX 5 x − 2 − s = 0 8X 5 x = 2x + 3
√  √ √
jX 16x2 − x = 0 eX 1+4 x= x+1

jX3Xd .2}MB+BƦMX U1+m+BQM2b `+BQMH2bV

Gb 2+m+BQM2b `+BQMH2b bQM 2+m+BQM2b 2M Hb [m2 T`2+2M +Q+B2Mi2b /2
TQHBMQKBQbX
R9y 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

jX3X3 1D2KTHQX Gb 2+m+BQM2b bB;mB2Mi2b bQM `+BQMH2b,

x−5 x+5
RX =7 jX = 16
x x
3x2 + 4 1 2x − 1
kX =1+ 9X =1
2 4x − 1 x+1

JûiQ/Q /2 bQHm+BƦM /2 H;mMb 2+m+BQM2b

jX3XN .2}MB+BƦMX
_2bQHp2` mM 2+m+BƦM 2b ?HH` bmb bQHm+BQM2bX G `2bQHm+BƦM /2 mM 2+m@
+BƦM b2 ?+2  i`pûb /2 i`Mb7Q`K+BQM2b [m2 T2`KBiM Q#i2M2` Qi`b 2+m@
+BQM2b 2[mBpH2Mi2b K€b b2M+BHHbX S` 2HHQ miBHBxKQb H;mMb `2;Hb #€bB@
+b [m2 b2 /2`BpM /2 Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2bX

P#b2`p+BƦM RRX S` H `2bQHm+BƦM /2 2+m+BQM2b /2#2KQb i2M2` 2M +m2Mi Hb

bB;mB2Mi2b `2;Hb #€bB+b,

RX aB HQb /Qb KB2K#`Qb /2 mM 2+m+BƦM b2 bmKM Q `2biM TQ` mM KBbK
+MiB//- H B;mH// b2 +QMb2`pX

kX aB HQb /Qb KB2K#`Qb /2 mM 2+m+BƦM b2 KmHiBTHB+M Q /BpB/2M TQ` mM KBbK
+MiB//- H B;mH// b2 +QMb2`pX

Gb `2;Hb Mi2`BQ`2b T2`KBi2M i`bH/` iû`KBMQb /2 mM KB2K#`Q  Qi`Q /2 mM

2+m+BƦMX 1b HQ [m2 b2 /2MQKBM T`Q+2bQ /2 i`MbTQbB+BƦMX

aQHm+BƦM /2 2+m+BQM2b /2 T`BK2` ;`/Q

S` `2bQHp2` 2+m+BQM2b /2 T`BK2` ;`/Q b2 bB;m2M HQb bB;mB2Mi2b TbQb,

RX 1M +/ KB2K#`Q /2 H B;mH// `2HBxKQb iQ/b Hb QT2`+BQM2b [m2 b2M

TQbB#H2bX

kX lbM/Q 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 i`MbTQbB+BƦM- `2mMBKQb 2M mMQ /2 HQb KB2K#`Qb HQb

iû`KBMQb [m2 +QMi2M;M H BM+Ʀ;MBiX

jX _2/m+BKQb HQb iû`KBMQb b2K2DMi2b 2M +/ mMQ /2 HQb KB2K#`QbX

9X .2bT2DKQb H BM+Ʀ;MBi /BpB/B2M/Q +/ mMQ /2 HQb KB2K#`Qb /2 H B;mH//

TQ` 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 [m2 +QKTƢ H BM+Ʀ;MBiX
1+m+BQM2b R9R

jX3XRy 1D2KTHQX

RX _2bQHpKQb H 2+m+BƦM 5x + 6 − 2x = x − 2 + 18.

V H `2HBx` Hb QT2`+BQM2b TQbB#H2b 2M +/ KB2K#`Q [m2/`€,

3x + 6 = x + 16.

#V THB+M/Q 2H T`Q+2bQ /2 i`MbTQbB+BƦM Q#i2M2KQb,

3x − x = 16 − 6.

+V .2bTmûb /2 `2HBx` Hb QT2`+BQM2b Q#i2M2KQb,

2x = 10.

/V .BpB/B2M/Q K#Qb KB2K#`Qb /2 H 2+m+BƦM 2Mi`2 k- Q#i2M2KQb

x = 5.

kX 1M ;2M2`H- H `2bQHp2` mM 2+m+BƦM- MQ b2 2b+`B#2 H DmbiB}++BƦM

/2 +/ TbQ- T2`Q 2b Kmv BKTQ`iMi2 b#2` +mH2b bQM Hb `xQM2b
[m2 MQb T2`KBi2M bBKTHB}+`H T` HH2;`  H bQHm+BƦMX o2KQb 2H
T`Q+2bQ /2 `2bQHm+BƦM /2 H 2+m+BƦM 5(2x − 1) + 4 = −4(x + 5).

5(2x − 1) + 4 = −4(x + 5),

10x − 5 + 4 = −4x − 20,
10x − 1 = −4x − 20,
10x + 4x = −20 + 1,
14x = −19,
19
x=− .
14

aQHm+BƦM /2 2+m+BQM2b +m/`€iB+b

_2bQHpKQb H 2+m+BƦM +m/`€iB+ 2M x :

ax2 + bx + c = 0, a, b, c ∈ R, a = 0. UjX8V

*QKQ pBKQb Mi2b- H 2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2 ax2 + bx + c b2 7+iQ`Bx /2 H bB;mB2Mi2

KM2`,
√ √
2 b − b2 − 4ac b + b2 − 4ac
ax + bx + c = a x + x+ .
2a 2a
R9k 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

GQ +mH bB;MB}+ [m2 H 2+m+BƦM UjX8V 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2  H 2+m+BƦM,

√ √
b − b2 − 4ac b + b2 − 4ac
a x+ x+ = 0.
2a 2a

.2 2bi B;mH// b2 bB;m2,

√ √
b − b2 − 4ac b + b2 − 4ac
x+ =0 Q x+ = 0,
2a 2a
Q b2 [m2 √ √
b− b2 − 4ac −b + b2 − 4ac
x=− =
2a 2a
Q √ √
b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
x=− =
2a 2a
SQ` HQ iMiQ- 2H +QMDmMiQ bQHm+BƦM /2 H 2+m+BƦM UjX8V 2b,
 √ √ ˆ
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
S= ,
2a 2a

jX3XRR 1D2KTHQX

RX S` `2bQHp2` H 2+m+BƦM +m/`€iB+ 2x2 + 10x + 5 = 0, mbKQb 2H

T`Q+2bQ 2tTm2biQ Mi2bX 1M 2bi2 +bQ a = 2, b = 10 v c = 5.
√
−10 ± 102 − 4 · 2 · 5
x=
√2 · 2
−10 ± 60
=
4 √
−10 ± 2 15
=
4√
−5 ± 15
= .
2
1H +QMDmMiQ bQHm+BƦM /2 H 2+m+BƦM 2b
 √ √ ˆ
−5 + 15 −5 − 15
S= , .
2 2

kX _2bQHpKQb ?Q` H 2+m+BƦM +m/`€iB+ 4x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 +QM x ∈ C.

S` 2bi 2+m+BƦM a = 4, b = −2 v c = 1. lbM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH /2 H
1+m+BQM2b R9j

2+m+BƦM +m/`€iB+- 2M+QMi`KQb [m2 Hb bQHm+BQM2b 2bi€M //b TQ`


−(−2) ± (−2)2 − 4 · 4 · 1
x=
√ 2·4
2± −12
=
8√
2 ± 2 −3
=
8
√
1 ± 3i
= .
4
1H +QMDmMiQ bQHm+BƦM /2 H 2+m+BƦM 2b
 √ √ ˆ
1 + 3i 1 − 3i
S= , .
4 4

aQHm+BƦM /2 2+m+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b 2M ;2M2`H

>bi ?Q` ?2KQb +QMbB/2`/Q 2+m+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b /2 ;`/Q mMQ v /QbX S`
`2bQHp2` mM 2+m+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+ 2M x /2 H 7Q`K p(x) = 0, /QM/2 p(x) 2b mM
TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q n, MQb #bKQb 2M 2H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#`X

P#b2`p+BƦM RkX 1H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#` THMi2 [m2 mM TQHBMQKBQ

p(x), /2 ;`/Q n, b2 Tm2/2 /2b+QKTQM2` 2M n 7+iQ`2b HBM2H2b /2 H 7Q`K

p(x) = c0 (x − c1 )(x − c2 )(x − c3 ) · · · (x − cn )

/QM/2 HQb MȹK2`Qb ci (i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n) bQM MȹK2`Qb `2H2b Q +QKTH2DQbX

1M +QM+Q`/M+B +QM 2H i2Q`2K 7mM/K2MiH /2H €H;2#`- H 2+m+BƦM p(x) = 0

2b 2[mBpH2Mi2  H 2+m+BƦM

c0 (x − c1 )(x − c2 )(x − c3 ) · · · (x − cn ) = 0.

SQ` HQ iMiQ- 2H +QMDmMiQ bQHm+BƦM /2 H 2+m+BƦM p(x) = 0 b2`€,

S = {c1 , c2 , c3 , ..., cn }

GQ Mi2`BQ` bB;MB}+ [m2 T` `2bQHp2` H 2+m+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+ p(x) = 0 #bi

7+iQ`Bx` 2H TQHBMQKBQ p(x).

jX3XRk 1D2KTHQX

RX _2bQHpKQb H 2+m+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+ 2M x : x3 − 7x − 6 = 0.

R99 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

6+iQ`BxM/Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ p(x) = x3 − 7x − 6 i2M2KQb-

p(x) = (x + 2)(x − 3)(x + 1),

HQ +mH bB;MB}+ [m2 H 2+m+BƦM Mi2`BQ` 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2  H 2+m+BƦM,

(x + 2)(x − 3)(x + 1) = 0,

/2 HQ +mH b2 bB;m2 [m2 2H +QMDmMiQ bQHm+BƦM b2`€ S = {−2, 3, −1}.

kX _2bQHpKQb- H 2+m+BƦM TQHBMƦKB+ 2M x : x4 − 1 = 0.

6+iQ`BxM/Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ p(x) = x4 − 1, Q#i2M2KQb-

p(x) = x4 − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + i)(x − i),

HQ +mH MQb T`QTQ`+BQM H bB;mB2Mi2 2+m+BƦM- 2[mBpH2Mi2  H [m2

/2#2KQb `2bQHp2`,

(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + i)(x − i) = 0.

1M +QMb2+m2M+B- 2H +QMDmMiQ bQHm+BƦM b2`€, S = {1, −1, i, −i}.

aQHm+BƦM /2 2+m+BQM2b `/B+H2b v 7`++BQM`Bb

S` `2bQHp2` 2+m+BQM2b 7`++BQM`Bb v `/B+H2b 2KTH2KQb Hb `2;Hb Mi2b
2MmM+B/bX 1M 2H +bQ /2 Hb 2+m+BQM2b `/B+H2b /2#2KQb i2M2` 2M +m2Mi [m2
2H `;mK2MiQ /2H `/B+H iB2M2 [m2 b2` KvQ` Q B;mH  +2`Q v T` Hb 2+m+BQ@
M2b 7`++BQM`Bb /2#2KQb /2b+`i` [m2HHQb pHQ`2b /2 H p`B#H2 [m2 MmHM 2H
/2MQKBM/Q`X

jX3XRj 1D2KTHQX
√ √ √
RX S` `2bQHp2` H 2+m+BƦM x + 1 + x = 3, /2#2KQb 2H2p` H
+m/`/Q /Qb p2+2b- +QM 2H T`QTƦbBiQ /2 MmH` 2H `/B+H- bB;mB2M/Q
1+m+BQM2b R98

2H bB;mB2Mi2 T`Q+2bQ,
√ √ √
x+1+ x= 3
√ √ 2 √
x + 1 + x = ( 3)2
√ √
(x + 1) + 2 x + 1 x + x = 3
√ √
2 x + 1 x = 2 − 2x
√ √
x+1 x=1−x
√ √ 2
x + 1 x = (1 − x)2
x(x + 1) = 1 − 2x + x2 ,
3x = 1
1
x= .
3

1 1
kX S` `2bQHp2` H 2+m+BƦM 7`++BQM`B = + 1 b2;mBKQb 2H
x 3(x − 3)
bB;mB2Mi2 T`Q+2bQ,

V h2M;KQb 2M +m2Mi [m2 x = 0 v x = 3.

#V JmHiBTHB+M/Q HQb /Qb iû`KBMQb /2 H B;mH// TQ` x v `2HBxM/Q
Hb QT2`+BQM2b Q#i2M2KQb,

1 1
x =x +1
x 3(x − 3)
x
1= +x
3(x − 3)

+V JmHiBTHB+KQb HQb /Qb KB2K#`Qb /2 H Mm2p 2+m+BƦM TQ` x − 3

v `2HBxKQb Hb QT2`+BQM2b,
x
(x − 3) · 1 = (x − 3) · + (x − 3) · x
3(x − 3)
1
x − 3 = x + x2 − 3x
3
1
0 = x2 + x − 4x + 3
3
11
0 = x2 − x + 3.
3
S` i`Mb7Q`K` 2bi ȹHiBK 2+m+BƦM 2M mM 2[mBpH2Mi2 +QM
+Q2}+B2Mi2b 2Mi2`Qb- KmHiBTHB+KQb TQ` i`2b  K#Qb H/Qb /2 H
R9e 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

B;mH//- Hm2;Q `2bQHp2KQb H 2+m+BƦM mbM/Q H 7Ʀ`KmH T`

?HH` Hb bQHm+BQM2b /2 H 2+m+BƦM +m/`€iB+X
11
x2 − x+3=0
3
3x2 − 11x + 9 = 0.

.2 /QM/2
 √
−(−11 ± (−11)2 − 4 · 3 · 9 ) 11 ± 121 − 108
x= =
√ 2·3 6
11 ± 13
= .
6
*QKQ 2bib /Qb ȹHiBKb bQHm+BQM2b bQM /BbiBMib /2 y v /2 j
+QM+HmBKQb [m2 H 2+m+BƦM 7`++BQM`B
1 1
= +1
x 3(x − 3)
 √ √ ˆ
11 + 13 11 − 13
iB2M2 +QKQ +QMDmMiQ bQHm+BƦM  S = , .
6 6

jX _2bQHpKQb ?Q` H 2+m+BƦM 2M H p`B#H2 x

1 2 1
− = . UjXeV
2(x − 2) x + 3 x−2

JmHiBTHB+M/Q K#Qb KB2K#`Qb /2 H Mi2`BQ` B;mH// TQ` 2H iû`KBMQ

2(x − 2)(x + 3), Q#i2M2KQb H 2+m+BƦM

(x + 3) − 2 · 2(x − 2) = 1 · 2(x + 3).

S` `2bQHp2` 2bi 2+m+BƦM b2;mBKQb 2H bB;mB2Mi2 T`Q+2bQ,

(x + 3) − 2 · 2(x − 2) = 1 · 2(x + 3),

(x + 3) − 4(x − 2) = 2(x + 3),
x + 3 − 4x + 8 = 2x + 6,
x − 4x − 2x = 6 − 8 − 3,
−5x = −5
x = 1.

GQ +mH bB;MB}+ [m2 2H +QMDmMiQ bQHm+BƦM /2 Hb 2+m+BQM2b UjXeV 2b

S = {1}.
1+m+BQM2b R9d

+iBpB// jX3XR,
RX _2bm2Hp +/ mM /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2+m+BQM2bX

V x3 + 1 = 0. /V 2x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 2 = 0.

#V x4 − 1 = 0. 2V x4 +3x3 −2x2 −2x+12 = 0.

1 3 2
√ √ √
+V 3y − 1 = 2y + y + 2. 7V − = .
y 5y + 4 y(5y + 4)

kX >HH2 mM TQHBMQKBQ p(x), /2 ;`/Q 9- bB b#2KQb [m2 1, 1 + 2i, 1 − 2i

v −2 bQM bQHm+BQM2b /2 H 2+m+BƦM p(x) = 0.
 R93 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

jXN 1D2`+B+BQb /2H +TőimHQ j


1M HQb 2D2`+B+BQb 1 H 5- `2bTQM/ p2`@ f (x) = 3x2
RjX
//2`Q Ʀ 7HbQ DmbiB}+M/Q bm `2bTm2b@ g(x) = x − 1
iX 
f (x) = 5x3 − 7
RX 1H MȹK2`Q @j 2bi€ 2M 2H /QKBMBQ /2 R9X
g(x) = 2x2 − 3x + 5
H p`B#H2 xX
lb2 H /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ T` 272+im`,
kX hQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b
`+BQMH2b 2b mM TQHBMQKBQ +QM +Q@ R8X (2x3 − 8x2 − 2x + 4) ÷ (x + 2)X
2}+B2Mi2b `2H2bX 1
ReX (3z 5 − 5z 3 − 2) ÷ z − X
4
jX ./Qb 2H TQHBMQKBQ f (x) v 2H Mȹ@
K2`Q c- f (c) = 0 bB v bƦHQ bB g(x) = RdX (6w5 + 12w2 + 14) ÷ (w − 2)X
(x − c) 2b mM 7+iQ` /2 f (x)X lb2 H /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ v 2H i2Q`2K
9X hQ/Q TQHBMQKBQ f (x) /2 ;`/Q n /2H `2biQ T` +H+mH` f (c)- bB,
+QM +Q2}+B2Mi2b +QKTH2DQb iB2M2 R3X f (x) = 2x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 + 5x − 7 v
2t+iK2Mi2 n +2`Qb +QKTH2DQbX c = −2X
./Q 2H TQHBMQKBQ, RNX f (z) = 0,03z 3 + 0,4z − 0,016 v
√ c = 0,02X
f (x) = 8x4 + 7x3 − 21x − ,3
3

2w3 + 5w2 − 16w + 2 v

kyX f (w) = √
*H+mH2 c = 1 − 2X
lb2 H /BpBbBƦM bBMiûiB+ T` +QKT`Q@
8X f (−2)- 3X f (1)-
#` [m2 c 2b mM +2`Q /2 f (x)- bB,
eX f (−2/3)- NX f (−5)
kRX f (x) = x5 −6x4 +11x3 −x2 −14x+
√
dX f (0)- RyX f ( 3)X 5 v c = −1X
kkX f (x) = 15x4 +x3 −52x2 +20x+16
1M+m2Mi`2 2H +Q+B2Mi2 q(x) v 2H `2bB@ v c = 1X
/mQ r(x) /2 H /BpBbBƦM /2 f (x) 2Mi`2
g(x)- bB, kjX f (x) = −2x5 + 6x4 + 10x3 − 6x2 +
9x + 4 v c = 4 iX

f (x) = x4 + 2x3 − 3x + 10 k9X .2i2`KBM2 iQ/Qb HQb pHQ`2b /2 k
RRX
g(x) = x2 + x − 1 [m2 ?+2M [m2

f (x) = 7x3 − 3x f (z) = 2k 2 z 2 + 8kz − 6
RkX
g(x) = 2x2 + x b2 /BpBbB#H2 TQ` g(z) = z − 2X
 1+m+BQM2b R9N

 2
k8X .û 2H `2bB/mQ [m2 b2 Q#iB2M2 H /B@ 9yX x3 + y 3 − z 3 X
pB/B` f (x) = 5x20 + 3x10 − 2x8 − 11
6+iQ`Bx` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2tT`2bBQM2b,
2Mi`2 g(x) = x + 2X
9RX x2 − 8X
keX .û mM TQHBMQKBQ /2 ;`/Q +mi`Q
[m2 i2M;  c1 = 2 +QKQ mM +2`Q 9kX 27x9 − 64y 6 X
/2 KmHiBTHB+B// /Qb v  c2 = −5
+QKQ mM +2`Q /2 KmHiBTHB+B// /QbX 9jX x8 − 32X
99X (x + y)3 − 64z 9 X
.û 2H pHQ` MmKû`B+Q [m2 iQK H
2tT`2bBƦM p`B#H2 98X a − bX
5 9 9eX 4x4 y 6 − 25x2 y 2 z + 9z 2 X
3x2 + yx + ; x, y ∈ R.
4 7
9dX x2 − 11x + 18X
*mM/Q bB;MKQb  Hb p`B#H2b x 2
y HQb pHQ`2b, 93X x2 + 2yx − 15y 2 X

kdX 0 v 1995 `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X 9NX 2z 2 + z − 6X

k3X 27 v 0 `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X 8yX 1M+m2Mi`2 2H [mBMiQ


iû`KBMQ
√ 8 2M H
√ √ 2tTMbBƦM /2 2a2 + 7 X
kNX 2 v 2 `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X
√ √ 8RX >HH2- bB 2tBbi2- 2H +Q2}+B2Mi2 /2 x6
jyX 2 + 1 v 2 − 1 `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X 2M H 2tTMbBƦM /2 (x2 − x−1 )13 c
√ √ x ∈ R v x = 0X
jRX 3 2 v 2 `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X

172+iȹ2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b BM/B+/b v 172+iȹ2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b BM/B+/b v

2tT`2b2 2H `2bmHi/Q 2M 7Q`K TQHBMƦ@ bBKTHB}[m2
KB+X 5x + 3 2x − 1
8kX + X
jkX (y 4 − 4y + y 2 ) + y (y 3 + 5y + 3y − 7)X 5x − 3 2x + 1
   2z + 7 4z + 18
jjX 1 + w + w3 − 2w4 6 − w2 X 8jX − 2 X
z − 5 5z + z + 3
2
ƒ „ƒ „
j9X (x + 1 i) 2x + 3 x − (5 + i) x2 X 5 3 a+6
89X + − 2 X
a−3 a+3 a −9
lb2 HQb T`Q/m+iQb MQi#H2b T` 272+@
im` Hb QT2`+BQM2b BM/B+/bX z+3 z+5 9
88X − + 2 X
 2 z − 9 z − 2 z − 11z + 18
j8X 2x + 3x−1 X
x2 − 3 1
√ √ 3 − 2+x
8eX x − 1 x − 4 +
jeX x+ y X 2
X
4 x+1
jdX (x + y + z)(x + y − z)X 1−
x+3
  
j3X 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + x7 1 − x X
a − 1 a2 + a + 1
jNX (sen x + cos x)(sen x − cos x)X 8dX · X
a2 − 1 a3 + 1
 R8y 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 €H;2#`

eeX G 2// /2 m` 2b 2H i`BTH2 [m2 H

z 2 + 2z − 3 z+2 /2 J`i? K€b [mBM+2 ƢQbX aB Hb
83X ÷ 2 X /Qb 2//2b bmKM 8N ƢQb- +H+mH2
z−1 z + 3z
Hb 2//2bX
_+BQMHBx` HQb /2MQKBM/Q`2b Q Mm@
K2`/Q`2b /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2tT`2bBQ@ lM `K /BbT` mM T`Qv2+iBH p2`iB@
M2b, +HK2Mi2 ?+B ``B#- /2b/2 2H bm2HQ-
√ +QM mM p2HQ+B// BMB+BH /2 10 K2i`Qb
2+ 7
8NX √ X TQ` b2;mM/QXG 7Ʀ`KmH d = 10t − 5t2
3− 7 2tT`2b H /BbiM+B- 2M K2i`Qb- /B`B@
2 ;B/ /2b/2 2H bm2HQ ?bi 2H T`Qv2+iBH
eyX √ √ X
a + 3b +mM/Q ?M i`Mb+m``B/Q t b2;mM/QbX
G 7Ʀ`KmH v = 10 − 15t 2tT`2b H
1
eRX √ X p2HQ+B// BMbiMi€M2- 2M K2i`Qb bQ@
1+ 52 #`2 b2;mM/Q- /2H T`Qv2+iBH +mM/Q ?M

√ i`Mb+m``B/Q t b2;mM/QbX >HH2,
5
x + 5 y2
ekX X
2 edX G p2HQ+B// BMbiMi€M2 /2H T`Q@
√
5 v2+iBH +mM/Q ? i`Mb+m``B/Q 1 b2@
1− w2
ejX X ;mM/QX
4
e9X lM ;`B7Q HH2M mM /2TƦbBiQ 2M i`2b e3X G p2HQ+B// BMbiMi€M2 /2H T`Q@
?Q`bX Pi`Q ;`B7Q HQ HH2M 2M 9 ?Q@ v2+iBH +mM/Q ?M i`Mb+m``B/Q 3
`bX ǯ1M +m€MiQ iB2KTQ b2 HH2M`€ b2;mM/QbX
2H /2TQbBiQ- bB #`BKQb HQb /Qb ;`B@
7Qb\ eNX 1H iB2KTQ [m2 b2 i`/ 2H T`Qv2+iBH
2M H+Mx` 2H TmMiQ K€b HiQX
e8X aB 2M 2H +bQ Mi2`BQ` b2 #`2 mM
/2b;Ƀ2 [m2 b2 /2KQ` 2M p+B` 2H dyX G Him` K€tBK [m2 H+Mx 2H
/2TƦbBiQ 2M +BM+Q ?Q`b- ǯ2M +m€M@ T`Qv2+iBHX
iQ iB2KTQ b2 HH2M`€ 2H /2TƦbBiQ bB
2bi€M #B2`iQb HQb /Qb ;`B7Qb v 2H dRX G p2HQ+B// BMbiMi€M2 /2H T`Q@
/2b;Ƀ2\ v2+iBH +mM/Q HH2; H bm2HQX
 9
_2Mû .2b+`i2b UR8Ne@Re8yV 7m2 mM }HƦbQ7Q-
Ki2K€iB+Q v 7őbB+Q 7`M+ûb- +QMbB/2`/Q 2H
7mM//Q` /2 H ;2QK2i`ő MHőiB+ v H }HQ@
bQ7ő KQ/2`MX  T`iB` /2H KûiQ/Q /2 Hb
+QQ`/2M/b- .2b+`i2b i`M7Q`K mM T`Q#H2@
K ;2QKûi`B+Q 2M mMQ H;2#`B+Q- HQ;`M/Q
`2bQHp2` HQb T`Q#H2Kb /2 H i`Bb2++BƦM /2H
€M;mHQ v H /mTHB++BQM /2H +m#QX

:2QK2i`ő MHőiB+

P#D2iBpQb
1M 2bi2 +TőimHQ b2 T`2b2MiM H;mMQb 2H2K2MiQb ;2M2`H2b /2 H ;2QK2i`ő
MHőiB+- a2 /2b+`B#2 H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2 Hb 2+m+BQM2b /2 H `2+i- 2H
+ő`+mHQ- H 2HBTb2- H T`€#QH v H ?BTû`#QH 2M 2H THMQ +QQ`/2M/QX H
}MHBx` 2H +TőimHQ- b2 2bT2` [m2 HQbfHb 2bim/BMi2b /[mB2`M Hb +QK@
T2iM+Bb M2+2b`Bb T`,

• 1bi#H2+2` H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2 TmMiQb 2M 2H THMQ +QQ`/2M/QX

• A/2MiB}+` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H HőM2 `2+i v bm `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM 2M 2H THMQ

+QQ`/2M/QX

• A/2MiB}+` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H +B`+mM72`2M+B v bm `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM 2M 2H

THMQ +QQ`/2M/QX

• A/2MiB}+` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H 2HBTb2 v bm `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM 2M 2H THMQ

+QQ`/2M/QX

R8R
R8k :2QK2i`ő MHőiB+

9XR 1H THMQ +`i2bBMQ

S` m#B+` mM TmMiQ 2M mM THMQ 2b M2+2b`BQ miBHBx` /Qb `2+ib MmKû`B+b
[m2 MQb /2M +m2Mi /2 HQb /Qb ;`/Qb /2 HB#2`i/ [m2 iB2M2 HQb Q#D2iQb /2 /Qb
/BK2MbBQM2bX S` 2HHQ BM+Q`TQ``2KQb Hb +QQ`/2M/b +`i2bBMb- 2M ?QMQ` H
Ki2K€iB+Q 7`M+ûb _2Mû .2b+`i2b- [mB2M 7m2 mMQ /2 HQb T`BK2`Qb Ki2KûiB+Qb
2M mb`HbX

9XRXR .2}MB+BƦMX UaBbi2K /2 +QQ`/2M/b +`i2bBMbV

lM bBbi2K /2 +QQ`/2M/b +`i2bBMb 2bi€ +QM7Q`K/Q TQ` /Qb `2+ib
T2`T2M/B+mH`2b [m2 b2 BMi2`+2TiM 2M mM TmMiQ- /2MQKBM/Q Q`B;2M /2
+QQ`/2M/bX  H `2+i ?Q`BxQMiH b2 H2 /2MQKBM 2D2 x v  H `2+i p2`iB+H
b2 H2 /2MQKBM 2D2 y. lM TmMiQ P HQ+HBx/Q 2M 2H THMQ b2 /2MQi TQ` (x, y)
Q P (x, y). 1H TmMiQ P (0, 0) +Q``2bTQM/2 H Q`B;2M /2 +QQ`/2M/bX

*QKQ TQ/2KQb Q#b2`p` //Q mM bBbi2K /2 +QQ`/2M/b +`i2bBMb 2H THMQ

[m2/ /BpB/B/Q 2M +mi`Q T`i2b HHK/b +m/`Mi2bX .2T2M/B2M/Q /2H +m/`Mi2
Hb +QQ`/2M/b /2 mM TmMiQ Tm2/2M b2` M2;iBpb Q TQbBiBpb- +QKQ b2 Tm2/2
pBbmHBx` 2M H };m` bB;mB2Mi2X
1+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i R8j

+iBpB// 9XRXR,
RX l#B+` 2M 2H THMQ +`i2bBMQ HQb bB;mB2Mi2 TmMiQb,

V (2, −3) 2
/V (− , −3)
4
√
#V (−3, 2) 2V ( 2, −5)
5 1
+V (π, −1) 7V ( , )
−4 2

kX GQb pû`iB+2b QTm2biQb /2 mM `2+i€M;mHQ 2bi€M HQ+HBx/Qb 2M HQb TmMiQb

(2, 3) v (−2, 6)c 2M+QMi`` HQb Qi`Qb /Qb pû`iB+2bX

9Xk 1+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i

*QMbB/2`2KQb 2M 2H THMQ /2 +QQ`/2M/b mM `2+i [m2 MQ b2 T2`T2M/B+mH` H
2D2 x v HQ+HB+2KQb /Qb TmMiQb P1 (x1 , y1 ) v P2 (x2 , y2 ) bQ#`2 /B+? `2+iX h`+2KQb
mM `2+i T`H2H H 2D2 x [m2 Tb2 TQ` P1 v Qi` T`H2H H 2D2 y, [m2 Tb2 TQ`
P2 7Q`KM/Q 2H i`B€M;mHQ P1 P2 P3 , +QKQ b2 pBbmHBx 2M H };m` bB;mB2Mi2X

P2 P3 y2 − y1
P#b2`p2KQb [m2 2H +Q+B2Mi2 = b2 KMiB2M2 +QMbiMi2 T` +mH2b@
P1 P3 x2 − x1
[mB2` /Qb TmMiQb [m2 2b+QDKQb 2M H `2+iX hQK2KQb mM TmMiQ +mH[mB2` P (x, y),
i`+2KQb mM T`H2H H 2D2 v- v 7Q`K2KQb 2H i`B€M;mHQ `2+i€M;mHQ P1 P4 P. ./Q
[m2 HQb €M;mHQb P1 P P4 v P1 P2 P3 bQM B;mH2b- 2MiQM+2b HQb i`B€M;mHQb P1 P2 P3 v
P1 P P4 bQM b2K2DMi2bc 2bQ bB;MB}+ [m2 bmb H/Qb bQM T`QTQ`+BQMH2b- TQ` HQ iMiQ
b2 iB2M2 [m2,
P 2 P3 P P4 y − y1 y 2 − y1
= = =
P1 P3 P1 P4 x − x1 x2 − x1
GQ Mi2`BQ` MQb T2`KBi2 BM+Q`TQ`` H bB;mB2Mi2 /2}MB+BƦM,
R89 :2QK2i`ő MHőiB+

9XkXR .2}MB+BƦMX US2M/B2Mi2 /2 mM `2+iV

a2M P1 (x1 , y1 ) v P2 (x2 , y2 ) /Qb TmMiQb +mH[mB2` bQ#`2 mM `2+i- 2MiQM+2b
b2 /2}M2 H T2M/B2Mi2 m /2 H `2+i +QKQ,
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
m 2bi#H2+2 2H ;`/Q /2 BM+HBM+BƦM /2 H `2+i +QM `2bT2+iQ H b2KB2D2
TQbBiBpQ /2 Hb #b+BbbX

./ mM `2+i [m2 Tb TQ` HQb TmMiQb P1 (x1 , y1 ) v P2 (x2 , y2 ), ?2KQb /2KQb@
i`/Q [m2 bB iQKKQb Qi`Q TmMiQ P (x, y) bQ#`2 H `2+i b2 iB2M2 [m2,
y − y1 y 2 − y1
m= = .
x − x1 x2 − x1
.2 2bi KM2`- /2bT2DM/Q y /2 H B;mH//- i2M2KQb [m2- y = mx − mx1 + y1 ,
Q HQ [m2 HQ KBbKQ y = mx + b, /QM/2 b = −mx1 + y1 .

