HRT 502 COURSE NOTE

Course Coordinator: OLUBODE, O.O., B.Sc., M. Sc., PhD

Email: [email protected]
Office Location: Room 136, COLPLANT Building
OIL PALM PRODUCTIONM

HRT 502 - Oil Palm (Elaeis guinnensis)

Introduction
The primary produce of the oil palm are palm oil, palm kernel bake and palm kernel oil. Palm
oil is important in the diet of West Africans and is also use for lighting and soap making. It is
an important export commodity for the processing of margarine, soap and tin plating. The
kernel oil is used for synthesizing edible fats, various industrial uses, soap making and Palm
kernel cake for animal feed. When the oil palm istm tapped for wine the yield of oil and
kernel are reduced. Other products include the thatching of roof, the mats, brooms, ash for
soap making, rachis for yam poles, and the wicker poles for houses building.
The production of palm oil in Nigeria is probably in excess of 500,000 tonnes, but as most of
it is consumed locally, exact figures are not easily obtained. Export has dropped over the
years from 200,000 tonnes to a negligible amount. The production is mainly on small native
holdings or wild groves, and there are few large estates.

Ecology: The oil palm is indigenous to the wet tropics and dies well on fertile soils. In much
of Nigeria, it is grown on rather infertile soils, fertilizers being added as required. It requires
sunshine of preferably over 1,500 hours, and a well distributed rainfall of 2,000-3,000 mm
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per annum and a deep water holding soil. In Nigeria, the reduced sunshine and the four
months of dry season inhibits the production of maximum yield potential.

Types and forms: The oil is monoecious, having male and female inflorescences on the
same palm. The inflorescences occur in bunched produced at the axils of the palm fronds.
Bunched can weigh up to 35kg, but in West Africa averages 9-14kg. The fruit is composed of
an outer fleshy mesocarp (pulp) containing the palm oil and surrounding the nut. The nut has
a shelf of varying thickness, and within it is the kernel.
There are various types of fruits - nigrescens (black), virescens (green), albescens (white) and
poissoni (mantled) - but these external characteristics are of no value in assessing the
potentials of the palm. Thickness of pericarp, oil content, kernel size and thickness of shell
are more important.
Three forms of fruits can be distinguished by internal characters:
(a) Dura: These fruits have thin pericarp, a thick shell and a large kernel. Forms vary from
macrocarpa with a very thick shell and almost no pulp (90% nut, 10% mesocarp) to the Deli
Dura, which is 60-65% nut and 40-35% mesocarp.
(b) Pisifera: These fruit contain no shell and only sometimes a small kernel. Pisifera female
bunches frequently abort, i.e. fail to mature, and are said to be sterile. Pollen from Pisifera is
used to cross Dura.
(c ) Tenera: These fruit contain much pulp m, little shell and a small kernel. Tenera palms
are a mono-facttorial hybrid between the Dura and Pisifera. Thus Tenera crossed with Tenera
or welded give 25% Dura, 50% Tenera and 25% Pisifera. Tenera crossed with Dura gives
50% Tenera and 50% Dura.
Planting materials: In commercial estates Tenera of known parentage is the most commonly
used because of its superior palm oil yield potential. Breeding tends to produce high
proportion of female inflorescences. Weather and nutritional conditions also affect the ratio
of male to female inflorescences. In well distributed rainfall areas and high fertility
conditions it is necessary to resort to artificial pollination with this highly bred material.
Production of the improved planting material must be based on selection of high yielding
mother palm and pollen trees which can only be done in specialist Organizatios.

Germinated oil palm seeds Triangular vs Regular field spacings

Oil palm seeds are semi-recalcitrant: they display pseudo-dormancy of tegumentary origin.
Achieving seed germination is difficult and requires lengthy treatments and special
installations. Consequently, end-users need to procure germinated seeds or buy seedlings
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from prenurseries or nurseries. This restriction greatly influences seed distribution and the
role of the different stakeholders in the commodity chain.

Germination: Germination of natural oil palm seed is very erratic requiring heat treatment to
synchronise germination. The seeds are soaked for 7days, with a daily change of water, then
dried for not more than 24hrs in the shade, spread out in a single layer, until their surface is
black but not wet. The seeds should then be placed in 500-gauge polythene bags secured with
a rubber band, up to 750 seeds being placed in each bag of 60 X 60 cm. The bags are placed
in wooden boxes in an incubator room where they remain for 80 days at a temperature of 39
oC.
The seeds are then removed, soaked for 7days, with a daily change of water, and dried in the
shade until the shine produced by water disappears, but the seeds is still almost black. This
takes about 2hrs. They are returned to the polythene bags and kept in cool store on racks,
with a twice-weekly examination and watering with fine sprays to maintain the almost black