9XkXk .2}MB+BƦMX U1+m+BƦM /2 H `2+iV

G 2+m+BƦM /2 mM `2+i +QM T2M/B2Mi2 m v [m2 Tb TQ` 2H TmMiQ (0, b)
pB2M2 // TQ` H 2+m+BƦM,

y = mx + b.

/2K€b-

RX *mM/Q H `2+i 2b T`H2H H 2D2 y, bm 2+m+BƦM b2`€ x = k, /QM/2 k

2b mM +QMbiMi2- Tm2b iQ/Qb HQb TmMiQb [m2 T2`i2M2+2M  2bi `2+i
iB2M2M +QKQ #b+Bb k.

kX *mM/Q H `2+i 2b T`H2H H 2D2 x, bm 2+m+BƦM b2`€ y = c, /QM/2 c

2b mM +QMbiMi2X

9XkXj 1D2KTHQX

RX >HH` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i [m2 Tb TQ` HQb TmMiQb (−2, 4) v

(1, −2).
S` 2bi2 +bQ i2M2KQb [m2 m = 1 − (−2) = −2. G 2+m+BƦM /2 H
`2+i b2`€ y = −2x + b. S` ?HH` b mbKQb mMQ /2 HQb /Qb TmMiQb
[m2 T2`i2M2+2M  H `2+iX hQK2KQb 2H TmMiQ (−2, 4) v `2KTHxKQb
2M H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i, 4 = −2(−2) + b; /2 /QM/2 b = 0. SQ` HQ
iMiQ H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i b2`€ y = −2x.

kX >HH2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i [m2 Tb TQ` 2H TmMiQ (−3, 2) v iB2M2

1+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i R88

1
TQ` T2M/B2Mi2 .
2
1
1M 2bi2 +bQ H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i b2`€ y = x + b, /QM/2 b b2
2
+H+mH i2MB2M/Q 2M +m2Mi [m2 H `2+i Tb TQ` 2H TmMiQ (−3, 2). .2
2bi KM2`- `22KTHxM/Q 2M H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i b2 iB2M2 [m2
1 7 1 7
2 = (3) + b, /QM/2 b = v H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i b2`€ y = x + .
2 2 2 2

_2+ib T2`T2M/B+mH`2b v `2+ib T`H2Hb

*QMbB/2`2KQb /Qb `2+ib L1 v L2 [m2 TbM TQ` 2H Q`B;2M v bQM T2`T2M/B+mH`2b-
+QKQ b2 Q#b2`p 2M H };m`X h`+2KQb mM `2+i T`H2H H 2D2 y [m2 +Q`i2  Hb
/Qb `2+ib 2M HQb TmMiQb P (x1 , y1 ) v Q(x1 , −y2 ), /QM/2 x1 , y1 , y2 bQM KvQ`2b [m2
+2`QX

1H TmMiQ S(x1 , 0) +Q``2bTQM/2 H +Q`i2 /2 H `2+i T`H2H H 2D2 y +QM 2H 2D2 x.

.2 2bi 7Q`K i2M2KQb [m2 Hb T2M/B2Mi2b m1 v m2 /2 Hb `2+ib L1 v L2 bQM
`2bT2+iBpK2Mi2,
y1 − 0 y1 −y2 − 0 −y2
m1 = = , y1 > 0 v m2 = = , y2 > 0.
x1 − 0 x1 x2 − 0 x2
GQ +mH bB;MB}+ [m2
y 1 y2
m1 m2 = . U9XRV
x21
.2 Qi`Q H/Q bB MHBxKQb HQb i`B€M;mHQb OP Q, OP S v OSQ i2M/`2KQb H bBim@
+BƦM /2 H };m` bB;mB2Mi2,
R8e :2QK2i`ő MHőiB+

GQb i`B€M;mHQb OP Q, OP S v OSQ bQM i`B€M;mHQb `2+i€M;mHQb b2K2DMi2bX ./Q

[m2 OS = x − 1, P S = y1 , SQ = y2 v P OS = OQS v OP S = SOQ,
TQ/2KQb 2bi#H2+2` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b T`QTQ`+BQM2b,
y1 x1
= ,
x1 y2
/2 HQ +mH b2 iB2M2 [m2 y1 y2 = x21 . _22KTHxM/Q 2M U9XRV i2M2KQb [m2 m1 m2 =
−1.
P#b2`p+BƦM RjX .2  HQb `2bmHi/Qb Mi2`BQ`2b TQ/2KQb +QM+HmB` Hb bB;mB2M@
i2b `2H+BQM2b 2Mi`2 Hb T2M/B2Mi2b /2 Hb `2+ib +mM/Q bQM T2`T2M/B+mH`2b v
T`H2Hb,
RX .Qb `2+ib bQM T2`T2M/B+mH`2b bB v bƦHQ bB 2H T`Q/m+iQ /2 bmb T2M/B2Mi2b 2b
B;mH  −1.
kX .Qb `2+ib bQM T`H2Hb bB v bƦHQ bB bmb T2M/B2Mi2b bQM B;mH2bX

9XkX9 1D2KTHQX
1
RX a2 y = x + 6 H 2+m+BQM /2 H `2+i L1 v b2 L2 mM `2+i T2`@
2
T2M/B+mH`  L1 ?HH2 H T2M/B2Mi2 /2 H `2+i L2 .
a2M m1 v m2 Hb T2M/B2Mi2b /2 Hb `2+ib L1 v L2 `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X
1
*QKQ L2 2b T2`T2M/B+mH`  L1 2MiQM+2b m2 = −1, TQ` HQ iMiQ-
2
m2 = −2.
4
kX .2i2`KBM` bB H `2+i +QM 2+m+BƦM y = x + 1 2b T2`T2M/B+mH` Q
3
T`H2H H `2+i [m2 Tb TQ` HQb TmMiQb (−3, −2) v (0, 2).
2 − (−2) 4
h2M2KQb [m2 H T2M/B2Mi2 /2 H b2;mM/ `2+i // 2b = .
0 − (−3) 3
*QKQ Hb T2M/B2Mi2b bQM B;mH2b Hb `2+ib bQM T`H2HbX
jX *QMbB/2`2 H `2+i L /2 2+m+BƦM y = 2x + 3, v 2H TmMiQ P = (1, −2).
.2i2`KBM2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 mM `2+i L1 , [m2 b2 T2`T2M/B+mH`  L v
[m2 Tb2 TQ` 2H TmMiQ P. >HH2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 mM `2+i L2 [m2 b2
T`H2H  H `2+i L v [m2 Tb2 TQ` 2H TmMiQ P.
1+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i R8d

GHK2KQb m, m1 v m2  Hb T2M/B2Mi2b /2 Hb `2+ib L, L1 v L2 ,

`2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X 1MiQM+2b b2 2bi#H2+2M Hb B;mH//2b mm1 = −1 v
m2 = m. .2 +m2`/Q  HQb /iQb //Qb i2M2KQb [m2,
−1
2m1 = −1, m2 = 2; 2b /2+B` m1 = , m2 = 2.
2
.2 2bi 7Q`K-
−1
V H 2+m+BƦM /2 L1 b2`€ y = x + b. S` ?HH` b miBHBxKQb 2H
2
TmMiQ P :
−1
−2 = (1) + b,
2
3
/2 HQ +mH b = − . SQ` HQ iMiQ- H 2+m+BƦM /2 L1 b2`€
2
1 3
y =− x− .
2 2
#V H 2+m+BƦM /2 L2 b2`€ y = 2x + b. S` ?HH` b miBHBxKQb 2H
TmMiQ P :
−2 = 2(1) + b, /2 HQ +mH b = −4. SQ` HQ iMiQ- H 2+m+BƦM /2
L2 b2`€ y = 2x − 4.

+iBpB// 9XkXR,
RX >HH` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i +mv T2M/B2Mi2 2b −3 v +mv BMi2`b2+@
+BƦM +QM 2H 2D2 Y 2b −2.

kX GQb b2;K2MiQb [m2 mM `2+i /2i2`KBM +QM HQb 2D2b X v Y bQM k v
−3. >HH bm 2+m+BƦMX

jX lM `2+i Tb TQ` HQb /Qb TmMiQb A(−3, −1) v B(2, −6). >HH2 bm
2+m+BƦMX

9X lM `2+i Tb TQ` 2H TmMiQ A(7, 8) v 2b T`H2H  H `2+i [m2 Tb
TQ` HQb TmMiQb C(−2, 2) v D(3, −4). >HH bm 2+m+BƦMX

8X h`2b TmMiQb bQM +QHBM2H2b bB 2HHQb 2bi€M 2M mM KBbK `2+iX .2@
KQbi`` [m2 HQb TmMiQb A(−5, 2), B(1, 4) v C(4, 5) bQM +QHBM2H2b-
?HHM/Q H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i [m2 Tb TQ` /Qb /2 2bQb TmMiQbX

eX >HH` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i +mv T2M/B2Mi2 2b −4 v [m2 Tb TQ` 2H

TmMiQ /2 BMi2`b2++BƦM /2 Hb `2+ib 2x + y − 8 = 0 v 3x − 2y + 9 = 0.
R83 :2QK2i`ő MHőiB+

.BbiM+B 2Mi`2 /Qb TmMiQb

./Qb /Qb TmMiQb 2M mM THMQ +`i2bBMQ P (x1 , y1 ), Q(x2 , y2 ) TQ/2KQb +H+mH`
H /BbiM+B 2Mi`2 P v Q [m2 2[mBpH2  +H+mH` H HQM;Bim/ /2H b2;K2MiQ P Q.
S` pBbmHBx` 2H `2bmHi/Q MQb #bKQb 2M H };m` bB;mB2Mi2- 2M H +mH b2 ?M
`2T`2b2Mi/Q HQb TmMiQb //QbX SQ` Q b2 ? i`x/Q mM `2+i T`H2H H 2D2 y, v
TQ` P mM T`H2H H 2D2 x, Hb +mH2b b2 +Q`iM 2M 2H TmMiQ R.

h2M2KQb [m2 2H i`B€M;mHQ P QR 2b mM i`B€M;mHQ `2+i€M;mHQ iH [m2 P R = x2 −

x1 , QR = y2 − y1 . THB+M/Q 2H i2Q`2K /2 SBi€;Q`b i2M2KQb [m2 H /BbiM+B
2Mi`2 P v Q 2b, 
d(P, Q) = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

9XkX8 1D2KTHQX

RX *QMbB/2`2KQb HQb TmMiQb

 P = (−1, 2) v Q = (1, 3). G /BbiM+B 2Mi`2
2 √
P v Q 2b d(P, Q) = (1 − (−1)) + (3 − 2) = 5.
2

kX G HQM;Bim/
 /2H b2;K2MiQ /2 `2+i [m2 mM2 HQb TmMiQb (1, 4) v (−3, 4)
2b d = (1 − (−3))2 + (4 − 4)2 = 4.

+iBpB// 9XkXk,
RX 1M H `2+i MmKû`B+- bB H /BbiM+B /2 /Qb TmMiQb 2b N v mMQ /2
HQb TmMiQb iB2M2 TQ` +QQ`/2M/  −2- ?HH H +QQ`/2M/ /2H Qi`Q
TmMiQX

kX aB mM 2ti`2KQ /2 mM b2;K2MiQ 2b −8 v bm TmMiQ K2/BQ 2b jX >HH H

+QQ`/2M/ /2H Qi`Q 2ti`2KQX
1+m+BƦM /2 H +B`+mM72`2M+B R8N

jX GQb pû`iB+2b /2 mM i`B€M;mHQ `2+i€M;mHQ bQM HQb TmMiQb (1, −2), (4, −2)
v (4, 2). .2i2`KBM Hb HQM;Bim/2b /2 HQb +i2iQb- +H+mH 2H €`2 /2H
i`B€M;mHQ v H HQM;Bim/ /2 bm ?BTQi2MmbX

9X 1M H `2+i MmKû`B+- P1 (x1 ) v P2 (x2 ) bQM HQb TmMiQb 2ti`2KQb /2 mM

b2;K2MiQX Jm2bi` [m2 H +QQ`/2M/ x /2H TmMiQ P [m2 /BpB/2 H
d(P, P1 )
b2;K2MiQ P1 P2 2M H `xƦM r = 2b
d(P, P2 )
x1 + rx2
x= .
1+r

8X liBHBx 2H 2D2`+B+BQ Mi2`BQ` T` ?HH` HQb TmMiQb /2 i`Bb2++BƦM v 2H

TmMiQ K2/BQ /2H b2;K2MiQ +mvQb 2ti`2KQb bQM HQb TmMiQb −7 v −19.

eX Jm2bi` [m2 HQb TmMiQb (2, −2), (−8, 4) v (5, 3) bQM pû`iB+2b /2 mM
i`B€M;mHQ `2+i€M;mHQ v ?HH bm €`2X

dX lMQ /2 HQb 2ti`2KQb /2 mM b2;K2MiQ 2b 2H TmMiQ Ud-3V- v bm TmMiQ

K2/BQ 2b U9-jVX >HH 2H Qi`Q 2ti`2KQX

9Xj 1+m+BƦM /2 H +B`+mM72`2M+B

a2 C(a, b) mM TmMiQ }DQ v r mM +QMbiMi2 [m2 `2T`2b2Mi mM MȹK2`Q `2H TQbBiBpQX
1H Hm;` ;2QKûi`B+Q /2 iQ/Qb HQb TmMiQb P (x, y) /2H THMQ +mv /BbiM+B H TmMiQ
C 2b B;mH  H +QMbiMi2 r +Q``2bTQM/2  mM +B`+mM72`2M+BX

9XjXR .2}MB+BƦMX U1+m+BƦM /2 H +B`+mM72`2M+BV

G 2+m+BƦM
 /2 H +B`+mM72`2M+B [m2 iB2M2 +QKQ +2Mi`Q  C(a, b) v `/BQ
r > 0, 2b (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r Q /2 7Q`K 2[mBpH2Mi2,

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 .
Rey :2QK2i`ő MHőiB+

9XjXk 1D2KTHQX

RX G 2+m+BƦM x2 + y 2 = 9 2b H 2+m+BƦM /2 mM +B`+mM72`2M+B +QM

+2Mi`Q 2M 2H Q`B;2M v +QM `/BQ jX

kX G 2+m+BƦM /2H +QMDmMiQ /2 TmMiQb [m2 2bi€M  mM /BbiM+B k /2H

TmMiQ (1, −2) 2b
(x − 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 4.

jX *mM/Q i2M2KQb mM 2+m+BƦM /2H iBTQ x2 + 2ax + y 2 = 0, (a > 0),

TQ/2KQb 2tT`2b`H /2 Qi` KM2` +QKTH2iM/Q +m/`/Qb bő,

x2 + 2ax + y 2 = x2 + 2ax + a2 − a2 + y 2 = 0.

.2 [mő Q#i2M2KQb H 2+m+BƦM

(x − a)2 + y 2 = a2 .

G +mH /2i2`KBM mM +B`+mM72`2M+B +QM +2Mi`Q 2M 2H TmMiQ P (a, 0)

v `/BQ a. aBKBH`K2Mi2- H 2+m+BƦM

x2 + y 2 + 2by = 0 (b > 0),

/2i2`KBM H 2+m+BƦM x2 + (y − b)2 = b2 , [m2 2b H 2+m+BƦM /2 mM

+B`+mM72`2M+B +QM +2Mi`Q 2M 2H TmMiQP (0, b) v `/BQ b.

9X S`Q+2/B2M/Q /2 KM2` ;2M2`H bB i2M2KQb mM 2+m+BƦM /2 H 7Q`K

x2 + 2ax + y 2 + 2by = 0 ,

v +QKTH2iKQb +m/`/Qb- i2M2KQb H 2+m+BƦM (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 =

a2 + b2 .
>+B2M/Q r2 = a2 + b2 , Q#i2M2KQb H 2+m+BƦM ;2M2`H /2 H +B`+mM72@
`2M+B
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 .
1+m+BƦM /2 H 2HBTb2 ReR

+iBpB// 9XjXR,
RX >HH H 2+m+BƦM /2 H +B`+mM72`2M+B +mvQ +2Mi`Q 2b 2H TmMiQ C(2, −4)
v 2b iM;2Mi2 H 2D2 Y.

kX >HH H 2+m+BƦM /2 H +B`+mM72`2M+B +mvQ +2Mi`Q 2b 2H TmMiQ

C(−4, −1) v [m2 2b iM;2Mi2  H `2+i 3x + 2y − 12 = 0.

9X9 1+m+BƦM /2 H 2HBTb2

G 2HBTb2 2b 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 TmMiQb /2H THMQ iH2b [m2 H bmK /2 Hb /BbiM+Bb 
/Qb TmMiQb }DQb F v F ť- HHK/Qb 7Q+Qb- 2b +QMbiMi2X

*€H+mHQ /2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 H 2HBTb2

S` +H+mH` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H 2HBTb2 MQb #bKQb 2M H };m` bB;mB2Mi2,

.2 +m2`/Q  H };m`- GQb 7Q+Qb iB2M2M +QQ`/2M/b F ť(−c, 0) v F (c, 0)c GQb
pû`iB+2b ?Q`BxQMiH2b iB2M2M +QQ`/2M/b P ť(−a, 0) v P (a, 0)c HQb pû`iB+2b pû`iB+@
H2b iB2M2M +QQ`/2M/b Q(0, b) v Qť(0, −b)X *QKQ HQb pû`iB+2b P ť v P T2`i2M2+2M
 H 2HBTb2- 2MiQM+b H /BbiM+B +QMbiMi2 2b 2aX a2 A(x, y) mM TmMiQ +mH[mB2`
/2 H 2HBTb2X SQ` /2}MB+BƦM-
 i2M2KQb [m2 P F ť + P F = 2aX
*QKQ P F ť = (x + c)2 + y 2 v P F = (x − c)2 + y 2 - i2M2KQb [m2-
 
(x + c)2 + y 2 + (x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a
Rek :2QK2i`ő MHőiB+

 
(x + c)2 + y2 = 2a − (x − c)2 + y 2
1H2pM/Q H +m/`/Q HQb /Qb iû`KBMQb /2 H B;mH//- b2 Q#iB2M2,

(x + c)2 + y 2 = 4a2 − 4a (x − c)2 + y 2 + (x − c)2 + y 2
aBKTHB}+M/Q [m2/`€,

(x + c)2 = 4a2 − 4a (x − c)2 + y 2 + (x − c)2
1H2pM/Q H +m/`/Q v bBKTHB}+/Q [m2/`€,

x2 (a2 − c2 ) + a2 y 2 = a2 (a2 − c2 )
*QKQ a2 − c2 ∈ / 0- b2 Tm2/2M /BpB/B` +/ mMQ /2 HQb iû`KBMQb /2 H 2+m+BƦM
Mi2`BQ` TQ` (a2 − c2 )- Q#i2MB2M/Q,

x2 y2
+ = 1.
a2 (a2 − c2 )
*QKQ b2 = a2 − c2 - H 2+m+BƦM /2 H 2HBTb2 [m2/`€,

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
*mM/Q 2H +2Mi`Q /2 2HBTb2 MQ 2bi€ 2M 2H Q`B;2M /2 +QQ`/2M/b- bBMQ 2M 2M 2H
TmMiQ (h, k)- H 2+m+BƦM /2 H 2HQBTb2 b2`í

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1.
a2 b2

9X8 1+m+BƦM /2 H ?BTû`#QH

G ?BTû`#QH 2b 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 TmMiQb /2H THMQ iH2b [m2 H /B72`2M+B 2Mi`2 H
/BbiM+B KvQ` v H /BbiM+B K2MQ`  /Qb TmMiQb }DQb F v F ť- HHK/Qb 7Q+Qb-
2b +QMbiMi2X

*€H+mHQ /2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 H ?BTû`#QH

S` +H+mH` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H 2HBTb2 MQb #bKQb 2M H };m` bB;mB2Mi2,
1+m+BƦM /2 H T`€#QH Rej

aB;mB2M/Q 2H KBbKQ T`Q+2bQ [m2 T` H 2HBTb2- b2 Q#iB2M2 H 2+m+BƦM,

x2 y 2
− 2 = 1.
a2 b
*mM/Q 2H +2Mi`Q /2 ?BQTû2`#QH MQ 2bi€ 2M 2H Q`B;2M /2 +QQ`/2M/b- bBMQ 2M
2M 2H TmMiQ (h, k)- H 2+m+BƦM /2 H 2HBTb2 b2`í

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− = 1.
a2 b2

9Xe 1+m+BƦM /2 H T`€#QH

G T`€#QH 2b 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 TmMiQb /2H THMQ [m2 bQM 2[mB/BbiMi2b /2 mM TmMiQ
}DQ HHK/Q 7Q+Q v mM `2+i }D HHK/ /B`2+i`BxX

*€H+mHQ /2 H 2+m+BƦM /2 H T`€#QH

S` +H+mH` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H T`€#QH MQb #bKQb 2M H };m` bB;mB2Mi2,
Re9 :2QK2i`ő MHőiB+

.2 +m2`/Q  H };m`- 2H 7Q+Q iB2M2 +QQ`/2M/b F (0, p) v H /B`2+i`Bx iB2M2 TQ`

2+m+BƦM y = −pX a2 (x, y) mM TmMiQ +mH[mB2` /2 H T`€#QHX SQ` /2}MB+BƦM-
i2M2KQb [m2 H /BbiM+B /2H TmMiQ (0, p) H TmMiQ (x, y) 2b B;mH  H /BbiM+B
/2H TmMiQ (x, y)  H `2+i y = −p- 2b /2+B`,

(y − p)2 + (x − 0)2 = y + p
_2HBxM/Q Hb QT2`+BQM2b T2`iBM2Mi2b v bBKTHB}+M/Q- Q#i2M2KQb,

x2 = 4py
*mM/Q 2H +2Mi`Q /2 H T`€#QH MQ 2bi€ 2M 2H Q`B;2M /2 +QQ`/2M/b- bBMQ 2M
2M 2H TmMiQ (h, k)- H 2+m+BƦM /2 H T`€#QH b2`í

(x − h)2 = 4p(y − k).

1+m+BƦM /2 H T`€#QH Re8

9Xd 1D2`+B+BQb /2H +TőimHQ 9

RX >HH` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i NX *QMbB/2`` H 2+m+BƦM Ax2 +

[m2 Tb TQ` HQb TmMiQb (2, 5) By 2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0X
v (2, −3)X ǯZmû +QM/B+BQM2b /2#2M +mK@
THB` HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2 A; B; C; D; E
kX >HH` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H `2+i
T` [m2 H 2+m+BƦM b2 H 2+m@
[m2 Tb TQ` HQb TmMiQb (3, −1)
+BƦM /2 mM +B`+mM72`2M+B- mM
v (−5, −1)X
2HBTb2 - mM T`€#QH v mM ?B@
jX a2 mM i`B€M;mHQ +QM pû`iB+2b Tû`#QH2\
A(−2, 1)- B(4, 7) v C(6, −3)X
>HH2 Hb 2+m+BQM2b /2 HQb H@ RyX "Qb[m2D` H ;`€}+ /2 H 2+m@
/QbX +BƦM //- BM/B+M/Q +/ mM
/2 bmb +QKTQM2Mi2bX
9X .2i2`KBM` HQb +Q2}+B2Mi2b A v
B /2 H 2+m+BƦM Ax − By + 4 = x2 y 2
V + =1
0 /2 mM `2+i- bB /2#2 Tb` TQ` 16 4
HQb TmMiQb (−3, 1) v (1, 6)X (x − 1)2 (y − 2)2
#V + =1
49 25
8X 1M+m2Mi`2 2H pHQ` /2 k T` [m2
H `2+i 2ky +x+3 = 0 Tb2 TQ` +V 4x2 + 25y 2 = 100
2H TmMiQ (2, 3)X /V 4x2 − 9y 2 − 36 + 8x − 16 −
54y = 81
eX >HH` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H +B`+mM@
72`2M+B /2 `/BQ 8 v +mvQ +2M@ RRX 1M +/ mMQ /2 HQb 2D2`+B+BQb /2@
i`Q 2b 2H TmMiQ /2 BMi2`b2++BƦM i2`KBM` bB Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2+m@
/2 Hb `2+ib 3x − 2y − 24 = 0 v +BQM2b `2T`2b2MiM mM +B`+mM72@
2x + 7y + 9 = 0. `2M+B-mM 2HBTb2- mM T`€#QH
dX >HH` 2H +2Mi`Q v 2H `/BQ /2 Q mM ?BTû`#QHX
H +B`+mM72`2M+B [m2 iB2M2 +QKQ
2+m+BƦM- x2 + 2x + y 2 = 5X 2V 2x2 + 2y 2 − 6x + 10y + 7 = 0

3X >HH` H 2+m+BƦM /2 H +B`+mM@ 7 V 4x2 +4y 2 +28x−8y+53 = 0

72`2M+B [m2 Tb TQ` 2H TmMiQ ;V 16x2 + 16y 2 − 64x + 8y +
(0, 1) v iB2M2 `/BQ B;mH  kX 177 = 0.
 8
;mbiBM GQmBb *v+?v URd3N@R38dVVX 1H Ki2K€iB+Q
7`M+ûb K€b BKTQ`iMi2 /2 T`BM+BTBQb /2H bB;HQ sAsX
1b+`B#BQ 2H T`BK2` HB#`Q /2 M€HBbBb, *m`bQ /2 M€HBbBb-
2M 2H +mH BM+HmvƦ H /2}MB+BƦM /2 7mM+BƦM +QKQ mM
`2H+BƦM `#Bi``BX

1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

P#D2iBpQb
1M 2bi2 +TőimHQ 2bim/B`2KQb mMQ /2 HQb +QM+2TiQb #€bB+Qb /2 Hb Ki2K€@
iB+b- +QKQ 2b 2H +QM+2TiQ /2 7mM+BƦM- bmb T`QTB2//2b v bmb THB++BQM2bX
1bT2`KQb [m2 H }MHBx` 2H 2bim/BQ /2 2bi mMB//- HQbfHb 2bim/BMi2b
?vM /2b``QHH/Q Hb +QKT2i2M+Bb M2+2b`Bb T`,,

• 1bi#H2+2` H /2}MB+BƦM 7Q`KH /2 H MQ+BƦM /2 7mM+BƦM v bmb /Bp2`bb

7Q`Kb /2 `2T`2b2Mi+BƦMX

• _2+QMQ+2` Hb /Bp2`bb +Hb2b /2 7mM+BQM2b v bmb T`QTB2//2bX

• 1bT2+B}+` Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b- 7mM+BƦM 2t@

TQM2M+BH- 7mM+BƦM HQ;`BiKQ v 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+bX

Red
Re3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

8XR H;mMb MQi+BQM2b ?BbiƦ`B+b /2 H MQ+BƦM /2

7mM+BƦM
mM[m2 H MQ+BƦM /2 7mM+BƦM 2b i`Mbp2`bH T`€+iB+K2Mi2  iQ/b Hb `Kb /2 Hb
Ki2K€iB+b- bm /2HBM2KB2MiQ +QM+2TimH- +QKQ Q#D2iQ Ki2K€iB+Q- bQHQ 2KT2xƦ
 2pB/2M+B`b2 /2b/2 2H bB;HQ soAAA- 7mM/K2MiHK2Mi2  T`iB` /2 HQb T`Q#H2Kb
/2H +€H+mHQ /2 €`2b- HQM;Bim/2b /2 +m`pb v iK#BûM TQ` H M2+2bB// /2 H Ki2@
KiBx+BƦM /2H KQpBKB2MiQX aBM 2K#`;Q- TQ/2KQb 2M+QMi`` H;mMQb Mi2+2/2M@
i2b Km+?Qb bB;HQb Mi2b 2M 2H mbQ /2 p`B#H2b `2H+BQM/b- bm`;B/b 2M Km+?b
bBim+BQM2b /2 H +QiB/BMB//- /2b/2 Hb Ki2K€iB+b ##BHQMBb v 2;BT+Bb- T@
bM/Q TQ` Hb Ki2K€iB+b ;`B2;b- Hb €`#2b v bQ#`2 iQ/Q- 2M 2H `2M+BKB2MiQX
SQ/2KQb m#B+` HQb T`BK2`Qb p2biB;BQb /2 H MQ+BƦM /2 7mM+BƦM 2M Hb i#Hb /2
+Q``2bTQM/2M+B 2H#Q`/b  T`iB` /2 H Q#b2`p+BƦM /2 72MƦK2MQb Mim`H2b v
bT2+iQb /2 H pB/ +QiB/BMX

S` 2Mi2M/2` 2H
/2b``QHHQ ?BbiƦ`B+Q /2
8Xk 1H2K2MiQb ;2M2`H2b /2
H MQ+BƦM /2 7mM+BƦM Hb 7mM+BQM2b
`2pBb 2H bB;mB2Mi2
pB/2QX *QKQ b2 /BDQ Mi2b- H MQ+BƦM /2 7mM+BƦM
+QMbiBimv2 H bHB/ +QM+2TimH 2M H KQ/2H@
+BƦM Ki2K€iB+ /2 72MƦK2MQb [m2 +QMi2MőM
p`B#H2b `2H+BQM/bX 1bT2+BHK2Mi2 2M H
Ki2KiBx+BƦM /2H KQpBKB2MiQ /QM/2 +/
iB2KTQ t /2i2`KBM/Q b2 `2H+BQM# +QM mM
TQbB+BƦM ȹMB+ r(t)X .2+BKQb [m2 H TQbB+BƦM
/2T2M/2 /2H iB2KTQ Q [m2 H TQbB+BƦM b2 / 2M
?iiTb,ffvQmimX#2f 7mM+BƦM /2H iB2KTQX
.FM_kQ3e>dZ

LQi2KQb 2H H2M;mD2 bm;2biBpQ bm#v+2Mi2- 2bT2+BHK2Mi2 TQ` 2H mbQ /2 TH#`b

+QKQ Ŀ`2H+BƦMŀ v Ŀ7mM+BƦMŀ- [m2 Hm2;Q HQ;``M bm +Bm//Mő Ki2K€iB+- +QMb@
iBimvûM/Qb2 2M Q#D2iQb Ki2K€iB+Qb T`QTBK2Mi2 /B+?QbX .2 2bi KM2`- b2 pQH@
pBƦ mM T`€+iB+ +QKȹM /2}MB` 7mM+BƦM +QKQ mM +B2`iQ iBTQ /2 `2H+BƦMX

LQ 2b 2ti`ƢQ T` MBM;mMQ /2 MQbQi`Qb p2` ;`€}+b- 7Ʀ`KmHb v i#mH+BQM2b

[m2 Km2bi`M +B2`ib `2H+BQM2b 2bT2+BH2b 2Mi`2 HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 /Qb +QMDmMiQbX
G TH#` KBbK 7mM+BƦM H 2M+QMi`KQb pBM+mH/  Km+?b +iBpB//2b [m2
v ?2KQb /2b``QHH/Q Q /2 Hb +mH2b i2M2KQb H;mM B/2X o2KQb H;mMb /2
2HHb,

RX G /BbiM+B [m2 `2+Q``2 b2 2tT`2b 2M 7mM+BƦM /2H iB2KTQX

H;mMb MQi+BQM2b ?BbiƦ`B+b /2 H MQ+BƦM /2 7mM+BƦM ReN

kX 1H €`2 /2 mM +m/`/Q 2bi€ 2M 7mM+BƦM /2 bm H/Q, A = l2 X

jX G HQM;Bim/ /2 H +B`+mM72`2M+B 2bi€ 2M 7mM+BƦM /2 bm `/BQ, S = 2πrX

1H +QM+2TiQ /2 7mM+BƦM b2 Tm2/2 /2}MB` /2 /B72`2Mi2b 7Q`KbX AMB+BHK2Mi2
K2M+BQM`2KQb /Qb /2 2HHb, miBHBxM/Q H MQ+BƦM /2 +Qp`B+BƦM- v- 2M iû`KBMQb
/2 `2H+BQM2b 2Mi`2 +QMDmMiQbX .2}MB+BQM2b [m2- TQ/`őKQb /2+B`- bQM 2[mBpH2Mi2bX
AMB+BHK2Mi2 /2}MKQb 2H +QM+2TiQ /2 +Qp`B+BƦM,

8XkXR .2}MB+BƦMX U*Qp`B+BƦMV

o`B+BƦM +QMDmMi 2Mi`2 /Qb +MiB//2b- K;MBim/2b- Q- p`B#H2bX 1Mi2M@
/B2M/Q 2bi p`B+BƦM +QKQ H Q#b2`p+BƦM /2H +K#BQ /2 mM /2 mM 2M
`2H+BƦM +QM 2H +K#BQ /2 H Qi`X

8XkXk .2}MB+BƦMX U.2}MB+BƦM +Qp`B+BQMH /2 H MQ+BƦM /2 7mM@

+BƦMV
aB 2tBbi2 mM +Qp`B+BƦM 2Mi`2 Hb p`B#H2b dzxǴ 2 dzyǴ- /2 iH 7Q`K [m2 H
p`B+BƦM /2 mM /2 Hb p`B#H2b T`Q/m+2 mM p`B+BƦM // TQ` mM ȹMB+Q
pHQ` 2M H Qi` p`B#H2- /B`2KQb [m2 2tBbi2 mM 7mM+BƦM 2Mi`2 dzxǴ 2 dzyǴX

RX GQb +QMDmMiQb A v B Tm2/2M b2` /2 +mH[mB2` Mim`H2x v MQ iB2M2M [m2 b2`

M2+2b`BK2Mi2 +QMDmMiQb MmKû`B+QbX Sm2/2 Q+m``B`- /2K€b- [m2 A = BX
kX G +Q``2bTQM/2M+B Tm2/2 i2M2` 7Q`Kb v bB;MB}+/Qb /B72`2Mi2bX Sm2/2 2bi`
/2i2`KBM/ TQ` mM H2v +B2Miő}+- TQ` mM 7Ʀ`KmH Ki2K€iB+ Q TQ` mM
bB;M+BƦM `#Bi``BX

jX G 7Q`K +QKQ b2 /2}M2 2tTHő+BiK2Mi2 H H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B /2 mM

7mM+BƦM Tm2/2 /QTi` 2tT`2bBQM2b /B72`2Mi2b- T2`Q 2M iQ/Q +bQ /2#2 b2`
iH [m2 //Q +mH[mB2` 2H2K2MiQ x 2M 2H /QKBMBQ b2 Tm2/ /2i2`KBM` mMő@
pQ+K2Mi2 bm BK;2M f (x)X

9X .2 +m2`/Q +QM Mm2bi` /2}MB+BƦM /2 7mM+BƦM v +QM 2H +`Bi2`BQ /2 B;mH//

[m2 ?2KQb 2bi#H2+B/Q 2Mi`2 2HHb- /Qb 7mM+BQM2b Tm2/2M b2` B;mH2b bBM i2M2`
+Q/QKBMBQb B;mH2bX

8XkXj 1D2KTHQX

RX G `2;H [m2 bQ+B  +/ MȹK2`Q `2H x 2H MȹK2`Q `2H x2 /2}M2 mM
7mM+BƦM f : A −→ B /QM/2 A = Df = R v B = Cf = RX
G H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B Q M2tQ 7mM+BQMH- +QKQ iK#BûM b2 bm2H2 /2+B`-
2bi`ő /2}MB/Q TQ` H 2tT`2bBƦM f (x) = x2 X 1H `M;Q /2 f 2b B;mH H
+QMDmMiQ
Rdy 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

 
Rf = f (x) : x ∈ R = {x2 : x ∈ R} = R+
0.

SQ` /2}MB+BƦM R+ 2b 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 iQ/Qb HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b TQbBiBpQb

v R+ +
0 = R ∪ {0}X
1b Kmv BKTQ`iMi2 i2M2` 2M +m2Mi [m2 Hb /Qb T`BK2`b B;mH//2b-

A = Df = R v B = Cf = R,

bQM 2H `2bmHi/Q /2 THB+` H /2}MB+BƦM /2 /QKBMBQ v `M;Q 2M H

/2}MB+BƦM /2 f X G ȹHiBK B;mH// (Rf = {x2 : x ∈ R} = R+ 0 )-
bBM 2K#`;Q- 2b mM }`K+BƦM [m2  HQ K2DQ` 2H 2bim/BMi2 +2Ti2
7€+BHK2Mi2- T2`Q [m2 MQ 2bi€ /2KQbi`/X S` /2KQbi``H +QMbii2@
KQb [m2 bBKmHi€M2K2Mi2 b2 +mKTH2M Hb /Qb BM+HmbBQM2b- Rf ⊂ R+0 v
R+0 ⊂ R f - v TQ` HQ iMiQ b2 +mKTH2 H B;mH// R f = R+
0 X

G T`BK2` BM+HmbBƦM 2b BMK2/Bi /2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2 f - Tm2b bmb BK€@

;2M2b bQM MȹK2`Qb H +m/`/Q Uf (x) = x2 V v TQ` HQ iMiQ MQ Tm2/2M
b2` MȹK2`Qb M2;iBpQbX S` +QMbii` H b2;mM/ BM+HmbBƦM b2 `2[mB2`2
+QKT`Q#` [m2 bB a 2b mM 2H2K2MiQ +mH[mB2` /2 R+ 0 2MiQM+2b a ∈ Rf - 2b
2
/2+B`- [m2 2tBbi2 x 2M R- iH [m2 f (x) = x = aX 1biQ 2b BMK2/BiQ- Tm2b
√
bB 2M H ȹHiBK 2+m+BƦM
√ 
b2 /2bT2D
 √ 
x- b2 iB2M2 [m2 x = ± a ∈ R = Df -
v b2 +mKTH2 [m2 f a = f − a = aX 1b /2+B` a ∈ Rf X
.2 +m2`/Q +QM H /2}MB+BƦM /2 f b2 Tm2/2 2b+`B#B` HQ bB;mB2Mi2,

f (−3) = (−3)2 = 9 = 32 = f (3).

√  √ 2
f 2 = 2 = 2,

v f (x) = 25 bB v bƦHQ bB x = 5 Q x = −5X

P#b2`p2 [m2 H 2+m+BƦM f (x) = −4 MQ iB2M2 bQHm+BƦMX 1b /2+B` [m2 MQ

2tBbi2M mM MȹK2`Q `2H x iH [m2 x2 = −4- Tm2b 2H +m/`/Q /2 iQ/Q
MȹK2`Q `2H 2b MQ M2;iBpQX 1biQ iK#BûM b2 Tm2/2 BMi2`T`2i` /B+B2M/Q
[m2 −4 ∈/ Rf X
1b +QMp2MB2Mi2 Q#b2`p` [m2 MQ iQ/ `2;H /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B 2Mi`2
2H2K2MiQb /2 /Qb +QMDmMiQb /2}M2 mM 7mM+BƦMX
bő TQ` 2D2KTHQ- bB  +/ x 2M R+ H2 ?+2KQb +Q``2bTQM/2` HQb y 2M R
iH2b [m2 y 2 = x- 2bi H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B MQ /2}M2 mM 7mM+BƦM /2
R+ 2M RX 1M 272+iQ- T` /2i2`KBM` [m2 pHQ`2b /2 y 2bi€M bQ+B/Qb
+QM +/ x 2M R+ - b2 `2[mB2`2 /2bT2D` y /2 H 2+m+BƦM y 2 = xX a2 iB2M2
6Q`Kb /2 `2T`2b2Mi` 7mM+BQM2b RdR

√
[m2 y = ± xX 1biQ [mB2`2 /2+B` [m2  +/ x +Q``2bTQM/2 K€b /2 mM
BK;2M- TQ` 2D2KTHQ-  x = 1 H2 +Q``2bTQM/2`őM y = 1 v y = −1X P b2
[m2 MQ +mKTH2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2 7mM+BƦMX

+iBpB// 8XkXR,
1M HQb HK+2M2b- Q- +2Mi`Qb +QK2`+BH2b- 2b +QKȹM 2M+QMi`` Q72`ib 2M Hb
+QKT`b /2 HQb `iő+mHQb [m2 Q7`2+2MX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- 2M mM +2Mi`H KvQ`Bbi
/2 HBK2MiQb-  mM i2M/2`Q H2 ?+2M H bB;mB2Mi2 Q72`i 2M H p2Mi /2
iQKi2b, bB +QKT` ?bi 80kg- 2H pHQ` /2H kg b2`€ /2 $2150X aB +QKT`
2Mi`2 80kg v ?bi 120kg- 2H pHQ` /2H kg /BbKBMmv2  $1800- T2`Q bB +QKT`
K€b /2 120kg- 2H pHQ` /2H kg #D  $1500X

RX *QKTH2i2 H bB;mB2Mi2 i#H- #b€M/Qb2 2M H H2+im` Mi2`BQ`,

*MiB// /2 iQKi2b UkgV S`2+BQ UkgV S`2+BQ iQiH

50
150,5
90
20,3
100
120,5
130
20,05
145
28

kX ǯ1tBbi2M mM +MiB// /2 iQKi2b U2M kg.V K2MQ` [m2 150kg v mM
+MiB// KvQ`- [m2 i2M;M 2H KBbKQ T`2+BQ\

jX aB 2H i2M/2`Q /BbTQM2 /2 $200000- ǯ[mû QT+BƦM /2 +QKT` H2 `2+QK2M@

/`őM\

8Xj 6Q`Kb /2 `2T`2b2Mi` 7mM+BQM2b

Jm+?b p2+2b 2b ȹiBH `2+QMQ+2` Hb /Bp2`bb KM2`b 2M Hb [m2 b2 Tm2/2M `2T`2b2M@
i` Hb 7mM+BQM2bX  +QMiBMm+BƦM /2b+`B#B`2KQb Hb `2T`2b2Mi+BQM2b K€b mbmH2b
 T`iB` /2 H;mMQb 2D2KTHQbX
Rdk 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

_2T`2b2Mi+BƦM H;2#`B+
*mM/Q b2 T`2b2MiM 2M 7Q`K /2 2+m+BQM2b +QM p`B#H2b `2H2bX 1M 2bi2 +bQ b2
+QbimK#`  /2bT2D` H p`B#H2 y v b2 /2i2`KBM bB 2b 7mM+BƦM /2 H p`B#H2 xX
*QMbB/2`2KQb Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2+m+BQM2b,

RX y 3 − x − 1 = 0X

kX y 2 + x2 − 4 = 0X
√
jX y = ± x + 9X

9X y = 2x − 5X

1M 2bi2 +bQ- HQb MmK2`H2b

√ k v j MQ +Q``2bTQM/2M  7mM+BQM2bX S` 2H MmK2`H
R b2 iB2M2 [m2 f (x) = 3 x + 1 v T` 9- f (x) = 2x − 5X

_2T`2b2Mi+BƦM b;BiH
1bi `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM b2 / +mM/Q b2 /2}M2M Hb 7mM+BQM2b miBHBxM/Q ~2+?b [m2
mM2M Hb p`B#H2b `2H+BQM/bX a2 miBHBxM 2M 2H +bQ /2 7mM+BQM2b +QM /QKBMBQ
}MBiQX o2KQb H;mMQb 2D2KTHQb,

a2M A = {a, b, c, d} v B = {1, 2, 3, 4}X

RX G `2H+BƦM /2}MB/ TQ` 2H /B;`K,

a R

b k

c j

d 9

+Q``2bTQM/2  mM 7mM+BƦM 2M H +mH f (a) = 4- f (b) = 2- f (c) = 1 v

f (d) = 4X 1M 2bi2 +bQ Df = {a, b, c, d} v Rf = {1, 2, 4}X

kX G `2H+BƦM /2}MB/ TQ` 2H /B;`K,

6Q`Kb /2 `2T`2b2Mi` 7mM+BQM2b Rdj

a R

b k

c j

d 9

MQ 2b mM 7mM+BƦM Tm2biQ [m2 2H 2H2K2MiQ a MQ 2bi€ `2H+BQM/Q +QM MBM;ȹM

2H2K2MiQc MQ iB2M2 BK;2MX

jX G `2H+BƦM /2}MB/ TQ` 2H /B;`K,

a R

b k

c j

d 9

MQ 2b 7mM+BƦM Tm2b 2H 2H2K2MiQ d iB2M2 /Qb BK€;2M2b- 3 v 4X

_2T`2b2Mi+BƦM i#mH`
*mM/Q b2 T`2b2MiM HQb pHQ`2b +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b  i`pûb /2 i#Hb,
h#H R h#H k h#H j
A B A B A B
y y a 9 R8 RXe8
R k b k jy RXd
k 9 c 9 9j RX3
j e d e 9j RXd8
9 3 e 3
GQb /iQb +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b  Hb i#Hb R v k /2}M2M mM 7mM+BƦM /2 HQb `2bT2+iBpQb
/QKBMBQb- Tm2b  +/ 2H2K2MiQ /2H +QMDmMiQ A H2 +Q``2bTQM/2 mM bƦHQ /iQ /2H
+QMDmMiQ BX G i#H j- 2M H +mH b2 `2H+BQMM Hb 2//2b U2M ƢQbV v Hb 2biim`b
U2M K2i`QbV- MQ `2T`2b2Mi mM 7mM+BƦM Tm2biQ [m2 H 9j H2 +Q``2bTQM/2M /Qb
pHQ`2bc 2b +H`Q [m2 2biQ 2b +QM;`m2Mi2 +QM H `2HB// v [m2 b#2KQb [m2 /Qb
BM/BpB/mQb /2 9j ƢQb Tm2/2M i2M2` /B72`2Mi2 2biim`X
Rd9 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

_2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2 T`2b Q`/2M/Qb /2}MB/Qb

a2M X = {a, b, c, d} v Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}X *QMbB/2`2KQb HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb
/2 T`2Db,

RX A = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (d, 5)}X

kX B = {(a, 5), (a, 1), (b, 3), (c, 5), (d, 4)}X

jX C = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (d, 4)}X

9X D = {(a, 4), (b, 4), (c, 4), (d, 4)}X

A v D `2T`2b2MiM 7mM+BQM2b /2H +QMDmMiQ x 2M 2H +QMDmMiQ y- KB2Mi`b [m2 B v

C MQX LQi2 [m2 B MQ 2b 7mM+BƦM Tm2b 2H 2H2K2MiQ a i2M/`ő /Qb BK€;2M2b- HQ +mH
2bi€ 2M +QMi` /2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2 7mM+BƦMX C MQ 2b 7mM+BƦM TQ`[m2 2H 2H2K2MiQ c
/2H /QKBMBQ MQ iB2M2 BK;2Mc bBM 2K#`;Q- bB iQKKQb ?Q` 2H +QMDmMiQ X  =
{a, b, d} +QKQ /QKBMBQ v 2H KBbKQ +Q/QKBMBQ Y - C `2T`2b2Mi`ő mM 7mM+BƦMX .2
2bi KM2`- H `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2 mM 7mM+BƦM TQ` K2/BQ /2 T`2b Q`/2M/Qb- MQ
2b 2M bő KBbK +QKTH2i- 2b M2+2b`BQ T`2+Bb` 2H /QKBMBQX

_2T`2b2Mi+BƦM /2 T`2b Q`/2M/Qb TQ` +QKT`2MbBƦM

amTQM;KQb [m2 X = Y = R U+QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2bV- v +QMbB/2`2KQb
HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +QMDmMiQb /2 T`2Db /2}MB/b b2;ȹM H H2v 2bi#H2+B/,

RX A = {(x, y) : y = 3x}X

kX B = {(x, y) : y = x2 }X
 
1
jX C = (x, y) : y = X
x
9X D = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0}X

aQHK2Mi2 A v B `2T`2b2MiM 7mM+BQM2bX C MQ `2T`2b2Mi mM 7mM+BƦM Tm2biQ [m2

MQ 2tBbi2 MBM;mM T`2D [m2 i2M; +QKQ T`BK2` +QKTQM2Mi2 2H MȹK2`Q `2H 0-
2biQ b2 /2#2 H QT2`+BƦM 1/0 MQ 2bi€ /2}MB/X D MQ 2b 7mM+BƦM Tm2b Hb T`2Db
(0, 1) v (0, −1) +mKTH2M +QM H T`QTB2// 2tB;B/- HQ +mH bB;MB}+`ő [m2 2H 0
i2M/`ő /Qb BK€;2M2bX

_2T`2b2Mi+BƦM +`i2bBM
lM THMQ +`i2bBMQ 2bi€ 7Q`K/Q TQ` /Qb `2+ib T2`T2M/B+mH`2b 2Mi`2 bő- /2MQ@
KBM/Qb 2D2b +QQ`/2M/QbX H 2D2 ?Q`BxQMiH b2 H2 /2MQKBM 2D2 /2 Hb #b+Bbb v
+/ mMQ /2 bmb TmMiQb b2 bBK#QHBx TQ` H H2i` xX H 2D2 p2`iB+H b2 H2 /2MQKBM
2D2 /2 Hb Q`/2M/b v +/ mMQ /2 bmb TmMiQb b2 bBK#QHBx TQ` H H2i` yX 1M 2H
6Q`Kb /2 `2T`2b2Mi` 7mM+BQM2b Rd8

2D2 /2 Hb #b+Bbb b2 `2T`2b2Mi H p`B#H2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2 v 2M 2H 2D2 /2 Hb Q`/2@

M/b H p`B#H2 /2T2M/B2Mi2X 1M iû`KBMQb ;2M2`H2b- H T`2D (x0 , y0 ) ∈ R2 2bi€
/2i2`KBM/ TQ` mM ȹMB+Q TmMiQ P 2M 2H THMQ +`i2bBMQc `2+őT`Q+K2Mi2- //Q
mM TmMiQ 2M 2H THMQ +`i2bBMQ- b2 H2 Tm2/2 /QTi` mM ȹMB+ T`2D (x0 , y0 ) /2
MȹK2`Qb `2H2bX
2D2 y

P = (x0 , y0 )
y0 

2D2 x
x0

G `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM +`i2bBM T2`KBi2 2bi#H2+2` H ;`€}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f - [m2

+Q``2bTQM/2 ;2QKûi`B+K2Mi2  mM +m`p- 2M 2H +bQ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2bX ./ mM
7mM+BƦM f : X ⊂ R −→ R- /2}MBKQb H ;`€}+ /2 f +QKQ 2H +QMDmMiQ,

:` f = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : y = f (x) T` H;ȹM x ∈ Df }.

1M 2H THMQ +`i2bBMQ H ;`€}+ /2 f Tm2/2 b2` `2T`2b2Mi/ TQ`,

y = f (x)
 
f (x0 ) 
x0 , f (x0 )

x
x0

hQ/ `2H+BƦM /2 R 2M R iB2M2 mM `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM ;`€}+ +`i2bBMX lM

KM2` BMimBiBp /2 /2i2`KBM` +mM/Q mM ;`€}+ 2M 2H THMQ +`i2bBMQ +Q``2b@
TQM/2  mM 7mM+BƦM 2b i`xM/Q `2+ib T`H2Hb H 2D2 y- v bB H;mM /2 2HHb
iQ+  H ;`€}+ 2M K€b /2 mM TmMiQ- 2MiQM+2b MQ +Q``2bTQM/2  mM 7mM+BƦM- 2b
HQ [m2 b2 +QMQ+2 +QKQ H T`m2# /2 H p2`iB+HX
Rde 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

8XjXR 1D2KTHQX

RX hQK2KQb X = Y = [−2, 2 ]X G bB;mB2Mi2 ;`€}+ +`i2bBM +Q``2bTQM/2

 mM 7mM+BƦMX
y

2
x
−2

−2

kX hQK2KQb X = [−2, 2 ] v Y = RX G bB;mB2Mi2 ;`€}+ MQ +Q``2bTQM/2

 H ;`€}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM- Tm2b ?v TmMiQb /2H /QKBMBQ  HQb [m2 H2b
+Q``2bTQM/2 K€b /2 mM BK;2MX P#b2`p2 [m2 H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM
2b BMi2`b2+i/ TQ` mM `2+i 2M /Qb TmMiQbX 1biQ BM/B+ [m2 mM TmMiQ
/2H /QKBMBQ i2M/`ő /Qb BK€;2M2b- HQ +mH MQ biBb7+2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2
7mM+BƦMX
y

−2
x
2

jX a2 f (x) = 2- mM 7mM+BƦM +QMbiMi2 T` iQ/Q MȹK2`Q `2H xX GQb
TmMiQb /2 H ;`€}+ bQM (x, 2)X G ;`€}+ 2b mM `2+i ?Q`BxQMiH [m2
BMi2`b2+ H 2D2 y 2M 2H TmMiQ (0, 2)X
6Q`Kb /2 `2T`2b2Mi` 7mM+BQM2b Rdd

f (x) = 2

9X X = Y = RX G bB;mB2Mi2 ;`€}+ MQ +Q``2bTQM/2  H ;`€}+ /2 mM

7mM+BƦM- Tm2b ?v 2H2K2MiQb /2H /QKBMBQ bBM BK;2MX

1 

    
x
1


8X A = B = RX G bB;mB2Mi2 ;`€}+ +Q``2bTQM/2  H ;`€}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦMDz

H +mH mbmHK2Mi2 b2 +QMQ+2 +QKQ mM 7mM+BQM /2}MB/  i`QxQbX

 



eX *QMbB/2`2KQb H 7mM+BƦM f (x) = xX GQb TmMiQb bQ#`2 bm ;`€}+ bQM /2H

iBTQ (x, x)X G T`BK2` +QQ`/2M/ /2#2 b2` B;mH  H b2;mM/X bő-
f (1) = 1 v f (−1) = −1X
Rd3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

f (x) = x

x
1

dX a2 f (x) = −x- H 7mM+BƦM [m2 bB;M  +/ MȹK2`Q `2H bm QTm2biQ-
HQ [m2 T2`KBi2 /2+B` [m2 +/ TmMiQ /2 +QQ`/2M/b (x, −x) 2bi€ 2M H
;`€}+ /2 f X
y

f (x) = −x

1
x

−1

3X a2 f (x) = x2 X G ;`€}+ +QMbi /2 iQ/Qb Hb T`2Db (x, x2 ) +QKQ (1, 1)-
(2, 4)- (−1, 1)- (3, 9)- (−3, 9)- 2i+X G ;`€}+ 2b H bB;mB2Mi2X

y
f (x) = x2

x
1 2
*€H+mHQ /2H /QKBMBQ v `M;Q /2 mM 7mM+BƦM RdN

8X9 *€H+mHQ /2H /QKBMBQ v `M;Q /2 mM 7mM+BƦM

LQ bB2KT`2 2H /QKBMBQ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM 2bi€ //Q /2 KM2` 2tTHő+BiX 1M Q+@
bBQM2b- +QMQ+2KQb H `2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 Hb p`B#H2b /2T2M/B2Mi2 2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2 
i`pûb /2 mM 2+m+BƦM- T2`Q b2 b#2 [m2 2H /QKBMBQ MQ +Q``2bTQM/2  H iQiHB@
// /2 HQb `2H2b Tm2biQ [m2 2tBbi2M pHQ`2b T` HQb +mH2b H 7mM+BƦM MQ 2bi`ő
/2}MB/X lM T`Q#H2K BMi2`2bMi2 2M 2biQb +bQb 2b 2H +€H+mHQ /2 /QKBMBQbX

8X9XR 1D2KTHQX
1
RX a2 f (x) = X
x

 +/ MȹK2`Q `2H x H2 ?+2 +Q``2bTQM/2` bm BMp2`bQX ./Q [m2

2H 0 2b 2H ȹMB+Q MȹK2`Q `2H [m2 MQ iB2M2 BMp2`bQ UMQ 2tBbi2 MBM;ȹM
MȹK2`Q `2H [m2 KmHiBTHB+/Q +QM 0 /2 1V- 2H /QKBMBQ /2 f bQM iQ/Qb
HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b /B72`2Mi2b /2 0X 1M T`iB+mH`-

1 √  1
f (1) = 1, f =2 v f 2 =√ .
2 2

Sm2biQ [m2 1/x 2b bB2KT`2 /B72`2Mi2 /2 +2`Q- 2H `M;Q /2 f 2b 2H

+QMDmMiQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b y = 0. bő TQ/2KQb /2+B` [m2

Df = R − {0} v Rf = R − {0}.

kX 1H T2`BK2i`Q /2 mM i`B€M;mHQ BbƦb+2H2b 2b jy+KX 1tT`2b2 2H €`2 /2

2bi2 i`B€M;mHQ 2M 7mM+BƦM /2H H/Q /2bB;mH v /2i2`KBM2 2H /QKBMBQX

x h x

*QKQ 2H T2`BK2i`Q 2b jy+K- 2MiQM+2b b2 iB2M2 [m2 2x + y = 30X

/2K€b- 2H €`2 /2 2bi2 i`B€M;mHQ 2bi€ // TQ`,
1
A = y · h.
2
R3y 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

Zm2`2KQb 2tT`2b` 2H €`2 2M 7mM+BƦM /2H H/Q /2bB;mH- 2b /+B`- 2M

7mM+BƦM /2 yX SQ` iMiQ- pKQb  +QMbB/2`` H KBi/ /2 2bi2 i`B€;mHQ
v ?`2KQb mbQ /2H i2Q`2K /2 TBi;Q`b T` 2M+QMi`` mM 7Ʀ`KmH
[m2 MQb T2`KBi 2tT`2b`  h 2M iû`KBMQb /2 yX o2KQb,
‰
2
y 2 2 y2
+ h = x =⇒ h = x2 − ,
2 4

2b /2+B`- ‰
1 y2
A= y· x2 − .
2 4
./Q [m2 2x + y = 30- 2MiQM+2b- H /2bT2D` x 2M iû`KBMQb /2 y b2
Q#iB2M2 x = 15 − y2 X bő-
‰
1 y y2
A(y) = y · (15 − )2 − ,
2 2 4
2biQ 2b-
1 
A(y) = y · 225 − 15y.
2
./Q [m2 2M R Hb `ő+2b MQ Tm2/2M i2M2` pHQ`2b M2;iBpQb- 2MiQM+2b
2H /QKBMBQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM 2bi€ //Q TQ` HQb pHQ`2b /2 y [m2 +mKTHM
H /2bB;mH// 225 − 15y ≥ 0-

225 − 15y ≥ 0 =⇒ 225 ≥ 15y =⇒ 15 ≥ y.

bő TQ/2KQb /2+B` [m2

DA = [0, 15].

+iBpB// 8X9XR,
*H+mH2 2H /QKBMBQ v 2H `M;Q /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 7mM+BQM2b,
√
RX g(x) = x + 2X 2x3 − 3
jX X
x−1

2 3−x
kX f (x) = √ + 1X 9X X
3−x x+2
6mM+BQM2b /2 p`B#H2 `2H, T`QTB2//2b v QT2`+BQM2b R3R

8X8 6mM+BQM2b /2 p`B#H2 `2H, T`QTB2//2b v

QT2`+BQM2b
1M 2bi mMB// MQb +2Mi``2KQb 2M 2H 2bim/BQ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+bX _2+Q`@
/2KQb [m2 mM 7mM+BƦM b2 HHK MmKû`B+ bB iMiQ bm /QKBMBQ +QKQ +Q/QKBMBQ
bQM +QMDmMiQb /2 MȹK2`Qb `2H2bX
1H +QM+2TiQ /2 7mM+BƦM- v K€b 2bT2+ő}+K2Mi2 2H /2 7mM+BƦM MmKû`B+- 2bi€
T`2b2Mi2 2M iQ/Qb HQb +TőimHQb [m2 ?2KQb 2bim/B/QX *mM/Q 2M 2H +TőimHQ j b2
?#H /2 pHQ`2b MmKû`B+Qb /2 2tT`2bBQM2b Ki2K€iB+b [m2 b2 /2i2`KBMM  T`iB`
HQb /2 pHQ`2b /2 Hb p`B#H2b- b2 2bi€ ?#HM/Q /2 mM +Q``2bTQM/2M+B [m2 /2}M2
mM 7mM+BƦM /2 pHQ` MmKû`B+Q- 2M mM Q 2M p`Bb p`B#H2b- +mvQb /QKBMBQb bQM HQb
/QKBMBQb /2 Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b Ki2K€iB+b +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2bX *QMb2+m2Mi2K2Mi2- H
+HbB}++BƦM [m2 /BKQb /2 /B+?b 2tT`2bBQM2b BM/m+2-  bm p2x- mM +HbB}++BƦM
bBKBH` 2M Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2}MB/b TQ` 2HHbX lM 7mM+BƦM /2 pHQ` MmKû`B+Q b2`€
H;2#`B+ Q i`b+2M/2Mi2 b2;ȹM [m2 2biû /2}MB/ TQ` mM 2tT`2bBƦM Ki2K€iB+
H;2#`B+ Q i`b+2M/2Mi2X  bm p2x- mM 7mM+BƦM H;2#`B+ b2`€ TQHBMƦKB+ bB 2bi€
/2}MB/ TQ` mM TQHBMQKBQ- `+BQMH bB 2bi€ /2}MB/ TQ` mM 2tT`2bBƦM H;2#`B+
`+BQMH- 2i+X aQM 2D2KTHQb /2 7mM+BQM2b H;2#`B+b-
√
f (x) = x3 + x − 1, f (x) = (x − 1)/(x + 1) v f (x) = x/(x + 1).

aQM 2D2KTHQb /2 7mM+BQM2b i`b+2M/2Mi2b-

f (x) = ex , f (x) = log x v f (x) = cos x.

1M K#Qb +bQb HQb /QKBMBQb 2bi€M /2i2`KBM/Qb TQ` HQb /QKBMBQb /2 /2}MB+BƦM
/2 Hb 2tT`2bBQM2b Ki2K€iB+b +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2bX

H;2#` /2 7mM+BQM2b
*QKQ ?2KQb /B+?Q Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2- Hb 7mM+BQM2b bQM Q#D2iQb Ki2K€iB+Qb [m2 b2
Tm2/2M +QK#BM` K2/BMi2 `2;Hb 2bT2+BH2b T` T`Q/m+B` Mm2pb 7mM+BQM2bX S`
Hb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b b2 Tm2/2M BMi`Q/m+B` iK#BûM ĿQT2`+BQM2b `BiKûiB+bŀ
[m2 T2`KBi2M ?#H` /2 bmK- KmHiBTHB++BƦM- 2i+X /2 7mM+BQM2bX 1bib QT2`+BQM2b
b2 /2}M2M /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`X a2M f v g /Qb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b +QM /QKBMBQ
+QKȹM DX

6mM+BƦM bmK, f + gX 1b H 7mM+BƦM /2}MB/ 2M 2H /QKBMBQ /2 f v g- +mv H2v

/2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B b2 2bi#H2+2 /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x).

LQ 2b /B7ő+BH p2` [m2 ûbi QT2`+BƦM /2 bmK iB2M2 Hb KBbKb T`QTB2//2b 7Q`KH2b
/2 H bmK 2Mi`2 MȹK2`Qb, bQ+BiBp- +QMKmiiBp- 2i+X 1M T`iB+mH`- 2H 2H2K2MiQ
R3k 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

M2mi`Q b2`€ H 7mM+BƦM 0 [m2  +/ x 2M 2H /QKBMBQ +QMbB/2`/Q bQ+B 2H pHQ`

+2`QX 1biQ 2b 0(x) = 0X *QMb2+m2Mi2K2Mi2- bB f 2b mM 7mM+BƦM MmKû`B+- H 7mM+BƦM
QTm2bi b2 Tm2/2 /2MQi` +QKQ −f v bm H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B 2bi`€ /2}MB/
TQ` H 2tT`2bBƦM (−f )(x) = −f (x)X

6mM+BƦM /B72`2M+B, f − gX *QKQ 2M 2H +bQ /2 HQb MȹK2`Qb- H `2bi 2Mi`2

7mM+BQM2b f − g b2 Tm2/2 +QMbB/2`` +QKQ mM +bQ T`iB+mH` /2 H bmK- /2}MB/
TQ` f − g = f + (−g)X a2 Tm2/2 /2}MB` iK#BûM +QKQ H 7mM+BƦM 2M 2H /QKBMBQ
+QKȹM /2 f v g- +mv H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B b2 2bi#H2+2 /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,
(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x).

6mM+BƦM T`Q/m+iQ, f gX 1b H 7mM+BƦM /2}MB/ 2M 2H /QKBMBQ +QKȹM /2 f v g-

+mv H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B b2 2bi#H2+2 /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x).
1bi QT2`+BƦM /2 KmHiBTHB++BƦM 2Mi`2 7mM+BQM2b ;Qx /2 H;mMb- T2`Q MQ /2
iQ/b- Hb T`QTB2//2b 7Q`KH2b /2 H KmHiBTHB++BƦM 2Mi`2 MȹK2`QbX

6mM+BƦM +Q+B2Mi2, f /gX 1bi QT2`+BƦM bmTQM2 [m2 g(x) = 0 T` iQ/Qb HQb x
/2H /QKBMBQ +QMbB/2`/QX 1M 2bi2 +bQ- H 7mM+BƦM +Q+B2Mi2 2b H 7mM+BƦM /2}MB/
2M 2H /QKBMBQ +QKȹM /2 f v g- +mv H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B b2 2bi#H2+2 /2 H
bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,
f f (x)
(x) = .
g g(x)
1bi QT2`+BƦM b2 TQ/`ő THMi2` +QKQ 2M H /BpBbBƦM 2Mi`2 MȹK2`Qb- v /2 KM2`
bBKBH`  H bmK- +QKQ mM +bQ T`iB+mH` /2 H KmHiBTHB++BƦMX

1b +QKȹM 2M+QMi`` 7mM+BQM2b [m2 b2 T`2b2MiM +QKQ cf - f ± c v (1/c)f -

bB2M/Q c mM +QMbiMi2X 1bib 7mM+BQM2b bQM- 2M `2HB//- `2bmHi/Qb T`iB+mH`2b
/2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 7mM+BQM2b /2}MB/b Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2- 2M HQb +mH2b mM /2
Hb 7mM+BQM2b BMpQHm+`/b- 2b +QMbiMi2X "bi iQK` 2M Hb /2}MB+BQM2b //b
g(x) = c- T` iQ/Q x 2b 2H /QKBMBQ +QKȹMX
1b BKTQ`iMi2 /2bi+` [m2 Hb QT2`+BQM2b [m2 ?2KQb /2}MB/Q- mM[m2 b2
TQvM 2M Hb QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 MȹK2`Qb- bQM QT2`+BQM2b 2Mi`2 7mM+BQM2b- [m2
bQM Q#D2iQb Ki2K€iB+Qb /BbiBMiQb /2 HQb MȹK2`QbX SQ` HQ iMiQ- bő +QKQ ?@
#HKQb [m2 HQb +QMDmMiQb /2 MȹK2`Qb i2MőM mM 2bi`m+im` H;2#`B+- TQ/2KQb
}`K` [m2 +B2`iQb +QMDmMiQb /2 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b b2 Tm2/2M /Qi` iK#BûM
/2 mM 2bi`m+im` H;2#`B+X

liBHBxM/Q Hb /2}MB+BQM2b [m2 ?2KQb //Q- mM 7mM+BƦM /2i2`KBM/ b2 Tm2/2
KB`` +QKQ 2H `2bmHi/Q /2 +QK#BM` H;2#`B+K2Mi2 p`Bb 7mM+BQM2bX
6mM+BQM2b /2 p`B#H2 `2H, T`QTB2//2b v QT2`+BQM2b R3j

8X8XR 1D2KTHQX

RX aB h(x) = (x2 + x)/(x + 1) b2 TQ/`ő T2Mb`- TQ` 2D2KTHQ- [m2 h =

(h1 + h2 )/(h3 ) /QM/2 h1 (x) = x2 - h2 (x) = x v h3 (x) = x + 1- 2M 2H
/QKBMBQ R − {−1}X .2 KM2` `2+őT`Q+ bB f (x) = ex v g(x) = x2 - H
7mM+BƦM h = gf 2bi`€ /2}MB/ TQ` H 2tT`2bBƦM h(x) = x2 ex X

kX
1 1
f (x) = − 2x2 + 1 g(x) = − − 1,
x x

1 1
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = − 2x2 + 1 − − 1 = −2x2 ,
x x
1 1 2
(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) = − 2x + 1 − ( − 1) = − 2x2 + 2,
2
x x x
1 2
(f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x) = − 2 − + 2x2 + 2x − 1.
x x

*QKTQbB+BƦM /2 7mM+BQM2b
./b /Qb 7mM+BQM2b f v g TQ/2KQb Q#i2M2` mM Mm2p 7mM+BƦM h +QK#BMM/Q
2bib /Qb 7mM+BQM2b /2 iH 7Q`K [m2  mM pHQ` T`iB+mH` /2H /QKBMBQ /2 f - +mv
BK;2M 2b f (x) H2 THB+KQb g- b2;ȹM H bB;mB2Mi2 /2}MB+BƦM,

8X8Xk .2}MB+BƦMX U6mM+BƦM +QKTm2biV

a2M g v f /Qb 7mM+BQM2b- H 7mM+BƦM +QKTm2bi /2 g v f b2 /2}M2 +QKQ H
7mM+BƦM h T` H +mHc

h(x) = g(f (x))

G 7mM+BƦM h b2 /2MQKBM f +QKTm2bi g- v b2 /2MQi +QKQ g ◦ f

f g

• • •
x f (x) = y g(f (x))

S` [m2 g(f (x)) i2M; b2MiB/Q 2b M2+2b`BQ [m2 HQb pHQ`2b f (x) T2`i2M2x+M H
/QKBMBQ /2 gX .2 2bi 7Q`K- 2H /QKBMQ /2 g ◦ f +Q``2bTQM/2`€ H +QMDmMiQ,
R39 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

Dg◦f = {x ∈ Df : f (x) ∈ Dg }

+iBpB// 8X8XR,
*QM mM /B;`K bBKBH` H Mi2`BQ`- /2}M mbi2/ f ◦ g v /2i2`KBM2 Df ◦g X

8X8Xj 1D2KTHQX a2M f (x) = x + 3 v g(x) = x3 - 2MiQM+2b, Sm2biQ [m2

Df = R v T` iQ/Q x- g(f (x)) b2 Tm2/2 +H+mH`- i2M2KQb [m2 Dg◦f = RX
 
(g ◦ f )(x) = g f (x) = g(x + 3) = (x + 3)3 .
 
.2 2bi KM2`- (g ◦ f )(3) = g f (3) = g(3 + 3) = 63 = 216.

SQ` Qi`Q H/Q- Dg = R v T` iQ/Q x- f (g(x)) b2 Tm2/2 +H+mH`- i2M2KQb

[m2 Df ◦g = RX
 
(f ◦ g)(x) = f g(x) = f (x3 ) = x3 + 1.
 
.2 2bi KM2`- (f ◦ g)(3) = (f g(3) ) = f (27) = 27 + 3X

+iBpB// 8X8Xk,
./b Hb 7mM+BQM2b,
1 1
f (x) = v g(x) = √
x2 x−2
RX *H+mH HQb /QKBMBQb v `M;Qb /2 f v g.

kX .2i2`KBM- f ◦ g v g ◦ f, +mM/Q b2 TQbB#H2X

jX *H+mH (f ◦ g)(−2)- (f ◦ g)(2) v (f ◦ g)(5)X

8Xe *Hb2b /2 7mM+BQM2b

a2 f : A −→ B mM 7mM+BƦM `#Bi``B v b2 Rf bm `M;QX

6mM+BQM2b bQ#`2v2+iBpb
SQ` /2}MB+BƦM- 2H `M;Q Rf 2b mM bm#+QMDmMiQ /2H +Q/QKBMBQ B (Rf ⊂ B)X *mM/Q
2H `M;Q +QBM+B/2 TH2MK2Mi2 +QM 2H +Q/QKBMBQ (Rf = B)- b2 /B+2 [m2 f 2b bQ#`2@
v2+iBpX 1M Qi`b TH#`b- mM 7mM+BƦM f 2b bQ#`2v2+iBp +mM/Q iQ/Q 2H2K2MiQ
*Hb2b /2 7mM+BQM2b R38

/2H +Q/QKBMBQ 2b BK;2M /2 H;ȹM 2H2K2MiQ 2M 2H /QKBMBQX aBK#ƦHB+K2Mi2

 
f 2b bQ#`2v2+iBp ←→ ∀y ∈ B ∃x ∈ A y = f (x) .

6mM+BQM2b BMv2+iBpb
G /2}MB+BƦM /2 f +QKQ 7mM+BƦM 2t+Hmv2 [m2 Tm2/ 2tBbiB` mM 2H2K2MiQ x 2M 2H
/QKBMBQ +QM /Qb Q K€b BK€;2M2b 2M 2H +Q/QKBMBQ- 2biQ 2b- [m2 2tBbiM 2H2K2MiQb
y1 v y2 (y1 = y2 ) 2M B iH2b [m2 y1 = f (x) v y2 = f (x)X LQ 2t+Hmv2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2
7mM+BƦM- bBM 2K#`;Q- [m2 Tm2/M 2tBbiB` 2H2K2MiQb /B72`2Mi2b 2M A- /B;KQb x1
v x2 - [m2 i2M;M H KBbK BK;2M y 2M B- 2b /2+B`- iH2b [m2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = yX
Gb 7mM+BQM2b 2M Hb [m2 2bi bBim+BƦM MQ b2 T`2b2Mi b2 HHKM BMv2+iBpb Q mMQ
 mMQX 1M Qi`b TH#`b- mM 7mM+BƦM 2b BMv2+iBp +mM/Q 2H2K2MiQb /B72`2Mi2b
2M 2H /QKBMBQ iB2M2M BK€;2M2b /B72`2Mi2b 2M 2H `M;QX aBK#ƦHB+K2Mi2
 
f 2b BMv2+iBp ←→ ∀x1 , x2 ∈ Df x1 = x2 −→ f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) .

1tT`2bBƦM [m2 iK#BûM b2 Tm2/2 2b+`B#B` 2[mBpH2Mi2K2Mi2 K2/BMi2 2H mbQ /2 H

T`QTQbB+BƦM +QMi``2+őT`Q+ 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 7Q`KX
 
f 2b BMv2+iBp ←→ ∀x1 , x2 ∈ Df f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) −→ x1 = x2 .

6mM+BQM2b #Bv2+iBpb
*mM/Q mM 7mM+BƦM 2b BMv2+iBp v bQ#`2v2+iBp b2 /B+2 [m2 2b #Bv2+iBpX 1M 2H
+TBimHQ Mi2`BQ`- ?#HKQb /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B #BmMőpQ+ 2Mi`2 +QMDmMiQb +QQ`@
/BM#H2bX 1bi +Q``2bTQM/2M+B b2 Tm2/2 pBbmHBx` +QKQ mM 7mM+BƦM #Bv2+iBpX
LQ 2b /B7ő+BH p2` [m2 bB 2Mi`2 HQb +QMDmMiQb X v Y 2tBbi2 mM +Q``2bTQM/2M+B
#BmMőpQ+- 2bi +Q``2bTQM/2M+B /2}M2 mM 7mM+BƦM #Bv2+iBp /2 X 2M Y X _2+ő@
T`Q+K2Mi2- H KM2` /2 2bi#H2+2` mM +Q``2bTQM/2M+B #BmMőpQ+ 2Mi`2 /Qb
+QMDmMiQb X 2 Y - /2 b2` TQbB#H2- 2b /2}MB2M/Q mM 7mM+BƦM #Bv2+iBp /2 X 2M Y X

8XeXR 1D2KTHQX

RX aB X = {1, 2, 3}- Y = {a, b, c, d} v /2}MBKQb f : X −→ Y iH

[m2 f (1) = b = f (2)- f (3) = aX *H`K2Mi2 f MQ 2b BMv2+iBp
MB bQ#`2v2+iBpX aBM 2K#`;Q- bB /2}MBKQb f (1) = a- f (2) = b- v
f (3) = c 2MiQM+2b f 2b BMv2+iBp K€b MQ bQ#`2v2+iBpX ǯSQ/`őKQb
/2}MB` f : X −→ Y [m2 b2 bQ#`2v2+iBp\

kX G 7mM+BƦM f (x) = x2 /2}MB/ bQ#`2 HQb `2H2b MQ 2b BMv2+iBp Tm2biQ

[m2 2 = −2- v bBM 2K#`;Q- f (2) = f (−2)X Sm2biQ [m2 2H `M;Q /2
H 7mM+BƦM Rf = {y : 0 ≤ y} MQ 2b iQ/Q R- 2MiQM+2b f iKTQ+Q 2b
bQ#`2v2+iBpX
R3e 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

jX G 7mM+BƦM HBM2H- f (x) = mx + b (m = 0) 2b BMv2+iBp v bQ#`2v2+iBp-

TQ` HQ iMiQ 2b #Bv2+iBpX Sm2biQ [m2 bB x1 = x2 2MiQM+2b i2M/`őKQb
[m2 mx1 + b = mx2 + b- Q b2 [m2 f (x1 ) = f (x2 )- 2biQ BKTHB+ [m2 f
2b BMv2+iBpX SQ` Qi`Q H/Q bB y 2b +mH[mB2` MȹK2`Q `2H M2+2bBiKQb
T`Q#` [m2 2tBbi2 mM x `2H iH [m2 f (x) = y- 2biQ 2[mBpH2  `2bQHp2`
H 2+m+BƦM mx + b = yc `2bQHpB2M/Q Q#i2M2KQb mx = y − b v Tm2biQ
[m2 m = 0- ?HHKQb [m2 x = (y − b)/m- bő f 2b bQ#`2v2+iBp v TQ`
HQ iMiQ #Bv2+iBpX

6mM+BQM2b BMp2`bb
>2KQb /B+?Q [m2 mM 7mM+BƦM 2b mM H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B 2Mi`2 HQb 2H2K2MiQb
/2 mM +QMDmMiQ A v HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 mM +QMDmMiQ BX 1M 2bi /2}MB+BƦM 2H Q`/2M 2M
[m2 b2 +QMbB/2`M HQb +QMDmMiQb MQ b2 Tm2/2 KQ/B}+` v TQ` 2HHQ iQKM MQK#`2b
/BbiBMiQbX a2 TQ/`ő T2Mb`- bBM 2K#`;Q- [m2 bB f 2b mM 7mM+BƦM /2 A 2M B- H
2tBbiB` mM H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B [m2 bQ+B  +/ x 2M A mM 2H2K2MiQ y 2M B-
v K€b 2bT2+ő}+K2Mi2 2M 2H `M;Q Rf - b2 TQ/`ő mb` 2b KBbK +Q``2bTQM/2M+B
2M b2MiB/Q +QMi``BQ- 2b /2+B`- BMpB`iBûM/QH- T` 2bi#H2+2` mM +Q``2bTQM/2M+B
2Mi`2 HQb 2H2K2MiQb /2 Rf - [m2 ?Q` b2`ő 2H /QKBMBQ /2 H `2H+BƦM v 2H2K2M@
iQb /2 A [m2 ?Q` b2`ő 2H +Q/QKBMBQ v `M;Q /2 H Mm2p H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+BX

1M `2HB// /B+? +Q``2bTQM/2M+B BMp2`b b2 Tm2/2 Q#i2M2`- +QKQ b2 pBbmHBx

2M H ;`€}+ bB;mB2Mi2- T2`Q MQ M2+2b`BK2Mi2 /2}M2 mM 7mM+BƦM Tm2b 2M 2H +bQ
/2 7mM+BQM2b [m2 MQ bQM BMv2+iBpb mM 2H2K2MiQ /2H Mm2pQ /QKBMBQ TQ/`ő i2M2`
K€b /2 mM BK;2MX

f
•
• • •
•
Lm2p
+Q``2bTQM/2M+BX

G Mm2p +Q``2bTQM/2M+B
MQ M2+2b`BK2Mi2 /2}M2
mM 7mM+BƦMX

_2bmHi +H`Q BMimBiBpK2Mi2- TQ` HQ iMiQ- [m2 bQHQ 2M 2H +bQ /2 7mM+BQM2b

BMv2+iBpb- H H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B [m2 b2 Q#iB2M2 /2 BMp2`iB` 2H b2MiB/Q /2 H
H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B /2 f - /2}M2 mM 7mM+BƦMX 1bi 7mM+BƦM iQK 2H MQK#`2
/2 7mM+BƦM BMp2`b /2 f X aB H /2MQiKQb +QM g- bm H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B `2@
bmHi /2}MB/- +QMb2+m2Mi2K2Mi2- 2M iû`KBMQb /2 f - /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`, x
*Hb2b /2 7mM+BQM2b R3d

2b H BK;2M /2 y b2;ȹM g Ux = g(y)V- bB v bƦHQ bB y 2b H BK;2M /2 x b2;ȹM f

Uy = f (x)VX a2 +mKTH2 /2K€b- [m2 Dg = Rf v Df = Cg = Rg - HQ +mH 
T2`KBi2
+QMbB/2`` Hb 7mM+BQM2b +QKTm2bib

g ◦ f /2 A 2M A- iH [m2 g f (x) = x v f ◦g
/2 Rf 2M Rf iH [m2 f g(y) = yX

Gb +QMbB/2`+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b b2 Tm2/2M 7Q`KHBx` /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`X

8XeXk .2}MB+BƦMX U6mM+BƦM BMp2`bV

a2 f mM 7mM+BƦM /2 A 2M BX a2 Rf bm `M;QX 
a2 /B+2 [m2 f TQb22 BMp2`b
bB 2tBbi2

mM

7mM+BƦM g /2 R f 2M A iH [m2 g f (x) = x T` iQ/Q x 2M A-
v f g(y) = y T` iQ/Q y 2M Rf X aB 2tBbi2- g 2b ȹMB+ v TQ` HQ iMiQ b2
?#H /2 H 7mM+BƦM BMp2`b /2 f X

.2 2bi /2}MB+BƦM b2 Tm2/2 /2/m+B` [m2 mM 7mM+BƦM f iB2M2M BMp2`b bB v bQHQ bB
f 2b BMv2+iBpX

8XeXj 1D2KTHQX G 7mM+BƦM f (x) = x2 /2 R 2M R+ 0 MQ 2b BMv2+iBpX SQ` HQ

iMiQ- MQ TQb22 7mM+BƦM BMp2`bX aBM 2K#`;Q- bB +QMbB/2`KQb mM `2bi`B+@
+BƦM /2H /QKBMBQ  Df = R+ 0 - b#2KQb [m2 2b BMv2+iBpX H /2bT2D` x 2M
H 2tT`2bBƦM y = x2 MQb T2`KBi2 2M+QMi`` H 2tT`2bBƦM [m2 /2}M2 H H2v /2
√ √
+Q``2bTQM/2M+B /2 H BMp2`bX a2 iB2M2 x = y UǯSQ` [mû b2 QKBi2 − y\VX
√
*QKT`m2#2 [m2 H 7mM+BƦM g(y) = y +mKTH2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2 b2` 7mM+BƦM
BMp2`b /2 f.

1b BKTQ`iMi2 [m2 2H 2bim/BMi2 Tm2/ +QKT`2M/2` [m2 2H T`Q+2/BKB2MiQ b2;mB/Q

2M 2bi2 2D2KTHQ 2b- 2M `2HB//- 2H KBbKQ [m2 2H miBHBx/Q 2M H BHmbi`+BƦM /2H Mm@
K2`H RX 1M K#Qb +bQb b2 i`i /2 /2bT2D` x /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM [m2 b2 bBK#QHBx
+QKQ y = f (x) T` Q#i2M2` mM 2tT`2bBƦM x = g(y)- [m2 T2`KBi2 Q#i2M2` x 2M
iû`KBMQb /2 yX aQHQ [m2 2M 2H MmK2`H K2M+BQM/Q x 2 y `2T`2b2MiM MȹK2`Qb-
KB2Mi`b [m2 2H 2D2KTHQ T`2b2Mi2 `2T`2b2MiM T`2Db /2 MȹK2`QbX

h2`KBMKQb 2bi b2++BƦM +QM H bB;mB2Mi2 Q#b2`p+BƦM bQ#`2 MQi+BƦMX

P#b2`p+BƦM R9X 1b Kmv +QKȹM miBHBx` 2H bőK#QHQ f−1 T` /2MQi` H 7mM@
+BƦM BMp2`b

/2 f +mM/Q 2tBbi2X *QMb2+m2Mi2K2Mi2- f f −1 (y) = y- y ∈ Rf v
f −1 f (x) = x- x ∈ Df X *mM/Q b2 2M+m2Mi`2 +QM 2bi MQi+BƦM 2b BKTQ`iMi2
[m2 2H 2bim/BMi2 i2M; T`2b2Mi2 [m2 2H Ŀ−1 ŀ MQ b2 i`i /2 mM 2tTQM2Mi2 v [m2
MQ pv  +2` 2M H i2Mi+BƦM /2 2b+`B#B` f −1 (x) = 1/f (x)X
1b +QKȹM iK#BûM 2M+QMi`` 2M HB#`Qb /2 Ki2K€iB+b 2tT`2bBQM2b /2 H 7Q`K
f −1 (C) /QM/2 C 2b mM +QMDmMiQ 2M 2H +Q/QKBMBQ /2 f X 1M 2bi2 +bQ f −1 (C) b2
HHK BK;2M BMp2`b /2 C b2;ȹM f v b2 /2}M2 +QKQ
f −1 (C) = {x ∈ Df : f (x) ∈ C}.
R33 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

1M 2bi2 +QMi2tiQ- 2bi MQi+BƦM 2b THB+#H2  +mH[mB2` 7mM+BƦM ȹM bő MQ b2
BMv2+iBp v MQ /2#2 bQ+B`b2- TQ` HQ iMiQ- +QM mM bmTm2bi 7mM+BƦM BMp2`bX SQ`
2D2KTHQ- bB f (x) = x4 /2 R 2M R- b2 iB2M2 [m2,
   
f −1 [ 0, 1] = x ∈ R : f (x) = x4 ∈ [ 0, 1 ] ,
= {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x4 ≤ 1},
= [ −1, 1 ].
P#bû`p2b2 [m2 2M 2bi2 +bQ f MQ TQb22 BMp2`bX

+iBpB// 8XeXR,
2x + 5
a2 f (x) = -
x + 10
RX *H+mH f −1 U`2+m2`/ [m2 H 7mM+BƦM BMp2`b b2 Q#iB2M2 H 2b+`B#B` x
2M 7mM+BƦM /2 yVX

kX S`m2#2 [m2 (f ◦ f −1 )(x) = xX

H `2T`2b2Mi`H 2M 2H THMQ +`i2bBMQ Gf +QMbiBimv2 mM `2T`2b2Mi+BƦM BMimBiB@

p /2 H 7mM+BƦM f [m2 T2`KBi2 pBbmHBx` bm +QKTQ`iKB2MiQ Ki2K€iB+Q v- 2M
2bT2+BH- H 7Q`K +QKQ H p`B+BƦM /2 x Up`B#H2 BM/2T2M/B2Mi2V- 72+i H p@
`B+BƦM /2 y Up`B#H2 /2T2M/B2Mi2VX SQ` 2bi `xƦM- H ;`€}+ 2b mM BMbi`mK2MiQ
/2 ;`M miBHB// 2M 2H 2bim/BQ v THB++BƦM /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+bX

1b#Qx`2KQb  +QMiBMm+BƦM H;mMQb TbQb Q T`BM+BTBQb ȹiBH2b 2M H +QMbi`m++BƦM

/2 H ;`€}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦMX 1M HQ [m2 bB;m2- Gf b2 `2}2`2 H ;`€}+Q /2 mM
7mM+BƦM MmKû`B+ `#Bi``B f X AHmbi``2KQb- BMB+BHK2Mi2- iH2b T`BM+BTBQb /Bb+m@
iB2M/Q bBKmHi€M2K2Mi2 H +QMbi`m++BƦM /2 H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM- g(x) = |x|X

8Xd *`+i2`őbiB+b /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b `2H2b v bmb

;`€}+b
1tBbi2 mM `2H+BƦM /B`2+i 2Mi`2 H ;`€}+ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b v H;mMb T`QTB2//2b
MHőiB+b- iH2b +QKQ bBK2i`Bb v +Q`i2b +QM HQb 2D2bX 1H `2+QMQ+BKB2MiQ /2 2bib
T`QTB2//2b 7+BHBi 2H i`x/Q /2 Hb ;`€}+b /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2bX  bm p2x- 2H `2+Q@
MQ+BKB2MiQ /2 H ;`}+b /2 mM 7mM+BƦM T2`KBi2 /2i2`KBM` H;mMb T`QTB2//2b
MHőiB+bX

A/2MiB}++BƦM /2 bBK2i`őb
aBK2i`ő `2bT2+iQ H 2D2 vX G ;`€}+ Gf 2b bBKûi`B+ `2bT2+iQ H 2D2 y bB
//Q mM TmMiQ P (x, y)- `#Bi``BQ 2M Gf - 2H TmMiQ P (−x, y) iK#BûM 2bi€ 2M Gf
*`+i2`őbiB+b /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b `2H2b v bmb ;`€}+b R3N

Up2` H /Qb };m`b bB;mB2Mi2bVX Sm2biQ [m2 mM TmMiQ P (x, y) 2bi€ 2M H ;`€}+ /2
f bB v bQHQ bB y = f (x)- H /2}MB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2  /2+B` [m2- Gf 2b
bBKûi`B+ `2bT2+iQ H 2D2 y bB v bƦHQ bB f (x) = f (−x) T` iQ/Q x 2M 2H /QKBMBQ /2
f X aB Gf 2b bBKûi`B+ `2bT2+iQ H 2D2 y- #bi 2bim/B` H 7Q`K /2 Gf  H /2`2+?
y
P (−x, y) P (x, y)
 

x
−x x
6B;m` 8XRX SmMiQb bBKûi`B+Qb `2bT2+iQ H 2D2 yX

   
−x, f (−x)  
x, f (x)

x
−x x
6B;m` 8XkX SQ`+BƦM /2 ;`€}+ bBKûi`B+ `2bT2+iQ /2H 2D2 yX

UQ Bx[mB2`/V /2H 2D2 yX 1H `2biQ /2 H ;`€}+ b2 Tm2/2 Q#i2M2` TQ` bBK2i`őX aB

THB+KQb 2bi2 +`Bi2`BQ  Mm2bi`Q 2D2KTHQ /2 `272`2M+B b2 iB2M2

g(x) = |x| = |−x| = g(−x).

aBK2i`ő `2bT2+iQ /2H Q`B;2MX G ;`€}+ Gf 2b bBKûi`B+ `2bT2+iQ H Q`B;2M-

bB //Q mM TmMiQ `#Bi``BQ P (x, y) 2M Gf - 2H TmMiQ P (−x, −y) iK#BûM 2bi
2M Gf X 1M 2H H2M;mD2 7mM+BQMH 2biQ 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2  /2+B` [m2 Gf 2b bBKûi`B+
`2bT2+iQ H Q`B;2M bB v bƦHQ bB f (−x) = −f (x) T` iQ/Q x 2M 2H /QKBMBQ /2 f X
aB Gf 2b bBKûi`B+ `2bT2+iQ H Q`B;2M- #bi 2bim/B` H 7Q`K /2 Gf  H /2`2+?
Q H Bx[mB2`/ /2H Q`B;2MX 1H `2biQ /2 H ;`€}+ b2 Tm2/2 Q#i2M2` TQ` bBK2i`őX
1M 2H +bQ /2 Mm2bi`Q 2D2KTHQ /2 `272`2M+B MQ ?v bBK2i`ő `2bT2+iQ /2H Q`B;2M-
Tm2biQ [m2,
g(−x) = |−x| = |x| =  −g(x).

aBK2i`ő `2bT2+iQ H 2D2 xX G ;`€}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM MQ Tm2/2 b2` bBKûi`B+

`2bT2+iQ H 2D2 xX P#b2`p2- B;mHK2Mi2- [m2 mM 7mM+BƦM MQ Tm2/2 b2` bBKûi`B+
`2bT2+iQ H 2D2 y v `2bT2+iQ H Q`B;2M bBKmHi€M2K2Mi2X ǯSQ`[mû\
RNy 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

 
x, f (x)


−x
x
x
  

−x, f (−x)

6B;m` 8XjX SQ`+BƦM /2 ;`€}+ bBKûi`B+ `2bT2+iQ H Q`B;2MX

*Q`i2b +QM HQb 2D2b

*Q`i2b +QM 2H 2D2 xX S` +H+mH` HQb TQbB#H2b TmMiQb /2 +Q`i2 /2 Gf - +QM 2H
2D2 x- #bi /2i2`KBM` HQb x 2M Df - iH2b [m2 f (x) = 0X 1b /2+B`- bQM HQb TmMiQb
(x, 0) [m2 T2`i2M2+2M  H ;`€}+X 1M 2H 2D2KTHQ [m2 MQb Q+mT- g(x) = |x| = 0 bB
v bƦHQ bB x = 0X P b2- [m2 Gg +Q`i H 2D2 x 2M 2H Q`B;2MX

*Q`i2b +QM 2H 2D2 yX S` [m2 Gf +Q`i2 

2H 2D2 v- 2H 0 /2#2 T2`i2M2+2`  Df X
1H TmMiQ /2 +Q`i2 i2M/`€ +QQ`/2M/b 0, f (0) X 1M 2H 2D2KTHQ /2 `272`2M+B- 2H
TmMiQ /2 +Q`i2 +QM 2H 2D2 y b2 +QM7mM/2 +QM 2H TmMiQ /2 +Q`i2 +QM 2H 2D2 x- Tm2biQ
[m2 g(0) = |0| = 0X P b2 [m2 2H TmMiQ /2 +Q`i2 2b iK#BûM 2H Q`B;2MX
1b BKTQ`iMi2 Q#b2`p` [m2 KB2Mi`b HQb TmMiQb /2 +Q`i2 +QM 2H 2D2 x Tm2/2M
b2` K€b /2 mMQ- 2tBbi2-  HQ bmKQ- mM TmMiQ /2 +Q`i2 +QM 2H 2D2 yX

+iBpB// 8XdXR,
.2i2`KBM- bB Hb ?v- Hb bBK2i`őb v HQb TmMiQb /2 +Q`i2 +QM HQb 2D2b /2 Hb
;`€}+b /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 7mM+BQM2bX
√
RX f (x) = 4x2 − 2X jX h(x) = 25 − x2 X

kX g(x) = |x| − 2X 9X k(x) = x3 − x2 X

h#H /2 pHQ`2bX /B+BQMHK2Mi2  HQb TmMiQb /2 +Q`i2 +QM HQb 2D2b Tm2/2 b2`
ȹiBH /BbTQM2` /2 H;mMQb TmMiQb 2M Gf - T` HQ +mH 2b M2+2b`BQ +QMbi`mB` mM
i#H +QM Hb +QQ`/2M/b /2 iH2b TmMiQbX G i#H b2 +QMbi`mv2 /M/Q  x H;mMQb
pHQ`2b 2M 2H /QKBMBQ- +QMp2MB2Mi2K2Mi2 2b+Q;B/Qb- v +H+mHM/Q HQb pHQ`2b f (x)
+Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2bX 1M Mm2bi`Q 2D2KTHQ /2 `272`2M+B- +QKQ H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM
bBKûi`B+ `2bT2+iQ H 2D2 y- 2b bm}+B2Mi2 bB;M`  x pHQ`2b MQ@M2;iBpQbX
*`+i2`őbiB+b /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b `2H2b v bmb ;`€}+b RNR

x |x| 3 

0 0
1 1 2 

2 2
3 3 1 

4 4
x
1 2 3

G ;`€}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM mbmHK2Mi2 +QMiB2M2 BM}MBiQb TmMiQb- TQ` HQ [m2

mM i#H /2 pHQ`2b- bő b2 Kmv ;`M/2- +QMbiBimv2 mM vm/ Kmv T`2+`B 2M
H +QMbi`m++BƦM /2 H KvQ`ő /2 Hb ;`€}+bX aBM 2K#`;Q- H;mMb p2+2b- +QKQ 2M
2H 2D2KTHQ [m2 MQb Q+mT- 2b TQbB#H2 BMimB` H 7Q`K /2 H ;`€}+  T`iB` /2 mM
i#H #B2M +QMbi`mB/ v- TQ` HQ ;2M2`H- 2b 2biQ HQ [m2 b2 #mb+X o2KQb H;mMQb
2D2KTHQb /2H i`x/Q /2 ;`€}+bX

RX :`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM g(x) = |x|X

Sm2biQ [m2 |x| = |−x|- 2MiQM+2b g(x) = |x| 2b bBKûi`B+ +QM `2bT2+iQ H 2D2
yX *QKQ g(x) = |x| = 0- BKTHB+ x = 0- 2H ȹMB+Q TmMiQ /2 BMi2`+2T+BƦM HQb
2D2b +QQ`/2M/Qb 2b x = 0. .2 2bi 7Q`K- H ;`€7ő+ /2 2bi 7mM+őQM b2`€ H
bB;mB2Mi2,

y
g(x) = |x|

kX :`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM y = f (x) = x3 X

S` H /2i2`KBM+BƦM /2 bm ;`€}+ b2;mBKQb HQb TbQb 2b#Qx/Qb Mi2`BQ`@
K2Mi2X

aBK2i`őbX Sm2biQ [m2 y = f (−x) = (−x)3 = −x3 = −f (x)- b2 /2/m+2 /2

BMK2/BiQ [m2 H 7mM+BƦM MQ 2b bBKûi`B+ `2bT2+iQ H 2D2 y T2`Q HQ 2b `2bT2+iQ
H Q`B;2MX
RNk 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

SmMiQb /2 +Q`i2 +QM HQb 2D2bX Sm2biQ [m2 f (x) = x3 = 0 bB v bƦHQ bB

x = 0- b2 +QM+Hmv2 [m2 HQb TmMiQb /2 +Q`i2 +QM HQb 2D2b +QQ`/2M/Qb +QBM+B@
/2M v 2bi€M 2M 2H Q`B;2MX

h#H /2 pHQ`2bX G bBK2i`ő /2 H 7mM+BƦM `2bT2+iQ H Q`B;2M T2`KBi2

`2/m+B` 2H 2bim/BQ /2 H ;`€}+ T` pHQ`2b /2 x  H /2`2+? /2H Q`B;2M-
BM+HmvûM/QHQ Up2` H bB;mB2Mi2 i#H v H };m` +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2VX
y
8 

x f (x) = x3
0 0
0,75 0,422
1 1
2 8
3 37
1 

x
0 1 2


P#b2`p2KQb [m2 H +`2+2` x- f (x) = x3 +`2+2 Kmv `€TB/K2Mi2- TQ` HQ [m2

2b M2+2b`BQ miBHBx` mM 2b+H K€b `2/m+B/X GQb TmMiQb +QMbB;M/Qb 2M H
};m` Mi2`BQ` v H bBK2i`ő `2bT2+iQ H Q`B;2M- bm;B2`2M [m2 H 7Q`K /2 H
;`€}+ 2b H [m2 b2 BM/B+ 2M H };m` bB;mB2Mi2X

y
f (x) = x3


−3, bB x < −2-
jX :`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM y = f (x) =
[x], bB −2 ≤ xX
*`+i2`őbiB+b /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b `2H2b v bmb ;`€}+b RNj

.QM/2 [x] b2 bm2H2 MQK#`` +QKQ ĿKvQ` 2Mi2`Q +QMi2MB/Q 2M xŀX SQ` /2@
}MB+BƦM [x] = n bB2M/Q n iH [m2 n ≤ x < n + 1X

1M ;2M2`H- bB2KT`2 2b BKTQ`iMi2 2Mi2M/2` #B2M HQ [m2 /B+2 H /2}MB+BƦM /2

mM 7mM+BƦM- Mi2b /2 BMi2Mi` 2H i`x/Q /2 bm ;`€}+X 1biQ 2b T`iB+mH`@
K2Mi2 +H`Q 2M 2H 2D2KTHQ [m2 MQb Q+mT- TQ`[m2 2Mi2M/2` bm /2}MB+BƦM- 2b
bm}+B2Mi2 T` pBbHmK#`` H 7Q`K /2 bm ;`€}+X aB b2 K2/Bi mM TQ+Q 2M
H /2}MB+BƦM /2 [x]- b2 HH2; `€TB/K2Mi2  H +QM+HmbBƦM [m2 [x] T2`KM2+2
+QMbiMi2 +mM/Q x p`ő 2Mi`2 /Qb 2Mi2`QbX a2 Tm2/2 2b+`B#B`- TQ` HQ iMiQ-
[m2,

[x] = −2, bB −2 ≤ x < −1X

[x] = −1, bB −1 ≤ x < 0X
[x] = 0, bB 0 ≤ x < 1X
[x] = 1, bB 1 ≤ x < 2X
[x] = 2, bB 2 ≤ x < 3X

Sm2biQ [m2 f (x) = −3 +mM/Q x < −2 v f (x) = [x] +mM/Q −2 ≤ x- /2#2

b2` +H`Q [m2 H ;`€}+ /2 f 2b H // 2M H };m` bB;mB2Mi2- bBM M2+2bB//
/2 MBM;mM Qi` +QMbB/2`+BƦMX

y
3 

2  

1  

 
x
−2 −1 1 2 3
 
−1

 
−2


−3

*`2+BKB2MiQ v /2+`2+BKB2MiQ /2 7mM+BQM2b

lM bT2+iQ BKTQ`iMi2 2M 2H 2bim/BQ /2H +QKTQ`iKB2MiQ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû@
`B+b 2b 2H /2 +`2+BKB2MiQ v /2+`2+BKB2MiQX lM 7mM+BƦM iB2M2 mM +QKTQ`iKB2MiQ
/2 +`2+BKB2MiQ U`2bTX /2+`2+BKB2MiQV +mM/Q H mK2Mi` 2H pHQ` /2 H p`B#H2
BM/2T2M/B2Mi2- HQb pHQ`2b /2 H p`B#H2 /2T2M/B2Mi2 mK2MiM U`2bTX /BbKBMm@
v2MVX
RN9 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

J€b T`2+BbK2Mi2- mM 7mM+BƦM MmKû`B+ f 2b +`2+B2Mi2 2M mM BMi2`pHQ I- bB

T` +mH[mB2` T` /2 MȹK2`Qb a v b 2M I +QM a < b- b2 iB2M2 [m2 f (a) < f (b)c
v 2b /2+`2+B2Mi2 2M I bB T` +mH[mB2` T` /2 MȹK2`Qb a v b 2M I +QM a < b- b2
iB2M2 [m2 f (a) > f (b)X *QKQ b2 T`2+B 2M Hb };m`b 8X9 v 8X8X

y y
y = f (x) y = f (x)

f (b)
f (a)

f (a)
f (b)

x x
a b a b

6B;m` 8X9X 6mM+BƦM +`2+B2Mi2X 6B;m` 8X8X 6mM+BƦM /2+`2+B2Mi2X

aB 2M Hm;` /2 2b+`B#B` f (a) < f (b) U`2bTX f (a) > f (b)V 2M H /2}MB+BƦM Mi2`BQ`-
2b+`B#BKQb f (a) ≤ f (b) U`2bTX f (a) ≥ f (b)V- /B`2KQb [m2 f 2b MQ /2+`2+B2Mi2
2M I U`2bTX MQ +`2+B2Mi2 2M IVX 1H BMi2`pHQ I b2 HHK`€ BMi2`pHQ /2 +`2+BKB2M@
iQ Q /2 /2+`2+BKB2MiQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM f - b2;ȹM [m2 f b2 +`2+B2Mi2 Q /2+`2+B2Mi2 2M IX

aB mM 7mM+BƦM 2b +`2+B2Mi2 Q /2+`2+B2Mi2 2M iQ/Q bm /QKBMBQ- b2 /B`€ bBK@

TH2K2Mi2 [m2 2b +`2+B2Mi2 Q /2+`2+B2Mi2X S` /2i2`KBM` HQb BMi2`pHQb /2 +`2@
+BKB2MiQ v /2+`2+BKB2MiQ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM  T`iB` /2 bm /2}MB+BƦM- b2 M2+2bBiM
?2``KB2Mib /2 +€H+mHQ /B72`2M+BHX aBM 2K#`;Q- H +QMQ+2` H 7Q`K /2 H ;`€}+
TQ/2KQb 2M+QMi`` /2 KM2` K€b Q K2MQb T`2+Bb HQb BMi2`pHQb /2 +`2+BKB2MiQ
v /2+`2+BKB2MiQ /2 H KBbKX hH +QKQ b2 Q#b2`p 2M H bB;mB2Mi2 };m`X
y
y = f (x)

x
1

f +`2+2X f /2+`2+2X f +`2+2X

*`+i2`őbiB+b /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b `2H2b v bmb ;`€}+b RN8

8XdXR 1D2KTHQX

RX *QMbB/2`2KQb H 7mM+BƦM f (x) = x2 /2}MB/ 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [ −2, 2 ]X

G ;`€}+ 8Xe BM/B+ [m2 ûbi 2b +`2+B2Mi2 2M [ 0, 2 ] KB2Mi`b [m2 2b
/2+`2+B2Mi2 2M [ −2, 0 ]X 1M 272+iQ- T` a v b 2M [ −2, 0 ] +QM a < b- b2
iB2M2 [m2 0 ≤ −b < −a v TQ` HQ iMiQ b 2 < a2 X S` a v b 2M [ 0, 2 ]
+QM a < b b2 iB2M2 [m2 a2 < b 2 X

kX G ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM g(x) = 2x + 3 U};m` 8XdV BM/B+ [m2 g 2b

+`2+B2Mi2 2M iQ/Q RX
1M 272+iQ- bB a < b b2 iB2M2 [m2 2a < 2b (0 < 2) v TQ` HQ iMiQ
2a + 3 < 2b + 3X

jX G ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM h(x) = 1 BM/B+ [m2 h MQ 2b +`2+B2Mi2 MB

/2+`2+B2Mi2X P#b2`p` H };m` 8X3X

y
y y = g(x) = 2x + 3
f (x) = x2

x
−2 2 (x

6B;m` 8XeX f (x) = x2 X 6B;m` 8XdX g(x) = 2x + 3X

y
y = h(x) = 1

x
6B;m` 8X3X h(x) = 1X
RNe 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

1H +QM+2TiQ /2 +`2+BKB2MiQ UQ /2+`2+BKB2MiQV 2b ȹiBH 2M H;mMQb +bQb T`

/2i2`KBM` +m€M/Q mM 7mM+BƦM 2b BMp2`iB#H2 Q MQX 1M 272+iQ- p2KQb 2H bB;mB2Mi2
i2Q`2KX

8XdXk h2Q`2KX
lM 7mM+BƦM +`2+B2Mi2 UQ /2+`2+B2Mi2V 2M iQ/Q bm /QKBMBQ 2b BMv2+iBp v
TQ` HQ iMiQ BMp2`iB#H2X

.2KQbi`+BƦMX amTQM;KQb [m2 f 2b mM 7mM+BƦM +`2+B2Mi2 v [m2 x1 v x2 bQM /Qb

2H2K2MiQb /BbiBMiQb 2M 2H /QKBMBQ /2 f +QM x1 < x2 X .2#B/Q H +`2+BKB2MiQ /2 f
b2 iB2M2 [m2 f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) v TQ` HQ iMiQ f (x1 ) /2#2 b2` /BbiBMiQ /2 f (x2 )X
SQ/2KQb +QM+HmB` [m2 f 2b BMv2+iBp v [m2 TQ` HQ iMiQ iB2M2 BMp2`b f −1 X
LQ /2#2 b2` /B7ő+BH T` 2H 2bim/BMi2 `2T`Q/m+B` H /2KQbi`+BƦM T` 2H +bQ /2
7mM+BQM2b /2+`2+B2Mi2bX

8XdXj 1D2KTHQX

RX G 7mM+BƦM g(x) = 2x + 3 2b +`2+B2Mi2 2M R- TQ` HQ iMiQ iB2M2 BMp2`b

2M iQ/Q RX

kX P#bû`p2b2 [m2 2H `2+őT`Q+Q /2H i2Q`2K Mi2`BQ` MQ 2b +B2`iQc TQ`

2D2KTHQ H 7mM+BƦM f (x) = 1/x- x = 0- MQ 2b +`2+B2Mi2 MB /2+`2+B2Mi2
2M iQ/Q bm /QKBMBQX aBM 2K#`;Q f 2b BMp2`iB#H2X

+iBpB// 8XdXk,
.2Km2bi`2 [m2 H BMp2`b /2 mM 7mM+BƦM +`2+B2Mi2 U`2bTX /2+`2+B2Mi2V 2b
+`2+B2Mi2 U`2bTX /2+`2+B2Mi2VX

1M 2H 2bim/BQ /2H +QKTQ`iKB2MiQ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM MmKû`B+ 2b BKTQ`iMi2 /2i2+i`

+B2`iQ iBTQ /2 TmMiQb Ŀ+`őiB+QbŀX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- TmMiQb /QM/2 H 7mM+BƦM +K#B
/2 +`2+B2Mi2  /2+`2+B2Mi2- TmMiQb /QM/2 H 7mM+BƦM H+Mx pHQ`2b K€tBKQb Q
KőMBKQbX
mM[m2 mM 2bim/BQ K€b +QKTH2iQ /2 2biQb iBTQb /2 +QKTQ`iKB2MiQ `2[mB2`2
/2 Hb ?2``KB2Mib /2H +€H+mHQ- T`2b2MiKQb Hb /2}MB+BQM2b /2 2ti`2KQ #bQHmiQ
v /2 2ti`2KQ HQ+HX

1ti`2KQb #bQHmiQb
a2 f mM 7mM+BƦM `2HX aB 2tBbi2 c 2M Df iH [m2

f (x) ≤ f (c) (`2bTX f (c) ≤ f (x)),

*`+i2`őbiB+b /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b `2H2b v bmb ;`€}+b RNd

T` iQ/Q x 2M Df - b2 /B+2 [m2 f (c) 2b 2H K€tBKQ U`2bTX KőMBKQV #bQHmiQ /2 f X

a2 bm2H2 /2+B` iK#BûM [m2 f H+Mx 2M c bm K€tBKQ U`2bTX KőMBKQV #bQHmiQX
SQ` 2D2KTHQ- 2H K€tBKQ v 2H KőMBKQ #bQHmiQb /2 H 7mM+BƦM f (x) = x2 /2H
2D2KTHQ 1 bQM `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2 4 = f (2) = f (−2) v 0 = f (0)X G 7mM+BƦM g(x) =
3x + 2- MQ iB2M2 K€tBKQ MB KőMBKQ #bQHmiQbX

1ti`2KQb `2HiBpQb Q HQ+H2b

a2 f mM 7mM+BƦM `2H v c mM 2H2K2MiQ 2M Df X a2 /B+2 [m2 f iB2M2 2M c mM 2ti`2KQ
HQ+H Q `2HiBpQ- bB 2tBbi2 mM BMi2`pHQ #B2`iQ I [m2 +QMiB2M2  c v 2bi€ +QMi2MB/Q
2M Df - iH [m2 f (c) 2b mM 2ti`2KQ #bQHmiQ /2 f `2bi`BM;B/  IX 1H pHQ` f (c) b2
HHK 2ti`2KQ HQ+H Q `2HiBpQ /2 f X

G /2}MB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` MQ 2b THB+#H2  mM TmMiQ c 2M HQb 2ti`2KQb /2 BMi2`@

pHQb /2 /2}MB+BƦM /2 f X SQ` 2D2KTHQ bB 2H /QKBMBQ /2 f 2b [ a, b ]- f (a) Q f (b) MQ
Tm2/2M b2` 2ti`2KQb HQ+H2b 2M 2H b2MiB/Q /2 H /2}MB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` UǯTQ`[mû\VX aBM
2K#`;Q Tm2/2 Q+m``B` [m2 2tBbi mM BMi2`pHQ J = [ a, b ] +QMi2MB/Q 2M Df iH
[m2 f (a) 2b 2ti`2KQ #bQHmiQ /2 f +mM/Q b2 `2bi`BM;2  JX H;Q b2K2DMi2 Tm2/2
Q+m``B` 2M 2H TmMiQ bX *mM/Q 2biQ Q+m``2 i2M2KQb iK#BûM [m2 f (a) Q f (b) bQM
2ti`2KQb HQ+H2b Q `2HiBpQb /2 f - Q 2[mBpH2Mi2K2Mi2 [m2 f iB2M2 2M a Q 2M b mM
2ti`2KQ HQ+HX

1M H };m`- 2M HQb TmMiQb c1 - c3 - v b H 7mM+BƦM f H+Mx HQb pHQ`2b K€tBKQb

`2HiBpQbX P#bû`p2b2 [m2 2M HQb TmMiQb c1 v c3 b2 THB+ H T`BK2` T`i2 /2 H
/2}MB+BƦM- KB2Mi`b [m2 2M b b2 THB+ H b2;mM/X 1M HQb TmMiQb a- c2 v c4 H
7mM+BƦM f H+Mx HQb pHQ`2b KőMBKQb `2HiBpQbX 1M 2bi2 +bQ b2 THB+ H T`BK2`
T`i2 /2 H /2}MB+BƦM  c2 v c4 v H b2;mM/  aX
SQ` Qi`Q H/Q b2 Tm2/2 p2` [m2 2M HQb TmMiQb c1 - c2 - c3 v c4 - H 7mM+BƦM ?
i2MB/Q mM +K#BQ 2M bm +QKTQ`iKB2MiQ- /2 +`2+B2Mi2  /2+`2+B2Mi2 Q pB+2p2`bX
y


Df = [ a, b ]


c2 

x
a c1 c3 c4 b
RN3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

1H mbQ /2 H TH#` `2HiBpQ Q HQ+H b2 /2#2  [m2 mM pHQ` 2ti`2KQ /2 2bi2 iBTQ
MQ 2b M2+2b`BK2Mi2 2H pHQ` K€b ;`M/2 Q 2H K€b T2[m2ƢQ [m2 Tm2/2 iQK` mM
7mM+BƦMX J€b ȹM H 7mM+BƦM Tm2/2 i2M2` 2ti`2KQb `2HiBpQb bBM H+Mx` MmM+ mM
pHQ` K€tBKQ MB mM pHQ` KőMBKQ Up2` 2H 2D2`+B+BQ 8yVX aBM 2K#`;Q- bB H 7mM+BƦM
iB2M2 2ti`2KQb #bQHmiQb- 2biQb b2 2M+m2Mi`M 2Mi`2 HQb 2ti`2KQb `2HiBpQbX SQ`
2D2KTHQ- 2H pHQ` K€tBKQ #bQHmiQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM /2 H };m` Mi2`BQ` +Q``2bTQM/2
H K€tBKQ /2 HQb K€tBKQb `2HiBpQbX

J€tBKQ #bQHmiQ /2 f = máx {f (c1 ), f (c3 ), f (b)} = f (b).

JőMBKQ #bQHmiQ /2 f = mı́n {f (a), f (c2 ), f (c4 )} = f (c2 ).

1H KőMBKQ #bQHmiQ /2 f 2b 2H KőMBKQ /2 HQb KőMBKQb `2HiBpQbX

8X3 H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b 2bT2+BH2b

6mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b
lM 7mM+BƦM f : R −→ R 2b TQHBMƦKB+ /2 ;`/Q n- bB

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

/QM/2, n ∈ N v an , an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0 ∈ R- +QM an = 0. *mM/Q n = 0- f `2bmHi b2`

H 7mM+BƦM +QMbiMi2 f (x) = a0 X
.Qb +bQb T`iB+mH`2b /2 7mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b bQM Hb 7mM+BQM2b HBM2H2b v
Hb 7mM+BQM2b +m/`€iB+b- [m2 MHBx`2KQb  +QMiBMm+BƦMX

6mM+BQM2b HBM2H2b
Gb 7mM+BQM2b HBM2H2b bQM 7mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b /2 ;`/Q 1 v TQ` HQ iMiQ bQM /2
H 7Q`K,
f (x) = ax + b, a, b ∈ R, a = 0.
G ;`€}+ /2 2bi 7mM+BƦM +QBM+B/2 +QM 2H Hm;` ;2QKûi`B+Q [m2 /2i2`KBM H
2+m+BƦM y = ax + b [m2 TQ` ;2QK2i`ő MHőiB+ b#2KQb [m2 2b mM HőM2 `2+i
+QM T2M/B2Mi2 UiM;2Mi2 /2H €M;mHQ /2 BM+HBM+BƦM /2 H `2+i `2bT2+iQ H 2D2 xV a
v [m2 +Q`i 2H 2D2 y 2M 2H TmMiQ (0, b)X
G T2M/B2Mi2 a /2 H `2+i b2 Tm2/2 2tT`2b`
 
miBHBxM/Q 
2H bBK#QHBbKQ 7mM+BQ@
MH- /2 H KM2` bB;mB2Mi2, b2M x1 , f (x1 ) v x2 , f (x2 ) /Qb TmMiQb /BbiBMiQb /2
H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM HBM2H U};m` 8XNVX Gm2;Q,

f (x1 ) = ax1 + b,
f (x2 ) = ax2 + b.
H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b 2bT2+BH2b RNN

f (x2 )

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
θ
f (x1 )
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
x2 − x1 a = tan θ = X
x2 − x1
θ
x
x1 x2

6B;m` 8XNX :`€}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM HBM2HX

.2 2biQ b2 bB;m2 [m2

f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = (ax2 + b) − (ax1 + b) = a(x2 − x1 ),

TQ` HQ [m2
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
a=
x2 − x1
*QKQ 2M H 2tT`2bBƦM Mi2`BQ` x1 = x2 - TQ/2KQb bmTQM2` [m2 x1 < x2 v TQ` HQ
iMiQ

f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) bB v bƦHQ bB 0 < a,

f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) bB v bƦHQ bB a < 0.

1biQ [mB2`2 /2+B` [m2 H T2M/B2Mi2 a / H +Hp2 T` /2i2`KBM` bB f 2b +`2+B2Mi2

Q /2+`2+B2Mi2X 1M `2bmK2M- f 2b +`2+B2Mi2 bB v bƦHQ bB 0 < a v f 2b /2+`2+B2Mi2 bB
v bƦHQ bB a < 0X 1bi2 ?2+?Q b2 pBbmHBx 2M Hb };m`b 8XRy v 8XRRX
y
y

f (x2 )
f (x1 )

f (x1 )

θ
θ
f (x2 )
x x
x1 x2 x1 x2

6B;m` 8XRyX :`€}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM HBM2H 6B;m` 8XRRX :`€}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM HBM2H
+`2+B2Mi2X /2+`2+B2Mi2X
kyy 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

.2 Qi`Q H/Q- +QKQ T` +/ y ∈ R H 2+m+BƦM 2M x

ax + b = y; a = 0,

iB2M2 bQHm+BƦM ȹMB+ // TQ`

y−b
x= ,
a
b2 +QM+Hmv2 [m2 H 7mM+BƦM HBM2H 2b BMv2+iBp v bQ#`2v2+iBpX 1M +QMb2+m2M+Bc H
7mM+BƦM HBM2H- f (x) = ax + b- iB2M2 +QKQ 7mM+BƦM BMp2`b  H 7mM+BƦM f −1 (x) =
(x − b)/a- [m2  bm p2x 2b mM 7mM+BƦM HBM2HX

8X3XR 1D2KTHQX

RX *QMbB/2`2KQb Hb 7mM+BQM2b HBM2H2b f (x) = 2x + 4 v g(x) = −3x + 5X

G ;`€}+ /2 f 2b mM `2+i /2 T2M/B2Mi2 a = 2- [m2 +Q`i 2H 2D2 y
2M 2H TmMiQ (0, 4)X Sm2biQ [m2 H T2M/B2Mi2 2b TQbBiBp- f 2b +`2+B2Mi2X
/2K€bc +QKQ f (−2) = 0- b2 iB2M2 [m2 H `2+i +Q`i 2H 2D2 x 2M 2H
TmMiQ (−2, 0)X G ;`€}+ g 2b mM `2+i /2 T2M/B2Mi2 a = −3 < 0-
TQ` HQ [m2 g 2b /2+`2+B2Mi2X /2K€b +Q`i 2H 2D2 y 2M 2H TmMiQ (0, 5)
v- +QKQ g(5/3) = 0 +Q`i 2H 2D2 x 2M 2H TmMiQ (5/3, 0)X
y
y = g(x) = −3x + 5 y = f (x) = 2x + 4

22/5
4

x
1
5
−2 5
3

.2bT2DM/Q x /2 y = 2x + 4 b2 Q#iB2M2 H 2tT`2bBƦM T` H 7mM+BƦM

H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b 2bT2+BH2b kyR

BMp2`b /2 f
x−4
f −1 (x) = ,
2
v /2bT2DM/Q x /2 y = 3x + 5 b2 Q#iB2M2 H 2tT`2bBƦM T` H 7mM+BƦM
BMp2`b /2 g,
x−5
g −1 (x) = − .
3
1M H };m` Mi2`BQ` Q#b2`pKQb [m2 H `2+ib 2M +QMbB/2`+BƦM b2
+Q`iM- HQ [m2 bB;MB}+ [m2 f v g iQKM 2H KBbKQ pHQ` 2M H;ȹM
TmMiQ aX S` 2M+QMi`` 2H pHQ` /2 a /2#2KQb `2bQHp2` H 2+m+BƦM,

2a + 4 = −3a + 5.

H `2bQHp2`H 2M+QMi`KQb [m2 a = 1/5- v [m2 f (a) = g(a) = 22/5X

kX G 7mM+BƦM HBM2H 2b mM KQ/2HQ Ki2K€iB+Q [m2 b2 mb +QM 7`2+m2M@

+B 2M THB++BQM2b +B2Miő}+b v iû+MB+bX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- H +QMQ+B/
`2H+BƦM
9
F = C + 32,
5
[m2 `2H+BQM Hb K2/B/b /2 Hb i2KT2`im`b 2M ;`/Qb +2Miő;`/Qb
(◦ C) v 2M ;`/Qb 6?`2M?2Bi (◦ F ) T2`KBi2 /2+B` [m2 ◦ F 2b mM 7mM@
+BƦM HBM2H /2 ◦ CX J2/BMi2 2bi `2H+BƦM TQ/2KQb i`Mb7Q`K` Hb
K2/B/b /2 i2KT2`im`b 2M ;`/Qb +2Miő;`/Qb  ;`/Qb 6?`2M?2Bi
v pB+2p2`bX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- 25◦ C bQM 2[mBpH2Mi2b  77◦ F - Tm2b
9
F = · 25 + 32 = 77.
5

+iBpB// 8X3XR,
RX h`+2 H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM f (x) = xX  T`iB` /2 ûbi- i`+2 H ;`€}+
/2 H 7mM+BƦM g(x) = −5x + 9X

kX h`+2 H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM f (x) = x2 X  T`iB` /2 ûbi- i`+2 Hb

;`€}+b /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b,

V g(x) = 2(x − 3)2 + 11X 2

+V j(x) = (x2 + 1)X
3
#V h(x) = −2x2 + 5x − 7X /V k(x) = 3x2 − 5
kyk 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

6mM+BQM2b +m/`€iB+b
Gb 7mM+BQM2b +m/`€iB+b bQM 7mM+BQM2b TQHBMƦKB+b /2 ;`/Q 2- v TQ` HQ iMiQ
iB2M2M H 7Q`K

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c; a, b, c ∈ R; a = 0.

.2 H ;2QK2i`ő MHőiB+ b2 b#2 [m2 2H Hm;` ;2QKûi`B+Q [m2 /2i2`KBM H 2+m@

+BƦM,
y − k = a (x − h)2 ,
2M +QQ`/2M/b +`i2bBMb `2+iM;mH`2b- 2b mM T`€#QH [m2 iB2M2 pû`iB+2 2M 2H
TmMiQ (h, k)- TQ` 2D2 H `2+i x = h v [m2 +Q`i 2H 2D2 y +QM 2H TmMiQ (0, k + ah2 )X
/2K€b- b#2KQb [m2 H T`€#QH 2b +ƦM+p ?+B ``B# bB 0 < a v 2b +ƦM+p
?+B #DQ bB a < 0X o2` Hb };m`b 8XRk v 8XRjX

x=h

(0, k + ah2 ) 

(h, k)

6B;m` 8XRkX :`€}+ /2 mM T`€#QH, y − k = a (x − h)2 - 0 < aX

S`iB2M/Q /2 H 2tT`2bBƦM y = f (x) = ax2 + bx + c- +QKTH2iM/Q +m/`/Qb-

iH +QKQ HQ ?B+BKQb 2M H b2++BƦM jX9- b2 HH2;  H 2tT`2bBƦM
2
4ac − b 2 b
y− =a x+ ,
4a 2a
[m2 iB2M2 H 7Q`K
y − k = a (x − h)2 ,
/QM/2
4ac − b 2 b
k= v h=− .
4a 2a
H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b 2bT2+BH2b kyj

y
(h, k)


(0, k + ah2 ) 

x=h

6B;m` 8XRjX :`€}+ /2 mM T`€#QH, y − k = a (x − h)2 - a < 0X

1biQ [mB2`2 /2+B` [m2 H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM +m/`€iB+ y = ax2 + bx + c 2b

b 4ac−b 2
mM T`€#QH [m2 iB2M2 pû`iB+2 2M 2H TmMiQ V = (− 2a , 4a ) TQ` 2D2 H `2+i
x = −b/(2a) v [m2 +Q`i 2H 2D2 y 2M 2H TmMiQ (0, c)X /2K€b- /2 +m2`/Q +QM Hb
Q#b2`p+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b b2 Tm2/2 +QM+HmB` [m2,

RX *mM/Q 0 < ac H T`€#QH 2b +ƦM+p ?+B ``B#- v +QMb2+m2Mi2K2Mi2 H

7mM+BƦM iB2M2 mM pHQ` KőMBKQ #bQHmiQ +mM/Q x = −b/(2a)- 2H +mH 2b,

b 4ac − b 2
f − = .
2a 4a

2
a2 /2/m+2 B;mHK2Mi2 [m2 2H `M;Q /2 f 2b 2H BMi2`pHQ ( 4ac−b
4a , ∞ f 2b
/2+`2+B2Mi2

2M

2H BMi2`pHQ −∞, −b/(2a) v f 2b +`2+B2Mi2 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ
−b/(2a), ∞ X

kX *mM/Q a < 0c H T`€#QH 2b +ƦM+p ?+B #DQ- f iB2M2 mM pHQ` K€tBKQ

#bQHmiQ +mM/Q x = −b/(2a)- 2H +mH 2b,

−b 4ac − b 2
f = .
2a 4a
 
1H `M;Q /2 f 2b 2H BMi2`pHQ −∞, (4ac − b 2 )/(4a) X ǯ1M [mû BMi2`pHQb 2b
H 7mM+BƦM +`2+B2Mi2\ ǯ1M +m€H2b /2+`2+B2Mi2\

.2 H ;`€}+ v /2 HQ /B+?Q Mi2`BQ`K2Mi2- 2b +H`Q [m2 H 7mM+BƦM +m/`€iB+ MQ 2b

BMv2+iBp- v TQ` HQ iMiQ MQ TQb22 7mM+BƦM BMp2`bX ǯSQ/`ő `2bi`BM;B`b2 2H /QKBMBQ
T` [m2 H Mm2p 7mM+BƦM [m2 b2 Q#i2M; TQb2 BMp2`b\X

SQ` ȹHiBKQ- T` 2M+QMi`` HQb TmMiQb /2 +Q`i2 /2 H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM +m/`€@
iB+ +QM 2H 2D2 x- #bi `2bQHp2` T` x ∈ R H 2+m+BƦM ax2 + bx + c = 0X *QKQ
ky9 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

b#2KQb- Hb bQHm+BQM2b /2 ûbi 2bi€M //b TQ`

 
−b + b 2 − 4ac −b − b 2 − 4ac
x1 = v x2 = .
2a 2a
1b BKTQ`iMi2 /2bi+` [m2 +mM/Q 2H /Bb+`BKBMMi2 b 2 − 4ac 2b K2MQ` [m2
+2`Q Hb bQHm+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b bQM +QKTH2Db +QMDm;/b v [m2- TQ` HQ iMiQ- 2M
2bi2 +bQ H ;`€}+ MQ +Q`i 2H 2D2 xX o2` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b };m`bX
y
0<a

√  
x√
−b − b 2 − 4ac −b + b 2 − 4ac
2a 2a

a<0

6B;m` 8XR9X 0 < ∆ = b 2 − 4acX

0<a
y

a<0

6B;m` 8XR8X ∆ = b 2 − 4ac < 0X LQ +Q`i 2H 2D2 xX

H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b 2bT2+BH2b ky8

8X3Xk 1D2KTHQX

RX *QMbB/2`2KQb Hb /Qb 7mM+BQM2b +m/`€iB+b

f (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 5
g(x) = −2x2 + 8x − 6.

*QKTH2iM/Q +m/`/Qb +QKQ 2M 2H +bQ ;2M2`H- b2 iB2M2c

f (x) = 3(x − 1)2 + 2 v g(x) = −2(x − 2)2 + 2.

G ;`€}+ /2 f 2b mM T`€#QH [m2 iB2M2 pû`iB+2 2M 2H TmMiQ (1, 2)-

TQ` 2D2 H `2+i x = 1- v +Q`i 2H 2D2 y 2M 2H TmMiQ (0, 5)X
/2K€b- +QKQ 0 < 3 = a- H ;`€}+ /2 f 2b +ƦM+p ?+B ``B#X 1M
2bi2 +bQ 2H /Bb+`BKBMMi2 2b −24 v TQ` HQ iMiQ H ;`€}+ /2 f MQ
+Q`i 2H 2D2 xX
G 7mM+BƦM f H+Mx mM pHQ` KőMBKQ #bQHmiQ 2M x = 1- 2H +mH 2b
f (1) = 2X
1H `M;Q /2 f 2b 2H BMi2`pHQ (2, ∞)X G 7mM+BƦM f 2b +`2+B2Mi2 2M
(1, ∞) v /2+`2+B2Mi2 2M (−∞, 1)X

G ;`€}+ /2 g 2b mM T`€#QH [m2 iB2M2 pû`iB+2 2M 2H TmMiQ (2, 2)-

TQ` 2D2 H `2+i x = 2- v +Q`i 2H 2D2 y 2M 2H TmMiQ (0, −6)X
Sm2biQ [m2 a = −2 < 0- H T`€#QH 2b +ƦM+p ?+B #DQX .2
+m2`/Q +QM H /Bb+mbBƦM ;2M2`H- Hb #b+Bbb /2 HQb TmMiQb /2 +Q`i2
/2 H ;`€}+ /2 g +QM 2H 2D2 x bQM Hb bQHm+BQM2b /2 H 2+m+BƦM,

−2x2 + 8x − 6 = 0,

Hb +mH2b bQM x1 = 1 v x2 = 3X G 7mM+BƦM g H+Mx mM pHQ` K€tBKQ

#bQHmiQ 2M x = 2- 2H +mH 2b g(2) = 2X
1H `M;Q /2 H 7mM+BƦM g 2b (−∞, 2)- g 2b /2+`2+B2Mi2 2M (2, ∞) v
+`2+B2Mi2 2M (−∞, 2)X hQ/Q HQ Mi2`BQ` b2 BHmbi` 2M H };m` 8XReX
kye 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

y = f (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 5
y

1 3 x
2

−6

y = g(x) = −2x2 + 8x − 6

6B;m` 8XReX :`€}+ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b f (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 5 v g(x) = −2x2 + 8x − 6X

.2 +m2`/Q  H };m`- MQ T`2+2 ?#2` TmMiQb /2 +Q`i2 2Mi`2 Hb

;`€}+b /2 f (x) v g(x)X 1b /2+B`- MQ ?v pHQ`2b `2H2b /2 x HQb +m@
H2b +mKTHM [m2 f (x) = g(x)X 1M 272+iQ- #bi +QKT`Q#` [m2 H
2+m+BƦM
3x2 − 6x + 5 = −2x2 + 8x − 6,
MQ iB2M2 bQHm+BƦMX 1bi ȹHiBK 2b 2[mBpH2Mi2  mM 2+m+BƦM [m2 iB2M2
/Bb+`BKBMMi2 −24- HQ [m2 +QM}`K HQ Q#b2`p/Q 2M H ;`€}+ 8XReX

kX .2KQbi`2KQb [m2 2Mi`2 iQ/Qb HQb `2+i€M;mHQb R /2 T2`őK2i`Q p- 2H /2

KvQ` €`2 2b 2H +m/`/QX .2MQi2KQb TQ` x H HQM;Bim/ /2H M+?Q
/2H `2+i€M;mHQ v TQ` z H HQM;Bim/ /2H H`;QX Sm2biQ [m2 2H T2`ő@
K2i`Q /2H `2+i€M;mHQ 2b p- b2 iB2M2 2x+2z = p /2 /QM/2 z = (p/2)−xX
H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b 2bT2+BH2b kyd

x R

?Q` #B2M- 2H €`2 A /2H `2+i€M;mHQ 2bi€ // TQ` H bB;mB2Mi2 2t@
T`2bBƦM, A = xzX _22KTHxM/Q z 2M iû`KBMQb /2 x- p2KQb [m2 A 2b
mM 7mM+BƦM +m/`€iB+ /2 x, A(x) = −x2 + ( p2 ) x
2 2
p p
A(x) = −1 x − + .
4 4

1M +QMb2+m2M+Bc

H ;`€}+

/2 A 2b mM T`€#QH [m2 iB2M2 pû`iB+2
2
2M 2H TmMiQ p/4, (p/4) v [m2 2b +ƦM+p ?+B #DQ- v [m2 a =
−1 < 0X SQ` HQ iMiQ- 2H pHQ` /2 A 2b K€tBKQ +mM/Q x = p/4- v
2bi2 pHQ` K€tBKQ 2b (p/4)2 X S` x = p/4 b2 iB2M2 [m2 z = p/4 HQ
[m2 bB;MB}+ [m2 2H €`2 A 2b K€tBK +mM/Q R 2b mM +m/`/QX

+iBpB// 8X3Xk,
RX *mM/Q mM T2HQi /2 #ûBb#QH b2 HMx ?+ő ``B# +QM mM p2HQ+B//
BMB+BH v0 - bm Him` h- 2bi€ // TQ` H 7mM+BƦM +m/`€iB+, h =
−3,22t2 + v0 t + h0 - /QM/2 h0 2b H Him` BMB+BH 2M K2i`Qb- h H Him`
2M 2H BMbiMi2 t- [m2 2b 2H iB2KTQ i`Mb+m``B/Q /2b/2 2H HMxKB2MiQ-
2M b2;mM/QbX lM T2HQi /2 i2MBb b2 HMx ?+ő ``B#X *mM/Q H
T2HQi /2 i2MBb 2KTB2x  b+2M/2` iB2M2 mM p2HQ+B// /B`B;B/ ?+B
``B# /2 322 Kfb v b2 2M+m2Mi`  mM Him` /2 977 KX 1M+QMi`` H
Him` K€tBK [m2 H+Mx- v 2H iB2KTQ-  T`iB` /2 2bi2 KQK2MiQ-
[m2 `2[mB2`2 T` H+Mx` /B+? Him` v 2H iB2KTQ [m2 i`/ 2M
HH2;` H bm2HQX

kX *mM/Q 2H /m2ƢQ /2 mM #` +Q#` la0 8 TQ` 2Mi`/- 2H T`QK2/BQ

/2 bBbi2Mi2b 2b /2 200 T2`bQMbX a2 ? Q#b2`p/Q [m2 TQ` +/ 20
+2MipQb /2 mK2MiQ 2M 2H T`2+BQ /2 H 2Mi`/- 2H MȹK2`Q T`QK2/BQ
/2 bBbi2Mi2b /BbKBMmv2 2M 1X ǯ*m€MiQ /2#2 +Q#`` T` ;M` H
K€tBK +MiB// /2 /BM2`Q TQbB#H2\

jX a2 /Q#H mM +Q`/QM /2 xTiQb /2 48 TmH;/b T` 7Q`K` mM `2+@

i€M;mHQX S`m2#2 [m2 b2 Q#i2M/`€ H KvQ` €`2 bB 2H `2+i€M;mHQ 2b mM
+m/`/QX
ky3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

6mM+BQM2b 2tTQM2M+BH2b

_2pBb 2H bB;mB2Mi2 pB@ *QKQ pBKQb 2M 2H +TőimHQ j- //Q mM MȹK2`Q

/2Q T` +QMQ+2` H;m@ `2H 0 < a- T` +/ x 2M R- 2tBbi2 bQ+B/Q mM
Mb +`+i2`őbiB+b /2 MȹK2`Q `2H TQbBiBpQ ax X 1biQ MQb T2`KBi2 /2}MB`-
Hb 7mM+BQM2b 2tTQM2M@ T` +/ 0 < a- mM 7mM+BƦM Ea K2/BMi2 H H2v
+BH2bX /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B [m2  +/ x 2M R H2 bB;M
2H MȹK2`Q `2H TQbBiBpQ ax X 1bi 7mM+BƦM b2 HHK
7mM+BƦM 2tTQM2M+BH /2 #b2 a- [m2 iB2M2 +QKQ
/QKBMBQ H +QMDmMiQ R,

Ea : R −→ R+ ,
x −→ Ea (x) = ax .

*QKQ pBKQb Mi2b- H H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B [m2

?iiTb,ffvQmimX#2f
/2}M2  Ea (a = 1) 2b mM +Q``2bTQM/2M+B #B@
bd6aNb3A3Kr
mMőpQ+ 2Mi`2 R v R+ X

GQ Mi2`BQ` [mB2`2 /2+B` [m2 Ea 2b BMv2+iBp v [m2 bm `M;Q 2b R+ X G BMv2+iB@

pB// /2 Ea b2 Tm2/2 /2/m+B` iK#BûM /2H i2Q`2K 8Xd U+`2+B2Mi2 T` 1 < a v
/2+`2+B2Mi2 T` 0 < a < 1V v /2 H b2++BƦM 8Xd 2M H +mH b2 MQb ;`MiBx bm
BMp2`iB#BHB//X
.2H +QKTQ`iKB2MiQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM b2 Tm2/2 Q#b2`p` [m2 +mM/Q 1 < a

lı́m ax = ∞ v lı́m ax = 0+ ,
x−→ ∞ x−→ −∞

v [m2 +mM/Q 0 < a < 1

lı́m ax = 0+ v lı́m ax = ∞.
x−→ ∞ x−→ −∞

1biQ [mB2`2 /2+B` [m2 H `2+i y = 0 2b mM bőMiQi ?Q`BxQMiH TQ` ``B# /2 H
;`€}+ /2 Ea X

P#b2`p+BƦM R8X P#bû`p2b2 [m2- /2#B/Q  [m2 2H `M;Q /2 H 7mM+BƦM 2tTQM2M+BH

2b R+ - H ;`€}+ /2 Ea MQ iB2M2 bBK2i`ő +QM `2bT2+iQ H Q`B;2M /2 +QQ`/2M/b
v MQ +Q`i 2H 2D2 xX /2K€b H ;`€}+ /2 Ea iKTQ+Q Tm2/2 i2M2` bBK2i`ő +QM
`2bT2+iQ H 2D2 y- 2D2 [m2 +Q`i H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM 2tTQM2M+BH ax 2M 2H TmMiQ
/2 +QQ`/2M/b (0, 1) UǯTQ` [mû\VX

*QM H BM7Q`K+BƦM [m2 i2M2KQb TQ/2KQb p2` [m2 H 7Q`K /2 Hb ;`€}+b /2
Hb 7mM+BQM2b 2tTQM2M+BH2b 2b H bB;mB2Mi2X
H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b 2bT2+BH2b kyN

y
y = ax , 0<a<1 y = ax , 1<a

1M H ;`M KvQ`ő /2 Hb THB++BQM2b 2M [m2 BMi2`pB2M2M Hb 7mM+BQM2b 2tTQ@

M2M+BH2b- T`2+2M 7mM+BQM2b /2H iBTQ g(x) = kabx +C Uk- a- b v C bQM +QMbiMi2bV-
/2MQKBM/b iK#BûM 7mM+BQM2b 2tTQM2M+BH2bX 1H +QMQ+BKB2MiQ [m2 i2M2KQb /2
H 7mM+BƦM 2tTQM2M+BH f (x) = ax - K€b 2H mbQ /2 H;mMb i`Mb7Q`K+BQM2b /2+m@
/b- MQb bB`p2M T` Q#i2M2` H 7Q`K /2 H ;`€}+ /2 iH2b 7mM+BQM2bX AHmbi`KQb
HQ /B+?Q +QM 2H bB;mB2Mi2 2D2KTHQX

8X3Xj 1D2KTHQX

RX h`+2KQb H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM

 
g(x) = 5 23x − 7,
 x
G ;`€}+ /2 y = 23x = 23 = 8x iB2M2 2H bT2+iQ bB;mB2Mi2 Ub2 ?M
?2+?Q +K#BQb 2M H 2b+H /2 K#Qb 2D2b TQ`[m2 ûbi 2b mM 7mM+BƦM
[m2 +`2+2 Kmv `€TB/QV,
y
y = 23x

1
x

 
kX G ;`€}+ /2 y = 5 23x b2 Q#iB2M2 /2 H H2v /2 y = 23x - KmHiBTHB+M/Q
TQ` 5 iQ/b Hb Q`/2M/b +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2b H KBbKQ pHQ` /2 xX
kRy 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

y  
y = 5 23x

y = 23x

5a
5

a
1
x

 
jX SQ` ȹHiBKQc H ;`€}+ /2 g(x) = 5 23x − 7- b2 Q#iB2M2 i`bH/M/Q
7 mMB//2b ?+B #DQ H ;`€}+ /2 y = 5 23x - +QKQ b2 MQi 2M H
;`€}+ bB;mB2Mi2X
y  
y = 5 23x

5  
y = g(x) = 5 23x − 7

≈ 0,1618
−2

bőMiQi y = −7
H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b 2bT2+BH2b kRR

6mM+BQM2b HQ;`őiKB+b
*QKQ pBKQb 2M H b2++BƦM 8Xe- iQ/ 7mM+BƦM BMv2+iBp TQb22 BMp2`b- TQ` HQ iMiQ
H 7mM+BƦM 2tTQM2M+BH /2 #b2 a = 1 2b BMp2`iB#H2X am BMp2`b b2 HHK 7mM+BƦM
HQ;`őiKB+ /2 #b2 a [m2 iB2M2 +QKQ /QKBMBQ H +QMDmMiQ R+ v `M;Q RX Sm2biQ
[m2 loga ax = x T` iQ/Q x ∈ R+ Up2` H b2++BƦM kX9V- b2 iB2M2 [m2 H 7mM+BƦM
HQ;`őiKB+ /2 #b2 a 2bi€ /2}MB/ TQ`

La : R+ −→ R,
x −→ La (x) = loga x.

.2 +m2`/Q  H +iBpB// 8Xd /2 H b2++BƦM 8Xd- +QKQ Ea 2b +`2+B2Mi2 T`

1 < a v /2+`2+B2Mi2 T` 0 < a < 1- TQ/2KQb /2+B` [m2 La 2b +`2+B2Mi2 T` 1 < a
v /2+`2+B2Mi2 T` 0 < a < 1X .2 2bi T`QTB2// /2 La b2 Tm2/2 /2/m+B` [m2,

lı́m loga x = −∞ v lı́m loga x = ∞,

x−→ 0+ x−→ ∞

+mM/Q 1 < aX /2K€b b2 Tm2/2 /2/m+B` [m2 +mM/Q 0 < a < 1

lı́m loga x = ∞ v lı́m loga x = −∞.

x−→ 0+ x−→ ∞

G ;`€}+ /2 La b2 Tm2/2 Q#i2M2` /2 H /2 Ea K2/BMi2 mM `2~2tBƦM +QM

`2bT2+iQ  H `2+i y = x- iH +QKQ Tm2/2 Q#b2`p`b2 2M Hb ;`€}+b 8XRd v 8XR3X
P#bû`p2b2 [m2 H `2+i x = 0 2b mM bőMiQi p2`iB+H TQ` H /2`2+? /2 H ;`€}+
/2 La X
y
y = ax 1<a

y=x

y = loga x
1

x
1

6B;m` 8XRdX :`€}+ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b y = ax v y = loga x T` 1 < aX

kRk 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

y
y=a x 0<a<1

y=x

x
1

y = loga x

6B;m` 8XR3X :`€}+ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b y = ax v y = loga x T` 0 < a < 1X

1H +QMQ+BKB2MiQ /2 H ;`€}+ /2 La K€b 2H mbQ /2 H;mMb i`Mb7Q`K+BQM2b /2@

+m/b MQb T2`KBi2M #Qb[m2D` Hb ;`€}+b /2 7mM+BQM2b /2H iBTQ,
h(x) = k loga (x − c) + B,
/QM/2 k- a- c v B bQM +QMbiMi2b- 0 < a v a = 1X

 +QMiBMm+BƦM T`2b2MiKQb mM 2D2KTHQ bQ#`2 +`2+BKB2MiQ /2 mM TQ#H+BƦM

2M 2H [m2 b2 mbM Hb T`QTB2//2b /2 Ea v La X

8X3X9 1D2KTHQX lM KQ/2HQ Ki2K€iB+Q T` /2b+`B#B` 2H +`2+BKB2MiQ /2

H TQ#H+BƦM 2b H 7Ʀ`KmH,

P (t) = P0 ekt ,

bB2M/Q P0 2H MȹK2`Q /2 BM/BpB/mQb 2M 2H KQK2MiQ 0- P (t) 2H MȹK2`Q /2

BM/BpB/mQb 2M 2H KQK2MiQ t v k mM +QMbiMi2 TQbBiBp [m2 /2T2M/2 /2 H
bBim+BƦMX

*B2`i TQ#H+BƦM 2M 1975 2b /2 108 × 105 BM/BpB/mQbX a2 2bT2` [m2 2M 1980

ûbi b2 /2 150 × 105 BM/BpB/mQbX liBHB+2KQb 2H KQ/2HQ Mi2`BQ` v 2biQb
/iQb T` T`2/2+B` H K;MBim/ /2 H TQ#H+BƦM T` 2H ƢQ 1990X
ambiBimv2M/Q HQb /iQb 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH- Q#i2M2KQb

P (0) = 108 × 105 ;

2M 2H ƢQ 1980- t = 5 v
P (5) = 150 × 105 .
H;mMb 7mM+BQM2b MmKû`B+b 2bT2+BH2b kRj

.2 2bi2 KQ/Q,
P (5) = 108 × 105 e5k = 250 × 105 .
.2bT2DM/Q k b2 HH2; 
1 150
k= loge ≈ 0,06.
5 108
SQ` +QMbB;mB2Mi2 P (t) ≈ 108 × 105 e0,06 t - v 2M 2H ƢQ 1990 ?#`€ T`QtBK@
/K2Mi2,
P (15) ≈ 108 × 105 × e0,06×15
BM/BpB/mQbX

1M Hb THB++BQM2b bm`;2M iK#BûM +QM 7`2+m2M+B 7mM+BQM2b /2H iBTQ

x
g(x) = k log ,
c

/QM/2 k v c bQM +QMbiMi2b Up2` HQb 2D2`+B+BQbVX

+iBpB// 8X3Xj,
RX 1H MȹK2`Q /2 #+i2`Bb /2 +B2`iQ +mHiBpQ BM+`2K2MiƦ /2 1,200  3,600
2Mi`2 Hb 5 : 00 XKX v Hb 7 : 00 XKX amTQMB2M/Q [m2 2H +`2+BKB2MiQ
2b 2tTQM2M+BH- b2 Tm2/2 KQbi``- mbM/Q KûiQ/Qb /2 +€H+mHQ- [m2 t
?Q`b /2bTmûb /2 Hb 5 : 00 X KX 2H MȹK2`Q f (t) /2 #+i2`Bb 2bi€
//Q TQ`,
f (t) = 1,200 · 3 2 .
t

V *H+mH2 2H MȹK2`Q /2 #+i2`Bb 2M 2H +mHiBpQ  Hb 6 : 00 XKXc 

Hb 8 : 00 XKX v  Hb 9 : 00 XKX
#V .B#mD2 H ;`€}+ /2 f /2b/2 t = 0 ?bi t = 5X

kX aB $ 2,000 b2 BMpB2`i2M H 14 % MmH v b2 +mKmHM HQb BMi2`2b2b K2M@

bmHK2Mi2 ǯ*m€H 2b 2H +TBiH /2bTmûb /2 2 K2b2b\ ǯ.2 3 K2b2b\ ǯ.2
7 K2b2b\ ǯ.2 1 ƢQ\

jX h`+2 H ;`€}+ /2

f (x) = 7 log 1 4(x − 6) − 8.

4
kR9 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

8XN 6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b

1H Q`B;2M /2 H i`B;QMQK2i`ő
G TH#` i`B;QMQK2i`ő T`QpB2M2 /2 Hb `ő+2b ;`B2;b, i`B;QMQM- i`B€M;mHQ v
K2i`QM- K2/B/c 2M 2bi2 b2MiB/Q- i`B;QMQK2i`ő i`/m+2- K2/B/ /2 HQb i`B€M;mHQbX
a2 +QMbB/2` [m2 >BT`+Q UR3y@Rk8 X*XV 7m2 2H T`BK2`Q 2M +QMbB/2`` Hb `2H@
+BQM2b 2Mi`2 HQb H/Qb v HQb €M;mHQb /2 mM i`B€M;mHQ `2+i€M;mHQX *Hm/BQ SiQHQK2Q
v `Bbi`+Q /2 aKQb THB+`QM H i`B;QMQK2i`ő  bmb 2bim/BQb /2 bi`QMQKőX 1H
T`BK2` i2tiQ /2 i`B;QMQK2i`ő- T`QTBK2Mi2 /B+?Q- 7m2 Tm#HB+/Q TQ` "`iQHQKû
SBiBb+mb UR8eR@ReRjV 2M 2H ƢQ Reyy- T` BKT`iB` mM +m`bQ 2M H mMBp2`bB// H2@
KM /2 >2B/2H#2`;X 1H Ki2K€iB+Q 7`M+ûb 6`MÏQBb oBĕi2 UR89y@ReyjV +H+mHƦ
H;mMb 7Ʀ`KmHb i`B;QMQKûi`B+b /2 €M;mHQb KȹHiBTH2bX G i`B;QMQK2i`ő `2+B@
#BƦ ;`M BKTmHbQ 2M 1b+Q+B-  i`pûb /2 CQ?M L2T2` UR88y@ReRdV- [mB2M BMp2MiƦ
HQb HQ;`BiKQb  T`BM+BTBQb /2H bB;HQ tpBBX 1M 2H bB;HQ tpBBB- +QM HQb i`#DQb /2H
Ki2K€iB+Q bmBxQ G2QM`/ 1mH2` URdyd@Rd3jV H i`B;QMQK2i`ő b2 T`iƦ /2 H
bi`QMQKő v b2 i`Mb7Q`KƦ 2M mM Mm2p `K /2 Hb Ki2K€iB+bX

S` +QKTH2K2Mi` imb P`B;BMHK2Mi2- H i`B;QMQK2i`ő 2b H +B2M+B +mvQ Q#@

+QMQ+BKB2MiQb bQ#`2 H D2iQ 2b H `2bQHm+BƦM /2 i`B€M;mHQbX GQb b2Bb 2H2K2MiQb
?BbiQ`B /2 H i`B;QMQ@ T`BM+BTH2b 2M iQ/Q i`B€M;mHQ bQM bmb i`2b H/Qb v bmb
K2i`ő `2pBb 2H bB;mB2M@ i`2b €M;mHQbX *mM/Q b2 +QMQ+2M i`2b /2 2biQb 2H2K2M@
i2 pB/2QX iQb- +QM iH [m2 H K2MQb mMQ /2 2HHQb b2 mM H/Q-
H i`B;QMQK2i`ő 2Mb2Ƣ  bQHm+BQM` 2H i`B€M;mHQ- 2b@
iQ 2b-  2M+QMi`` HQb Qi`Qb i`2b 2H2K2MiQbX 1M 2bi2
2bi/Q /2 H i`B;QMQK2i`ő b2 /2}M2M Hb 7mM+BQM2b
i`B;QMQKûi`B+b Ub2MQ- +Qb2MQ- iM;2Mi2- 2i+XV- /2 mM
€M;mHQ ;m/Q 2M mM i`B€M;mHQ `2+i€M;mHQ- +QKQ Hb
`xQM2b 2Mi`2 /Qb /2 HQb H/Qb /2H i`B€M;mHQc 2H /QKB@
MBQ /2 /2}MB+BƦM /2 2bib 7mM+BQM2b 2b 2H +QMDmMiQ /2
?iiTb,ffvQmimX#2f HQb MȹK2`Qb `2H2b [m2 ?;M TQbB#H2 H bB;M+BƦM
iibT:AL1PxF `2bT2+iBp- +QKQ HQ p2`2KQb K€b /2HMi2X

J2/B/ /2 €M;mHQb
Mi2b /2 /2}MB` Hb 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b 2bim/B2KQb H;mMb T`QTB2//2b
/2 HQb €M;mHQb Q`B2Mi/QbX S`iKQb /2 mM bBbi2K /2 +QQ`/2M/b +`i2bBMQ v
iQK2KQb +QKQ TmMiQ /2 T`iB/ 2H b2KB2D2 TQbBiBpQ /2 Hb #b+BbbX  +QMiBMm+BƦM
2KT2+2KQb  ;B`` mM b2;K2MiQ  T`iB` /2H b2KB2D2 TQbBiBpQ /2 Hb #b+BbbX 
K2/B/ [m2 pKQb ;B`M/Q- 2H b2;mM/Q b2;K2MiQ b2 p 7Q`KM/Q mM €M;mHQ +mvQb
H/Qb +Q``2bTQM/2M H b2KB2D2 TQbBiBpQ v H b2;K2MiQ [m2 ;B`X
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kR8

lM €M;mHQ +QMbi /2 mM `vQ BMB+BH- [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2 H b2KB2D2 /2 Hb x

TQbBiBpQ- mM `vQ i2`KBMH v mM pû`iB+2X .2}MBKQb 2H €M;mHQ +QKQ TQbBiBpQ bB
H HH2p` 2H `vQ BMB+BH bQ#`2 2H i2`KBMH- 2H KQpBKB2MiQ `2HBx/Q b2 ?+2 2M 2H
b2MiB/Q +QMi``BQ  Hb KM2+BHHb /2H `2HQDX aB 2H KQpBKB2MiQ b2 ?+2 2M 2H b2MiB/Q
/2 Hb KM2+BHHb /2H `2HQD- iQKKQb 2H €M;mHQ +QKQ M2;iBpQX
y

_vQ i2`KBMHX

M;mHQ M2;iBpQ (−)X

M;mHQ TQbBiBpQ (+)X

x
O
_vQ BMB+BHX
oû`iB+2 = OX

1tBbi2M /Qb iBTQb /2 mMB//2b T` K2/B` €M;mHQbX G mMB// /2 K2/B/ /2

€M;mHQb 2M 2H bBbi2K b2t;2bBKH 2b 2H ;`/Q X lM ;`/Q +Q``2bTQM/2  +/ mM
/2 Hb 360 T`i2b B;mH2b 2M [m2 b2 /BpB/2 2H +ő`+mHQX 1H €M;mHQ +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2
 mM ;B`Q +QKTH2iQ K2/B`€ 360◦ X lM €M;mHQ `2+iQ- [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2  mM +m`iQ
/2 +ő`+mHQ- KB/2 90◦ X 1H MȹK2`Q 360 7m2 2b+Q;B/Q TQ` HQb bi`ƦMQKQb ##BHƦMB+Qb-
[mBx€b TQ` [m2 2b 2H K€b +2`+MQ  HQb 365 /őb 2M 2H ƢQ v /2K€b 360 iB2M2
Km+?Qb /BpBbQ`2bX 1bi2 iBTQ /2 K2/B/ `2bmHi +QKTHB+/ T` 2H +€H+mHQ /2 Hb
7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b [m2 /2}MB`2KQb K€b /2HMi2X 1M 2H +€H+mHQ 2b K€b
+QMp2MB2Mi2 mb` H K2/B/ 2M `/BM2bX aB mM +ő`+mHQ iB2M2 `/BQ r v mM €M;mHQ
+mvQ pû`iB+2 2bi€ 2M 2H +2Mi`Q /2H +ő`+mHQ BMi2`+2Ti mM `+Q /2 HQM;Bim/ s- 2MiQM+2b
2H +Q+B2Mi2 s/r b2`€ H K2/B/ /2H €M;mHQ 2M `/BM2bX

s
θ
r

*QKQ H HQM;Bim/ /2 iQ/ H +B`+mM72`2M+B 2b 2πr- H K2/B/ /2H €M;mHQ

+B`+mH` +QKTH2iQ 2b 2π `/BM2bX 1H €M;mHQ +B`+mH` `2+iQ BMi2`+2Ti mM `+Q /2
kRe 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

HQM;Bim/ (1/2)πr bő 2bi2 €M;mHQ KB/2

1
πr
2 π
s= = `/BM2b.
r 2
1H b2KB+ő`+mHQ KB/2 πr/r = π `/BM2b X

_2H+BƦM 2Mi`2 ;`/Qb v `/BM2b

*QKQ 2H €M;mHQ `2+iQ iB2M2 90◦ = π/2 `/BM2bX h2M2KQb [m2
π 180◦
1◦ = `/BM2b vtextradian = ≈ 57,30◦ .
180 π
SQ` 2D2KTHQ-
π π
30◦ = 30 `/BM2b = `/BM2b.
180 6
1M 2H +bQ /2H +ő`+mHQ mMBi`BQ U+B`+mHQ /2 `/BQ 1V- H 7Ʀ`KmH θ = s/r = sX 1M
2bi2 +bQ- H HQM;Bim/ /2H `+Q BMi2`+2Ti/Q 2b B;mH  H K2/B/ /2H €M;mHQ 2M
`/BM2bX

J2/B/ /2 €M;mHQb K€b ;`M/2b [m2 2π

aB α 2b mM €M;mHQ +mv K2/B/ 2b KvQ` [m2 2π- TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B` α = p(2π) + θ
/QM/2 θ ∈ [ 0, 2π ] v p BM/B+`€ 2H MȹK2`Q /2 pm2Hib +QKTH2ib H`2/2/Q` /2H
+2Mi`Q /2H +ő`+mHQ mMBi`BQX 1H €M;mHQ π/2 iB2M2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b `2T`2b2Mi+BQM2b,
π π π 5π π 9π
= , + 2π = , + 4π = ,...
2 2 2 2 2 2
y

x
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kRd

1M H ;`€}+ TQ/2KQb Q#b2`p` [m2

π π 9π
α = 2π + 2π + = 4π + = .
2 2 2

M;mHQb M2;iBpQb
*QKQ /BDBKQb Mi2b- 2H bB;MQ M2;iBpQ BM/B+`€ [m2 2H €M;mHQ b2 Km2p2 2M 2H
KBbKQ b2MiB/Q /2 Hb KM2+BHHb /2H `2HQDX SQ` 2D2KTHQ 2H €M;mHQ −π/2 2KTB2x
2M 2H TmMiQ (1, 0) ?bi 2H TmMiQ (0, −1) 2M 2H b2MiB/Q M2;iBpQX 1b +QKQ bB H
KM2+BHH [m2 b2ƢH Hb ?Q`b b2 /2bTHx` /2b/2 Hb i`2b ?bi Hb b2BbX

(1, 0)

x

π
−
2
(0, −1) 

_2H+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b
.2}MB+BƦM /2 Hb `2H+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b
Gb `2H+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b b2 /2}M2M 2M i`B€M;mHQb `2+i€M;mHQbX a2 2H i`B€M@
;mHQ BAC iH [m2 BAC 2b `2+iQX
C

γ
a
b

β
B c A
kR3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

aB +/ mMQ /2 HQb pû`iB+2b b2 iQK +QKQ 2H €M;mHQ +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2- b2 /2}M2M

Hb `2H+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b /2 H bB;mB2Mi2 KM2`,

a2MQ /2H €M;mHQ B,

+i2iQ QTm2biQ b
sen β = = .
?BTQi2Mmb a

*Qb2MQ /2H €M;mHQ B,

+i2iQ /v+2Mi2 c
cos β = = .
?BTQi2Mmb a

hM;2Mi2 /2H €M;mHQ B,

+i2iQ QTm2biQ b
tan β = = .
+i2iQ /v+2Mi2 c

*QiM;2Mi2 /2H €M;mHQ B,

+i2iQ /v+2Mi2 c
cot β = = .
+i2iQ QTm2biQ b

a2+Mi2 /2H €M;mHQ B,

?BTQi2Mmb a
sec β = = .
+i2iQ /v+2Mi2 c

*Qb2+Mi2 /2H €M;mHQ B,

?BTQi2Mmb a
csc β = = .
+i2iQ QTm2biQ b
.2 7Q`K bBKBH` b2 Tm2/2M Q#i2M2` Hb `2H+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b /2H €M;mHQ CX

1H +ő`+mHQ i`B;QMQKûi`B+Q
*QM 2H T`QTƦbBiQ /2 /2}MB` Hb 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b-  T`iB` /2 Hb `2H+BQ@
M2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b- miBHBxKQb 2H +ő`+mHQ mMBi`BQ- +mv 2+m+BƦM +`i2bBM 2b
x2 + y 2 = 1X a2 A 2H TmMiQ (1, 0) v b2 t mM MȹK2`Q TQbBiBpQ- +Q``2bTQM/B2M@
i2  H K2/B/ /2 mM €M;mHQ- 2H +mH /2i2`KBM mM ȹMB+Q TmMiQ P (x, y) 2M H
+B`+mM72`2M+B /2 `/BQ mMB//- +QKQ b2 Km2bi` 2M H };m` bB;mB2Mi2,
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kRN

y P (x, y)


1 t

B 
x
O x A(1, 0)

aB t 2b M2;iBpQ i`xKQb 2H `+Q 2M 2H b2MiB/Q /2 Hb KM2+BHHb /2H `2HQDX Gb

+QMbB/2`+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b T2`KBi2M BM+Q`TQ`` Hb `2H+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b- iQ@
KM/Q +QKQ `272`2M+B- T`BK2`Q 2H i`B€M;mHQ OBP X .2 +m2`/Q  Hb /2}MB+BQM2b
/2 Hb `2H+BQM2b Mi2b 2bi#H2+B/b b2 i2M/`€ [m2 x = cos t v y = sen tX
aB bmKBKQb [m2 Hb +QQ`/2M/b /2 +/ TmMiQ /2 H +B`+mM72`2M+B +Q``2b@
TQM/2  HQb pHQ`2b /2H b2MQ v /2H +Qb2MQ /2H €M;mHQ [m2 b2 7Q`K- TQ/2KQb
;2M2`HBx` Hb `2H+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b  T` €M;mHQb 2M ;2M2`HX bő- TQ`
2D2KTHQ- bB t = π/2- 2MiQM+2b cos(π/2) = 0 v sen(π/2) = 1X aB t = −π 2MiQM+2b
cos(−π) = −1 v sen(−π) = 0X

.2}MB+BƦM /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b

Gb 7mM+BQM2b b2MQ v +Qb2MQ
./Q [m2 T` +/ t- sen t v cos t 2bi€M /2}MB/b /2 KM2` ȹMB+- MQ ?v MBM;ȹM
T`Q#H2K 2M /2}MB` 2bib `2H+BQM2b +QKQ 7mM+BQM2b 2M 2H b2MiB/Q /2 [m2  +/ t
UMȹK2`Q `2H- +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2  H K2/B/ /2H €M;mHQV H2 bB;M mM ȹMB+Q pHQ`X
1M 2bi2 b2MiB/Q 2H /QKBMBQ /2 2bib 7mM+BQM2b b2`€ RX *QKQ x v y 2bi€M bB2KT`2
2Mi`2 −1 v 1- 2H `M;Q /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b b2MQ v +Qb2MQ 2b 2H BMi2`pHQ [ −1, 1 ]- 2b
/2+B`- |sen t| ≤ 1 v |cos t| ≤ 1X
Sm2biQ [m2 2H +ő`+mHQ mMBi`BQ iB2M2 2π /2 +B`+mM72`2M+B- HQb pHQ`2b t v t + 2π
+Q``2bTQM/2M H KBbKQ TmMiQ- 2b /2+B`- b2 +mKTH2 [m2 sen(2π + t) = sen t v
cos(2π + t) = cos tX P#b2`p2 [m2 THB+M/Q 2H i2Q`2K /2 TBi€;Q`b H i`B€M;mHQ
OBP i2M2KQb [m2 sen2 t + cos2 t = 1X

./Q [m2 HQb TmMiQb P v Q [m2 +Q``2bTQM/2M  t v  −t- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2- bQM

bBKûi`B+Qb +QM `2bT2+iQ H 2D2 x- 2MiQM+2b Hb #b+Bbb /2 P v Q bQM Hb KBbKb
v Hb Q`/2M/b bQM /B72`2Mi2b 2M bB;MQX 1bQ bB;MB}+ [m2 sen(−t) = − sen t v
kky 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

cos(−t) = cos tX 1M H ;`€}+ 8XRN- 2H €M;mHQ t T`2+2 b2ƢHM/Q 2H +QKQ 2H `+Q

+Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2  H K2/B/ /2H €M;mHQ 2M `/BM2bX
y

P (x, y)
y 

1 t


x
x A(1, 0)

−t

−y 

Q(x, −y)

6B;m` 8XRNX sen(−t) = − sen t v cos(−t) = cos tX

8XNXR .2}MB+BƦMX 7mM+BƦM T2`BƦ/B+

lM 7mM+BƦM b2 /B+2 [m2 2b T2`BƦ/B+ bB 2tBbi2 mM +QMbiMi2 C iH [m2
f (x + C) = f (x)X 1H pHQ` TQbBiBpQ K€b T2[m2ƢQ /2 2bi2 MȹK2`Q +QMbiMi2
b2 HHK T2`őQ/Q /2 2bi 7mM+BƦMX

.2 +m2`/Q  H /2}MB+BƦM Mi2`BQ` Hb 7mM+BQM2b sen t v cos t bQM T2`BƦ/B+b v bm

T2`őQ/Q 2b 2πX 1bib 7mM+BQM2b 2bi€M /2}MB/b T` iQ/Qb HQb pHQ`2b /2 tX Gb
;`€}+b /2 2bib 7mM+BQM2b b2 Km2bi`M  +QMiBMm+BƦM,
y y

1 y = sen t
sen t

t
x t
−
π π 3π
2 2 2

−1
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kkR

y y

1 y = cos t

t
x t
cos t π 2π

−1

Gb Qi`b 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b

.2#2 b2` +H`Q [m2 Hb `2biMi2b `2H+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b [m2 b2 /2}M2M 2M
iû`KBMQb /2 Hb `2H+BQM2b b2MQ v +Qb2MQ /M Q`B;2M  Qi`b iMib 7mM+BQM2b i`B@
;QMQKûi`B+b +QKQ `2bmHi/Q /2 H +QK#BM+BƦM H;2#`B+ +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2 /2 Hb
7mM+BQM2b b2MQ v +Qb2MQX 1b BKTQ`iMi2 i2M2` T`2b2Mi2 [m2 /2#B/Q  bm /2}MB+BƦM-
Hb `2biMi2b 7mM+BQM2b MQ iB2M2M  iQ/Q R +QKQ /QKBMBQX SQ` 2D2KTHQ- H 7mM+BƦM
iM;2Mi2
sen x
tan x = ,
cos x
MQ 2bi€ /2}MB/ 2M [m2HHQb x T` HQb [m2 cos x = 0X SQ` HQ iMiQ bm /QKBMBQ 2b,
 
π
R − (2k + 1) : k ∈ Z .
2

1M H bB;mB2Mi2 i#H T`2b2MiKQb HQb /QKBMBQb v `M;Qb /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b

i`B;QMQKûi`B+bX .2DKQb [m2 2H 2bim/BMi2 H p2`B}[m2X

6mM+BƦMX .QKBMBQX _M;QX

*Qb2MQX RX [ −1, 1 ]X
a2MQX RX [ −1, 1 ]X
 
π
hM;2Mi2X R − (2k + 1) : k ∈ Z X RX
2
*QiM;2Mi2X R − {nπ : n ∈ Z} RX
 
π
a2+Mi2X R − (2k + 1) : k ∈ Z X (−∞, −1 ] ∪ [ 1, ∞)X
2
*Qb2+Mi2X R − {nπ : n ∈ Z}X (−∞, −1 ] ∪ [ 1, ∞)X

G Mi2`BQ` i#H b2 ? 2bi#H2+B/Q i2M/B2M/Q  H /2}MB+BƦM /2 +/ mM /2

2HHbX Sm2biQ [m2,
1 cos t 1 1
cot t = = , csc t = , sec t =
tan t sen t sen t cos t
kkk 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

Gb 7mM+BƦM sec t iB2M2 2t+iK2Mi2 2H KBbKQ /QKBMBQ [m2 H 7mM+BƦM tan t v Hb
7mM+BQM2b cot t v csc t 2bi€M /2}MB/b T` iQ/Qb HQb pHQ`2b /2 t- 2t+2TiQ t = kπ-
(k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .)- +QKQ b2 Km2bi` 2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b ;`€}+bX
y

y = tan t

−π π
t
3π π π 3π
− −
2 2 2 2

y = cot t

t
3π π π 3π
− −π − π
2 2 2 2
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kkj

y = sec t

y=1

t
3π π π 3π
− −π − π
2 2 2 2 y = −1

y = csc t

y=1

t
−2π −3π/2 −π −π/2 π/2 π 3π/2 2π
y = −1
kk9 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

+iBpB// 8XNXR,
>+B2M/Q mbQ /2 Hb `xQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b `2bm2Hp2,

RX lM 2b+H2` /2 5 K2i`Qb /2 H`;Q 2bi€ TQv/ bQ#`2 H T`2/ /2

mM +bX aB H #b2 /2 H 2b+H2` 2bi€  2,5 K2i`Qb /2 H +bX ǯZmû
€M;mHQ 7Q`K H 2b+H2` +QM 2H TBbQ\- ǯ [mû Him` 2bi€ TQv/ H
2b+H2` 2M H T`2/\

kX lM ;HQ#Q b2 2M+m2Mi` K``/Q H bm2HQ TQ` mM +m2`/ /2 140

K2i`Qb /2 H`;QX *QM 2H pB2MiQ- 2H ?BHQ b2 /2bpő 2M 38◦ /2 bm p2`iB+HX
ǯ*m€H 2b ?Q` H Him` /2H ;HQ#Q bQ#`2 2H bm2HQ\

6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b ;2M2`H2b

*QMbB/2`KQb ?Q` Qi`Q iBTQ /2 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b +mvb T`QTB2//2b b2
/2/m+2M /2 Hb Mi2`BQ`2b TQ` 2bi` /2}MB/b 2M iû`KBMQb /2 ûbibX Gb 7mM+BQM2b
 Hb [m2 MQb `272`BKQb 2bi€M /2}MB/b K2/BMi2 Hb H2v2b /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B,

y = a sen(b x + c),
y = a cos(b x + c),
y = a tan(b x + c),

/QM/2 a, b, c ∈ R v b = 0X

1bi2 iBTQ /2 7mM+BQM2b T`2+2M +QM 7`2+m2M+B 2M 2H 2bim/BQ /2 72MƦK2MQb T2@

`BƦ/B+Qb 2M 7őbB+X 1D2KTHQb /2 2biQb 72MƦK2MQb bQM, 2H KQpBKB2MiQ /2 mM +m2`TQ
[m2 ~Qi 2M 2H ;m KQpB/Q TQ` Hb QHb- 2H KQpBKB2MiQ /2 mM T`iő+mH 2M mM
+m2`/ pB#`Mi2- 2H KQpBKB2MiQ /2 mM TûM/mHQ- 2H KQpBKB2MiQ /2 mM +m2`TQ bmb@
T2M/B/Q /2 mM `2bQ`i2- 2i+X

1biQb KQpBKB2MiQb +2M /2Mi`Q /2 mM KBbKQ iBTQ /2 /2b+`BT+BƦM [m2 b2 HHK

KQpBKB2MiQ `KƦMB+Q bBKTH2X 1M ;2M2`H- iQ/Q +m2`TQ +mvQ /2bTHxKB2MiQ d +QM
`2bT2+iQ  mM `2+i- 2M +mH[mB2` iB2KTQ t 2biû //Q TQ` H 2+m+BƦM,

d = a sen(wt + φ),

/QM/2 a, w = 0- /2b+`B#2 mM KQpBKB2MiQ `KƦMB+Q bBKTH2X

1bi 2+m+BƦM +QMiB2M2 iQ/ H BM7Q`K+BƦM bQ#`2 2bi2 iBTQ /2 KQpBKB2MiQX 1H

/2bTHxKB2MiQ K€tBKQ /2b/2 H TQbB+BƦM /2 2[mBHB#`BQ (d = 0) 2b |a| [m2 b2
HHK KTHBim/c 2H iB2KTQ M2+2b`BQ T` mM pB#`+BƦM +QKTH2i 2b 2π/w [m2
+Q``2bTQM/2 H T2`őQ/Qc HQb BMbiMi2b /2 iB2KTQ t 2M [m2 2H +m2`TQ Tb TQ` bm
TQbB+BƦM /2 2[mBHB#`BQ bQM Hb bQHm+BQM2b /2 H 2+m+BƦM sen(wt + φ) = 0c 2i+X
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kk8

1H KQpBKB2MiQ `KƦMB+Q bBKTH2 iK#BûM b2 Tm2/2 /2b+`B#B` mbM/Q H 7mM+BƦM

+Qb2MQ v [m2
π
cos wt = sen − wt .
2
S` ?+2` H ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM y = a sen(b x + c)- a, b, c ∈ R- a, b = 0- [m2
/2b+`B#2 2H KQpBKB2MiQ `KƦMB+Q bBKTH2- #bi b2;mB` 2H T`Q+2/BKB2MiQ T`2b2Mi/Q
2M H b2++BƦM \\ Uh`Mb7Q`K+BƦM /2 ;`€}+bV- /2 ûbi2 +TőimHQX 1b /2+B`- b2 Tm2/2
2b#Qx` H ;`€}+ /2 y = a sen x  T`iB` /2 H ;`€}+ /2 y = sen x,
y
a

y y = a sen(x)X
x
1 y = sen(x)X

x
π 3π
π 2π
2 2
−1
−a

LQ 2b /B7ő+BH 2b#Qx` H ;`€}+ /2 y = a sen(bx + c)X  +QMiBMm+BƦM T`2+2

H ;`€}+ +Q``2bTQM/B2Mi2  2bi 7mM+BƦM T` a = 4- b = 2 v c = 0,5X

y
4

y
y = 4 sen(2x)X
1 y = sen(2x)X x
π π 3π
π
4 2 4
x
π π 3π
π
4 2 4
−1
−4

6B;m` 8XkyX G ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM 6B;m` 8XkRX G ;`€}+ /2 H 7mM+BƦM

y = sen(2x) 2b mM Ŀ+QKT`2bBƦM ?Q`B@ y = 4 sen(2x) 2b mM Ŀ/BHi+BƦM p2`iB@
xQMiHŀ /2 y = sen xX +Hŀ /2 y = sen(2x)X

1bi2 KBbKQ T`Q+2/BKB2MiQ b2 Tm2/2 2KTH2` T` 2b#Qx` H ;`€}+ /2

1 π
y= tan 2x + .
2 2
kke 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

y y

π π
x π π
x
− −
2 2 2 2

1
y = tan x y= tan x
2

y y

π π
− −
4 2
x x
π
4

 
1 1 π
y= tan(2x) y= tan 2x +
2 2 2

1
6B;m` 8XkkX h`Mb7Q`K+BƦM ;2QKûi`B+ /2 H ;`€}+ /2 y = 2
tan 2x + π
2

AMp2`bb /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+bX

1M H b2++BƦM Mi2`BQ` ?2KQb pBbiQ +QKQ +H+mH` H 7mM+BƦM i`B;QMQKûi`B+ +Q@
``2bTQM/B2Mi2  T`iB` /2H €M;mHQ tX a2 Tm2/2 T`2b2Mi` 2H +bQ BMp2`bQ /2 +H+mH`
2H €M;mHQ  T`iB` /2H pHQ` /2 H 7mM+BƦM i`B;QMQKûi`B+X SQ` 2D2KTHQ [m2`2KQb
b#2` 2H pHQ` /2 t iH [m2- cos t = 1/2X 1H T`Q#H2K 2b [m2 MQb TQ/2KQb 2M+QM@
i`` p`BQb pHQ`2b /2 t T` HQb +mH2b b2 +mKTH2 H B;mH//- 2M Mm2bi`Q +bQ-
t = π/3- t = 7π/3- 2i+X 1M Qi`b TH#`b- Hb +Q``2bTQM/2M+Bb /2}MB/b TQ` Hb
`2H+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b MQ bQM #BmMőpQ+b- HQ [m2 bB;MB}+ [m2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b
i`B;QMQKûi`B+b MQ bQM BMv2+iBpbX
1H T`Q#H2K /2 H BMp2`bBƦM +QMbBbi2 2MiQM+2b 2M `2bi`BM;B` 2H /QKBMBQ /2
Hb 7mM+BQM2b /2 iH KM2` [m2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b bő Q#i2MB/b b2M BMv2+iBpbX G
b2H2++BƦM /2H Mm2pQ /QKBMBQ 2b- 2M T`BM+BTBQ- `#Bi``BX aBM 2K#`;Q TQ` mM +QM@
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kkd

p2M+BƦM v ;2M2`HBx/ Hb `2bi`B++BQM2b [m2 b2 ?+2M bQM Hb bB;mB2Mi2b,

6mM+BƦMX .QKBMBQ `2bi`BM;B/QX *QKTQ`iKB2MiQX _M;QX


π π
a2MQX − , *`2+B2Mi2X [ −1, 1 ]X
2 2
*Qb2MQX [ 0, π ] .2+`2+B2Mi2X [ −1, 1]X

π π
hM;2Mi2X − , *`2+B2Mi2X RX
2 2
*QiM;2Mi2X (0, π) .2+`2+B2Mi2X RX

π π
a2+Mi2X 0, ∪ ,π *`2+B2Mi2 2M +/ (−∞, −1 ] ∪ [ 1, ∞)X
2 2
 bm#BMi2`pHQX
π π
*Qb2+Mi2X − , 0 ∪ 0, .2+`2+B2Mi2 2M +/ (−∞, −1 ] ∪ [ 1, ∞)X
2 2
bm#BMi2`pHQX

P#bû`p2b2 [m2 2M 2biQb /QKBMBQb Hb Mm2pb 7mM+BQM2b bQM BMp2`iB#H2b Tm2b 2HHb
bQM BMv2+iBpbX MHB+2KQb HQ Mi2`BQ` T` H 7mM+BƦM b2MQX
a2 f H `2bi`B++BƦM /2 H 7mM+BƦM b2MQ H BMi2`pHQ [ −π/2, π/2 ]X
π π
f (x) = sen x, − ≤x≤ .
2 2
*QKQ f 2b BMp2`iB#H2- H H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B [m2  +/ x 2M [ −1, 1 ] H2 ?+2
+Q``2bTQM/2` 2H pHQ` /2 y 2M [ −π/2, π/2 ] iH [m2 f (y) = x- /2}M2 H BMp2`b
f −1 /2 f X  H 7mM+BƦM f −1 b2 H2 HHK `+Qb2MQ- iB2M2 /QKBMBQ [ −1, 1 ] v `M;Q
[ −π/2, π/2 ]X aBK#ƦHB+K2Mi2,

y = arc sen x bB v bƦHQ bB sen y = xc −π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2X

1b BKTQ`iMi2 i2M2` 2M +m2Mi [m2 2H /QKBMBQ v 2H `M;Q /2 +/ BMp2`b bQM

`2bT2+iBpK2Mi2 2H `M;Q v 2H /QKBMBQ /2 H 7mM+BƦM Q`B;BMH `2bi`BM;B/X >+2KQb
2bi Q#b2`p+BƦM v [m2- TQ` 2D2KTHQ- MQ bB2KT`2 2b +B2`iQ [m2,

arc sen(sen x) = x.

S` [m2 b2 +B2`i 2bi B;mH// /2#2KQb 2tB;B` 2M 2bi2 +bQ [m2 x ∈ [ −π/2, π/2 ]X
1M 272+iQ bB x = π b2 iB2M2 [m2,

arc sen(sen π) = 0 = π.

G ;`€}+ /2 y = arc sen x 2b H bB;mB2Mi2,

kk3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

π y = arc sen x
2
y=x

1 y = sen x

π
− −1
2
x
π
1
2

−1

π
−
2

.2 KM2` bBKBH` b2 /2}M2M Hb BMp2`bb `+Qb2MQ- `+Q+QiM;2Mi2- `+QiM;2Mi2-

`+Qb2+Mi2 v `+Q+Qb2+Mi2 T` Hb `2biMi2b 7mM+BQM2bX SQ` 2D2KTHQ H 7mM+BƦM
`+Q+Qb2MQ b2 /2}M2 bő,

y = arc cos x bB v bƦHQ bB cos y = xc 0 ≤ y ≤ πX

y = arctan x bB v bƦHQ bB tan y = xc − π2 < y < π2 X

y 4 `+ +Qi x bB v bƦHQ bB cot y = xc 0 < y < πX

y 4 `+ b2+ x bB v bƦHQ bB sec y = xc 0 ≤ y < π

2 Q π
2 < y < πX

y 4 `+ +b+ x bB v bƦHQ bB csc y = xc − π2 ≤ y < 0 Q 0 < y ≤ π2 X

+iBpB// 8XNXk,
o2`B}+` HQb `2bmHi/Qb Mi2`BQ`2bX

LQ /2#2 b2` /B7ő+BH T` 2H 2bim/BMi2 p2`B}+` [m2 Hb ;`€}+b /2 `+Q+Qb2MQ v
`+QiM;2Mi2 bQM Hb bB;mB2Mi2bX a2 /2D H H2+iQ` `2HBx` Hb ;`€}+b +Q``2bTQM@
/B2Mi2b  Hb 7mM+BQM2b- `+Q+QiM;2Mi2- `+Qb2+Mi2 v `+Q+Qb2+Mi2X
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kkN

y
y = arc cos x
π y=x

π
x
−1 1

−1 y = cos x

y
y = tan x

π y=x
x=−
2

π
y=
2 y = arctan x

π
y=−
2

π
x=
2

S`2b2MiKQb  +QMiBMm+BƦM H;mMQb 2D2KTHQb [m2 BHmbi`M 2H mbQ /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b

i`B;QMQKûi`B+b BMp2`bb 2M +€H+mHQb 2bT2+ő}+QbX

8XNXk 1D2KTHQX
 
RX 1M+m2Mi`2 2H pHQ` /2 sec arctan(2/3) bBM ?+2` mbQ /2 Hb i#Hb MB
/2 +H+mH/Q`X
aB y = arctan(2/3)- 2MiQM+2b tan y = 2/3X *QKQ sec2 y = 1 + tan2 y
kjy 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

v −π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2 TQ/2KQb 2b+`B#B`,

 † 2  √
† 2 4 13
sec y = 1+ tan2 y = ‡1 + = 1+ = .
3 9 3

  √
.2 [mő [m2- sec arctan(2/3) = sec y = 13/3X
 
kX 1pHȹ2 sen arctan(1/2) − arc cos(4/5) X
aB u = arctan(1/2) v v = arc cos(4/5)- i2M/`őKQb [m2 tan u = 1/2 v
cos v = 4/5X .2b2KQb 2M+QMi`` sen(u−v)X  u v v Hb /2#2KQb +QM@
bB/2`` 2M K2/B/b /2 €M;mHQb ;m/Qb TQbBiBpQb 2M `/BM2b- Tm2biQ
[m2 2bi€M 2M 2H BMi2`pHQ [ 0, −π/2 ]- v b2 Tm2/2M Q#i2M2` Qi`Qb pHQ`2b
/2 2bib K2/BMi2 HQb i`B€M;mHQb `2+i€M;mHQb /2 H };m` bB;mB2Mi2X

5
3
√
5
1
u v
2 4

1biQ MQb +QM/m+2  [m2,

1 2 3
sen u = √ , cos u = √ v sen v = .
5 5 5

1M +QMb2+m2M+B-
√
1 4 2 3 −2 5
sen(u − v) = sen u cos v − cos u sen v = √ −√ = .
55 55 25

jX 1b+`B# cos(arc sen x) +QKQ mM 2tT`2bBƦM H;2#`B+ 2M xX aB +QMbB/2@

`KQb y = sen−1 x- 2MiQM+2b sen y = xX .2 [mő [m2 Mm2bi`Q Q#D2iBpQ
2b 2M+QMi`` cos yX *QKQ −π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2- b2 +QM+Hmv2 [m2 0 ≤ cos y
v TQ` HQ iMiQ-
 
cos y = 1 − sen2 y = 1 − x2

√
1M +QMb2+m2M+B- cos(arc sen x) = 1 − x2 X
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kjR

A/2MiB//2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b
lM B/2MiB// 2b mM B;mH// [m2 b2 +mKTH2 T` iQ/Qb HQb pHQ`2b /2 Hb p@
`B#H2b [m2 T`2+2M  +/ H/Q /2 H B;mH//X 1M 2H +bQ /2 Hb B/2MiB//2b
i`B;QMQKûi`B+b b2 +mKTH2 T` +mH[mB2` pHQ` /2H €M;mHQX
THB+M/Q 2H i2Q`2K /2 TBi€;Q`b Q#i2M2KQb [m2 x2 +y 2 = 1X *QKQ x = cos θ
v y = sen θ, b2 i2M/`€ H B/2MiB// 7mM/K2MiH,
sen2 θ + cos2 θ = 1.
.BpB/B2M/Q- T`BK2`Q TQ` sen2 θ v Hm2;Q TQ` cos2 θ- H B/2MiB// Mi2`BQ` b2 Q#iB2M2,
sen2 θ cos2 θ 1
+ = ,
sen θ sen θ
2 2 sen2 θ
HQ [m2 bB;MB}+ [m2-
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ.
v-
sen2 θ cos2 θ 1
+ = ,
cos θ
2 cos θ
2 cos2 θ
HQ [m2 bB;MB}+ [m2-
tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ.
Gb B/2MiB//2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b b2 2KTH2M 2M H;mMb bBim+BQM2bX 1M ;2M2@
`H- 2b /BbT2M/BQbQ +H+mH` HQb `2bmHi/Qb /B`2+iK2Mi2 /2 H `2H+BƦMX SQ` 2D2KTHQ-
2M H;mMQb +bQb 2b K€b b2M+BHHQ +H+mH` HQb pHQ`2b T` Hb 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKû@
i`B+b /2 mM €M;mHQ +mM/Q TQ/2KQb /2b+QKTQM2` 2b2 €M;mHQ 2M mM bmK Q `2bi
/2 Qi`Qb /Qb +QM 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b +QMQ+B/bX 1M 2bi2 +bQ 2b M2+2b`BQ
+QMQ+2` Hb bB;mB2Mi2b B/2MiB//2b,
sen(α ± β) = sen α cos β ± cos α sen β.
cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sen α sen β.
tan α ± tan β
tan(α ± β) = .
1 ∓ tan α tan β
1KT2+2KQb /2KQbi`M/Q [m2 sen(α + β) = sen α cos β + cos α sen βX amTQM;KQb
[m2 AOC = α v BOC = β- 2MiQM+2b AOB = α + βX
B

α C

H F

β
α
A
O E G
kjk 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

1M OB- HőM2 HőKBi2 /2H €M;mHQ +QKTm2biQ α + β, iQK2 mM TmMiQ I v i`+2 IE

2 IF T2`T2M/B+mH`2b  OA v OC `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2c i`+2 iK#BûM F G v F H
T2`T2M/B+mH`2b  OA v IE- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X SQ` /2}MB+BƦM-
IE
sen(α + β) = ,
OI
F G + IH
= ,
OI
F G IH
= + ,
OI OI
F G OF IH IF
= + ,
OF OI IF OI
= sen α cos β + cos(HIF ) sen β.

S2`Q HIF = 90◦ − HF I = HF O = F OG = αX SQ` HQ iMiQ

sen(α + β) = sen α cos β + cos α sen β.

.2 H KBbK 7Q`K- TQ/2KQb /2KQbi`` [m2

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sen α sen β.

OE
cos(α + β) = ,
OI
OG − HF
= ,
OI
OG HF
= − ,
OI OI
OG OF HF IF
= − ,
OF OI IF OI
= cos α cos β − sen(HIF ) sen β,
= cos α cos β − sen α sen β.
*K#BM/Q 2H ``2;HQ /2 €M;mHQb- /2 KM2` [m2 [m2/2 +QKQ mM `2bi- T`Q#@
`2KQb  +QMiBMm+BƦM [m2,

sen(α + (−β)) = sen(α − β) = sen α cos β − cos α sen β.

cos(α + (−β)) = cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sen α sen β.

amTQM;KQb [m2 AOC = α v BOC = βc 2MiQM+2b AOB = α − βX

6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kjj

F H
α B
I

β
α
A
O G E
1M OB- HőM2 HőKBi2 /2H €M;mHQ +QKTm2biQ α − β- iƦK2b2 mM TmMiQ I v i`€+2Mb2
IE 2 IF T2`T2M/B+mH`2b  OA v OC- `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2c i`€+2Mb2 iK#BûM F G v
F H T2`T2M/B+mH`2b  OA v EI `2bT2+iBpK2Mi2X
SQ` /2}MB+BƦM-
IE
sen(α − β) = ,
OI
F G − IH
= ,
OI
F G IH
= − ,
OI OI
F G OF IH IF
= − ,
OF OI IF OI
= sen α cos β − cos(HIF ) sen β.
S2`Q HIF = 90◦ − HF I = CF H = COA = αX SQ` HQ iMiQ
sen(α − β) = sen α cos β − cos α sen β.
hK#BûM-
OE
cos(α − β) = ,
OI
OG + F H
= ,
OI
OG HF
= + ,
OI OI
OG OF HF IF
= + ,
OF OI IF OI
= cos α cos β + sen(HIF ) sen β,
= cos α cos β + sen α sen β.
*QM #b2 2M Hb B/2MiB//2b Mi2`BQ`2b TQ/2KQb +H+mH` Hb /2 HQb €M;mHQb
/Q#H2b v Hb /2 HQb €M;mHQb K2/BQbX
kj9 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

A/2MiB//2b /2H €M;mHQ /Q#H2,

sen 2α = 2 sen α cos α.

cos 2α = cos2 α − sen2 α.
2 tan α
tan 2α = .
1 − tan2 α

A/2MiB//2b /2H €M;mHQ KBi/,


α 1 − cos α
sen = ± .
2 2

α 1 + cos α
cos = ± .
2 2
‰
α 1 − cos α
tan = ± .
2 1 + cos α

.2b``QHH` sen 2α 2M 7mM+BƦM /2 sen α v cos αX

sen 2α = sen(α + α),

= sen α cos α + cos α sen α,
= 2 sen α cos α,

+QKQ α Tm2/2 i2M2` +mH[mB2` pHQ`- ûbi 2b mM 7Ʀ`KmH T2`72+iK2Mi2 ;2M2`H
T` 2H b2MQ /2 mM €M;mHQ 2M 7mM+BƦM /2H b2MQ v +Qb2MQ /2H €M;mHQ KBi/X bő- bB
b2 bmbiBimv2 2α TQ` θ- i2M2KQb,
θ θ
sen θ = 2 sen cos .
2 2
.2 KM2` M€HQ; TQ/2KQb +QM+HmB` [m2

θ θ
cos θ = cos2 − sen2 ,
2 2

HQ +mH [m2/ +QKQ 2D2`+B+BQX

+iBpB// 8XNXj,
S`m2# Hb bB;mB2Mi2b B/2MiB//2bX

RX cos(180◦ − α) = − cos αX kX sen(360◦ + α) = sen αX

6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kj8

*€H+mHQ /2 sen β2
aB 2M H 7Ʀ`KmH
cos 2α = cos2 α − sen2 α,
miBHBxKQb H B/2MiB// 7mM/K2MiH sen2 α + cos2 α = 1 Q#i2M2KQb,

cos 2α = 1 − 2 sen2 α,

bB ?+2KQb α = β/2- `2bmHi,

β β
cos 2 = 1 − 2 sen2 .
2 2
SQ` HQ iMiQ cos β = 1 − 2 sen2 (β/2)- v /2bT2DM/Q sen2 (β/2) Q#i2M2KQb,
β
2 sen2 = 1 − cos β,
2
β 1 − cos β
sen2 = .
2 2
SQ` HQ iMiQ- ‰
β 1 − cos β
sen = .
2 2
.2 KM2` M€HQ; TQ/2KQb /2KQbi`` [m2
‰
β 1 + cos β
cos = ,
2 2
HQ +mH [m2/ +QKQ 2D2`+B+BQX

*€H+mHQ /2 tan β2
‰
†
1 − cos β
† 1 − cos β ‰
†
β sen β
2 2 †
2 1 − cos β
tan = =‰ =†
† = .
2 cos β
2 1 + cos β ‡ 1 + cos β 1 + cos β
2 2
*QM H vm/ /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 bmK v `2bi /2 €M;mHQb /2KQbi``2KQb Qi`b
B/2MiB//2b,
RX cos(90◦ − ε) = sen εX

cos(90◦ − ε) = cos 90◦ cos ε + sen 90◦ sen ε,

= 0 · cos ε + 1 · sen ε,
= sen ε.
kje 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

kX sen(90◦ − δ) = cos δX M€HQ;K2Mi2 +QKQ RX

jX cos(−ϕ) = cos ϕX

cos(−ϕ) = cos(0 − ϕ),

= cos 0 cos ϕ + sen 0 sen ϕ,
= 1 · cos ϕ + 0 · sen ϕ,
= cos ϕ.

9X sen(−η) = − sen ηX M€HQ;K2Mi2 +QKQ jX

tan λ + tan µ
8X tan(λ + µ) = X
1 − tan λ tan µ

sen(λ + µ)
tan(λ + µ) = ,
cos(λ + µ)
sen λ cos µ + sen µ cos λ
= .
cos λ cos µ − sen λ sen µ
*QKQ [m2`2KQb [m2 H B;mH// MQb [m2/2 2M iû`KBMQb /2 tan λ v tan µ-
2MiQM+2b /2#2KQb /BpB/B` 2H MmK2`/Q` v 2H /2MQKBM/Q` TQ` cos λ cos µc
bő,
sen λ cos µ sen µ cos λ
+
cos λ cos µ cos λ cos µ
tan(λ + µ) = ,
cos λ cos µ sen λ sen µ
−
cos λ cos µ cos λ cos µ
tan λ + tan µ
= .
1 − tan λ tan µ

tan λ − tan µ
eX tan(λ − µ) = X M€HQ;K2Mi2 +QKQ 8X
1 + tan λ tan µ

8XNXj 1D2KTHQX

RX S`Q#2KQb [m2 tan(180◦ − θ) = tan θX

tan 180◦ + tan θ

tan(180◦ − θ) = ,
1 − tan 180◦ tan θ
0 + tan θ
= ,
1 − 0 · tan θ
= tan θ.
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kjd

kX S`Q#2KQb [m2 cos(2α) = 1 − 2 sen2 αX

cos(2α) = cos2 α − sen2 α,

= (1 − sen2 α) − sen2 α,
= 1 − sen2 α − sen2 α,
= 1 − 2 sen2 α.

2 tan δ
jX G /2/m++BƦM /2 tan(2δ) = 2b bBKBH`  Hb Mi2`BQ`2b,
1 − tan2 δ

tan(2δ) = tan(δ + δ),

tan δ + tan δ
= ,
1 − tan δ tan δ
2 tan δ
= .
1 − tan2 δ

9X S`Q#2KQb [m2 sen(φ + ω) sen(φ − ω) = sen2 φ − sen2 ωX

sen(φ + ω) sen(φ − ω) = (sen φ cos ω + sen ω cos φ)

· (sen φ cos ω − sen ω cos φ),
= (sen φ cos ω)2 − (sen ω cos φ)2 ,
= sen2 φ cos2 ω − sen2 ω cos2 φ,
= sen2 φ(1 − sen2 ω) − sen2 ω(1 − sen2 φ),
= sen2 φ − sen2 φ sen2 ω − sen2 ω
+ sen2 ω sen2 φ,
= sen2 φ − sen2 ω.

8X a#B2M/Q [m2 sen α = −5/6c +QM 180◦ < α < 270◦ - v cos β = 1/3c +QM
0 < β < 90◦ - +H+mH2KQb cos(α + β)X
1M T`BK2` Hm;` /2#2KQb /2i2`KBM` HQb pHQ`2b /2 cos α v sen β miBHB@
xM/Q H B/2MiB// sen2 α + cos2 α = 1c bő
2
5
− + cos2 α = 1,
6

2MiQM+2b cos α = ±11/36- T2`Q 180◦ < α < 270◦ - Hm2;Q cos α = −11/36X
kj3 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

1M H KBbK 7Q`K b#2KQb [m2 sen β = 8/9X SQ` HQ iMiQ,

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sen α sen β,

11 1 5 8
= − · − − · ,
36 3 6 9
23
= .
36

*QKQ 2D2`+B+BQ +H+mH` sen(α + β)- cos(α − β) v sen(α − β)X

8XNX9 h2Q`2KX Uh2Q`2K /2 HQb b2MQbV

a2 ABC mM i`B€M;mHQ MQ `2+i€M;mHQX aB α- β v γ bQM Hb K2/B/b /2 HQb
€M;mHQb v a- b v c Hb HQM;Bim/2b /2 HQb H/Qb- +QKQ b2 p2 2M H };m`-
2MiQM+2b
sen α sen β sen γ
= = .
a b c

b a

α β
A B
c

8XNX8 h2Q`2KX Uh2Q`2K /2 HQb +Qb2MQbV

aB Hb HQM;Bim/2b /2 HQb /Qb H/Qb /2 mM i`B€M;mHQ bQM b v c v 2H €M;mHQ α
2Mi`2 2biQb H/Qb 2b +QMQ+B/Q- H HQM;Bim/ /2H i2`+2` H/Q 2bi /2i2`KBM/
TQ`
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos α.

b a

α
A B
c
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b kjN

+iBpB// 8XNX9,
RX .2}M Hb BMp2`bb /2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+b [m2 MQ b2 /2}@
MB2`QM 2M H mMB// v `2+QMbi`mv bmb ;`€}+bX

kX .2i2`KBM2 HQb pHQ`2b T2/B/Qb bBM ?+2` mbQ /2 H +H+mH/Q`X

V arc cos 1X 3
/V sen arc sen + arc cos 0 X
3π 4
#V arc sen sen X
4 6 8
+V arc cos 0X 2V tan arctan +arc cos X
5 15

jX 1b+`B#2 +QKQ mM 2tT`2bBƦM H;2#`B+ 2M x +/ mM /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b

2tT`2bBQM2b

V cos(arctan x)X +V sen(4 arc cos x)X

#V tan(arc sen x)X /V cos(4 arctan x)X

9X 1M +/ mMQ /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b i`B€M;mHQb- 2M+QMi`` HQb 2H2K2MiQb

/2b+QMQ+B/QbX

45◦
35 25

70◦ 20◦
50

20

60◦ 45◦
k9y 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

8XRy 1D2`+B+BQb /2H +TőimHQ 8

1M HQb 2D2`+B+BQb /2H R H d /2i2`KBM 3X G H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B [m2

bB Hb T`QTQbB+BQM2b bQM 7Hbb Q p2`@ bB;M  +/ 2bim/BMi2 `2;mH` /2
//2`b DmbiB}+M/Q bm `2bTm2biX lMBpHH2 bm +Ʀ/B;Q v bm THM /2 2b@
im/BQbX
RX 1Mi`2 /Qb 7mM+BQM2b `#Bi``Bb f v
g bB2KT`2 b2 Tm2/2 /2}MB` H 7mM@ NX G H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B [m2
+BƦM +QKTm2bi f ◦ gX  +/ TQHBMQKBQ /2 +Q2}+B2Mi2b
`2H2b b2 H2 bB;M bm ;`/QX
kX G 7mM+BƦM f (x) = x2 /2 {0, 1, 2, 3}
RyX x2 − y + 1 = 0 Uy +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2
2M R 2b B;mH  H 7mM+BƦM /2}@
xVX
MB/ TQ` 2H +QMDmMiQ /2 T`2Db
{(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}X RRX x2 + y 2 = 1 Uy +QKQ 7mM+BƦM /2 xVX

jX .2 R 2M {0, 1} bƦHQ b2 Tm2/2M /2@ RkX x2 + 4xy − x = 6 Ux +QKQ 7mM+BƦM

}MB` /Qb 7mM+BQM2bX /2 yVX
1
9X 1tBbi2 mM 7mM+BƦM [m2 MQ TQb22 RjX y = f (x) = X
(x − 4)(x + 4)
BMp2`bX
1M +/ +bQ /2i2`KBM bB H 7mM+BƦM
8X a2M f v g 7mM+BQM2bX aB f ◦g v g ◦f [m2 b2 / 2b BMv2+iBpX *H+mH iK@
2tBbi2M 2MiQM+2b f ◦ g = g ◦ f X #BûM bm `M;QX aB H 7mM+BƦM 2b BMv2+@
iBp +H+mH bm 7mM+BƦM BMp2`b +QK@
eX Gb 7mM+BQM2b T`Q#M/Q [m2 2b bm BMp2`bX
x−1 1 R9X f (x) = 3x2 + 2X
f (x) = , g(x) = ,
x −1
2 x+1
R8X f (x) = x3 + 1X
bQM B;mH2bX 1
ReX f (x) = X
dX LQ iQ/ 7mM+BƦM BMv2+iBp TQb22 BM@ x+1

p2`bX x, bB x ≤ 0-
RdX f (x) =
1tTHB+ bB H H2v /2 +Q``2bTQM/2M+B x + 1, bB 0 < xX
[m2 b2 /2b+`B#2 2M +/ mMQ /2 HQb 1M +/ mM /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +bQb
MmK2`H2b bB;mB2Mi2b /2}M2 mM 7mM@ 2M+m2Mi`2 mM 7mM+BƦM [m2 2tT`2b2,
+BƦMX aB H `2bTm2bi 2b TQbBiBp /2i2`@
R3X 1H `/BQ /2 mM +B`+mM72`2M+B 2M
KBM2 bm /QKBMBQ v +Q/QKBMBQX aB H
iû`KBMQb /2 bm T2`őK2i`QX
`2bTm2bi 2b M2;iBp 2tTHB[m2 bB mM
/2+m/ `2bi`B++BƦM /2H /QKBMBQ 2M RNX 1H pQHmK2M /2 mM T`H2H2TőT2/Q
[m2 b2 +QMbB/2` T2`KBi2 ;2M2`` mM `2+iM;mH` 2M iû`KBMQb /2 Hb HQM@
7mM+BƦMX ;Bim/2b /2 bmb `BbibX
 6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b k9R

1
kyX 1H pQHmK2M /2 mM +BHBM/`Q +B`+mH` h(x) = x 2 + 2,
`2+iQ 2M iû`KBMQb /2 bm `/BQ v /2 .2i2`KBM +mH2b /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b
bm Him`X B;mH//2b bQM p€HB/b,
kRX aB ky T2`bQMb Q K2MQb `2HBxM mM keX f ◦ (h + g) = f ◦ h + f ◦ gX
pBD2- mM ;2M+B +Q#` kXyyy T2@
kdX f ◦ h = h ◦ f X
bQb TQ` T2`bQMX aB pBDM K€b /2
ky T2`bQMb 2H T`2+BQ `2/m+2 2M kyy k3X h ◦ g = g ◦ hX
T2bQb TQ` T2`bQM [m2 2t+2/ Hb
kyX aB 2H +mTQ 2M mM pBD2 2b /2 kNX f (h + g) = f h + f gX
kyy T2`bQMb- 2M+m2Mi` mM 7mM@ jyX (g ◦ h) ◦ f = g ◦ (h ◦ f )X
+BƦM [m2 2tT`2b2 2H +QbiQ iQiH 2M
iû`KBMQb /2H MȹK2`Q /2 T2`bQMb jRX (g ◦ h)f = (gf ) ◦ (hf )X
[m2 ?+2M 2H pBD2X *QMbB/2`2 H 7mM+BƦM /2}MB/ TQ`,

1M +/ mMQ /2 HQb bB;mB2Mi2b +bQb x4 , bB x ≤ 1X
f (x) =
+H+mH f ◦ g v g ◦ f bB 2bTQbB#H2c /2@ x2 , bB 1 > x-
i2`KBMM/Q HQb +bQb /2 7mM+BQM2b BM@
p2`bb [m2 b2 T`2b2Mi2MX *H+mH2 B;mH@ jkX *H+mH f (0), f (6), f (1/2)
K2Mi2 f ◦ g(a) T` 2H pHQ` a [m2 b2 h`+2 Hb ;`€}+b /2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b
BM/B+X 7mM+BQM2b T` HQb pHQ`2b /2 c //QbX

 1 lb2 Hb i`Mb7Q`K+BQM2b T`2b2Mi/b

f (x) = , 2M H mMB//-


 x−2
1
kkX g(x) = 3 , jjX f (x) = x3 + c c c = 0, 1, −3X

 x +1


 1 1
 a= . j9X f (x) = −4(x − c)2 c c = 0, 2, X
2 2

3 2 1
f (x) = 4x + 5x ,

 j8X f (x) = |cx − 4| c c = , 2, −1X
kjX g(x) = x − 1, 2


 a = 2. G bB;mB2Mi2 };m` Km2bi` H ;`€@
}+ /2 mM 7mM+BƦM f +QM /QKBMBQ

2 0 ≤ x ≤ 4X
f (x) = x − 1,


√
k9X g(x) = 2x − 3, y


 a = |t + 1| .


4
f (x) = 1,

 x
k8X g(x) = 2,


 a = 0.
h`+2 H ;`€}+ /2 +/ mM /2 Hb
*QMbB/2` Hb 7mM+BQM2b bB;mB2Mi2b 7mM+BQM2b,
f (x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = (x − 1)2 jeX y = f (x + 1)X
 k9k 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

jdX y = 3f (x)X 45◦ X *H+mH` H Him` /2H pBƦM 2M

2b2 BMbiMi2X
j3X y = f (x) + 3X
9dX 1H MȹK2`Q /2 #+i2`Bb 2M +B2`iQ
jNX y = −f (4x)X
+mHiBpQ 2M mM BMbiMi2 t 2bi€ //Q
1 1 1 1 TQ`,
9yX y = f x+ + X
4 4 4 4 Q(t) = 4 · 5t ,
.2Km2bi` [m2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 7mM+BQ@ /QM/2 t 2bi€ K2/B/Q 2M ?Q`b v
M2b f v g bQM BMp2`bb mM /2 H Qi` Q(t) 2M KBH2b /2 #+i2`Bb- ǯ+m€H
v i`+2 bmb ;`€}+b, 2b 2H MȹK2`Q BMB+BH /2 #+i2`Bb\
 ǯ*m€H 2b 2H MȹK2`Q /2bTmûb /2 ky
f (x) = 3x + 11,
9RX KBMmiQb\ ǯ.2bTmûb /2 8y KBMmiQb\
g(x) = x − 11 . ǯ.2bTmûb /2 mM ?Q`\
3
 √
f (x) = 3x − 6, 2 ≤ x,
 1H BbƦiQTQ `/B+iBpQ "B iB2M2 mM pB@
9kX x2 +6 / K2/B /2 5 /őb- 2b /2+B`- 2H MȹK2`Q
g(x) =
 , 0 ≤ x.
3 /2 T`iő+mHb `/B+iBpb b2 `2/m+B`€ 
H KBi/ /2H MȹK2`Q Q`B;BMH 2M 5 /őbX
9jX .2 2D2KTHQb /2 7mM+BQM2b [m2 MQ aB 2tBbi2M 200 K; /2 "B210 2M 2H BMb@
i2M;M BMi2`pHQb /2 +`2+BKB2MiQ MB iMi2 t = 0 2MiQM+2b H +MiB// f (t)
/2 /2+`2+BKB2MiQX `2biMi2 /2bTmûb /2 t /őb 2bi€ //
99X .2Km2bi`2 [m2 mM 7mM+BƦM +`2@ TQ`,
f (t) = 200 · 2− 5 .
t
+B2Mi2 /2}MB/ 2M mM BMi2`pHQ +2@
``/Q [ a, b ] H+Mx 2H K€tBKQ #@
bQHmiQ 2M b v 2H KőMBKQ #bQHmiQ 93X ǯZmû +MiB// `2bi /2bTmûb /2 Ry
2M aX ǯZmû b2 Tm2/2 /2+B` bB f 2bi /őb\ ǯ.2 R8 /őb\ ǯ.2 17,5 /őb\
/2}MB/ 2M mM BMi2`pHQ #B2`iQ\ 9NX .B#mD2 H ;`€}+ /2 f /2b/2 t = 0
98X G 2+m+BƦM /2 mM QM/ bQMQ` ?bi t = 40X
[m2 b2 T`QT; 2M +B2`i +m2`/
2bi€ // TQ` H 2tT`2bBƦM y = 8yX  +QMiBMm+BƦM T`2+2M Hb ;`€@
36 sen π(0,40 t − 0,001 x) /QM/2 x }+b /2 +B2`ib 7mM+BQM2bX A/2MiB}@
2bi€ //Q 2M +2MiőK2i`Qb v t 2M [m2 2M +/ +bQ,
b2;mM/QbX h`+2 Hb ;`€}+b +mM@
V AMi2`pHQb /2 +`2+BKB2MiQ v /2
/Q x = 10,36 +K v +mM/Q x =
/2+`2+BKB2MiQX
200 +KX
#V AMi2`pHQb /QM/2 H 7mM+BƦM 2b
9eX .Qb +``Qb K`+?M  B;mH p2HQ+B@ +QMbiMi2X
//-  mM /BbiM+B /2 100 K mMQ
/2H Qi`QX *mM/Q mM pBƦM Tb TQ` +V GQb TmMiQb /QM/2 b2 H+MxM
2H THMQ p2`iB+H /2 HQb +``Qb- /2b@ HQb K€tBKQb v HQb KőMBKQbX
/2 2biQb HQ p2M H KBbKQ iB2KTQ /V J€tBKQb v KőMBKQb #bQHmiQbX
+QM €M;mHQb /2 2H2p+BƦM /2 35◦ v
6mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQK2i`B+b k9j
y

3  h`+2 H ;`€}+ /2 +/ mM /2 Hb bB@

2 ;mB2Mi2b 7mM+BQM2b v 2M+m2Mi`2 2H p@

1 HQ` K€tBKQ Q KőMBKQ /2 +/ mM /2
2HHbX
x
−3

8RX f (x) = x2 + 2x + 3X
y
8kX f (x) = x2 − 12xX
2
8jX f (x) = 16x − 24 − 2x2 X
−1,5
x
2 89X f (x) = 5 + 6x − x2 X
−1,5
88X f (x) = 3x2 + 5x − 2X
y 8eX f (x) = 9x2 − 18x + 8X

2 8dX f (x) = −9x2 − 15x + 6X

1
x 83X lM ?QK#`2 /2b2 2M+2``` +QM K@
2
−3
HHb mM +M+? /2 7ȹi#QH bBMiûiB+
v /2bTmûb +QHQ+` Qi`b /Qb KHHb
y T`H2Hb  H;mMQ /2 HQb H/Qb T@
` bm#/BpB/B`HQ 2M i`2b +M+?b `2+@
2 iM;mH`2bX aB /BbTQM2 ȹMB+K2Mi2

1 /2 500 K2i`Qb /2 KHH- ǯ+QM [mû
/BK2MbBQM2b Q#i2M/`€ 2H €`2 K€@


x
−3 2 3
tBK\


8NX lM /Bbi`B#mB/Q` p2M/2  HQb KvQ@

y `Bbib +B2`i K2`+M+B  `xƦM /2
100 +/ mMQ bB H2 2M+`;M K2MQb
/2 40X *mM/Q H2 2M+`;M K€b /2
−3 2 40 Uv K2MQb /2 800V `2/m+2 2H T`2@
x
+BQ /2 H K2`+M+B  `xƦM /2 4
T2bQb TQ` 2H MȹK2`Q Q`/2M/QX ǯ.2
[m2 iKƢQ /2#2`€ b2` 2H T2/B/Q
T` [m2 2H /Bbi`B#mB/Q` Q#i2M; H
y K€tBK ;MM+B\

>+B2M/Q mbQ /2 Hb `2H+BQM2b [m2

−3 2
2tBbi2M 2Mi`2 Hb 7mM+BQM2b i`B;QMQKû@
x
i`B+b /2Km2bi`2 Hb bB;mB2Mi2b `2H@
+BQM2b 2Mi`2 Hb BMp2`bbX
1
eyX `+ b2+ x = arc cos X
x
 k99 1H2K2MiQb #€bB+Qb /2 7mM+BQM2b

1 d8X S`m2# [m2,

eRX `+ +b+ x = arc sen X
x
sen(τ +ξ)+sen(τ −ξ) = 2 sen τ cos ξ.
1 π
ekX arctan = − arctan xX
x 2 deX *QM H vm/ /2 H 7Ʀ`KmH /2H
>; H ;`€}+ /2 +/ mM /2 Hb bB@ €M;mHQ /Q#H2 /2/mx+ H bB;mB2Mi2
;mB2Mi2b 7mM+BQM2bX /2K€b +H+mH2 2H B/2MiB//,
T2`őQ/Q v H KTHBim/ U+mM/Q i2M;
cos 2ψ = 2 cos2 ψ − 1
b2MiB/QV /2 +/ mM /2 2HHbX

3π ddX .2Km2bi` [m2

ejX f (x) = cos x − X
2 
x 1 + cos x
cos =± ,
e9X f (x) = sen(2x)X 2 2

π 2KTH2M/Q H B/2MiB//
e8X f (x) = 4 sen x + X
4
cos(2x) = 2 cos2 x − 1.
3x
eeX f (x) = 4 sen X
4 1M+m2Mi`2 iQ/Qb HQb pHQ`2b /2 x
[m2 `2bm2Hp2M Hb bB;mB2Mi2b 2+m+BQ@
edX f (x) = −5 sen(6x + 2π)X
M2b i`B;QMQKûi`B+bX
e3X f (x) = sen(−6x)X 1
d3X cos2 x = X
2
x
eNX f (x) = tan X dNX 3 cos2 x − 2 cos x − 1 = 0X
5
1
3yX 1 − tan2 (4x) = X
dyX f (x) = 3 cot x − π X 4
3RX _2bm2Hp Hb 2+m+BQM2b Mi2`BQ`2b
1 +mM/Q 2H BMi2`pHQ /2 p`B+BƦM /2
dRX f (x) = sen xX
3 x 2b 2H BMi2`pHQ [ −π/2, π/2 ]X
dkX .2Km2bi` H bB;mB2Mi2 B;mH//- 3kX >HH` 2H T2`őK2i`Q /2H +m/`BH€i2@
sen(90◦ − δ) = cos δX `Q bB AB = 20 v DB = 94X
djX S`m2# [m2 H B;mH// sen(−η) = A
− sen η 2b mM B/2MiB//X
120◦
d9X *QM H vm/ /2 Hb 7Ʀ`KmHb /2 bm@
D 80◦ 100◦ B
K v `2bi /2 €M;mHQb T`m2# [m2,

tan λ − tan µ
tan(λ − µ) = .
1 + tan λ tan µ C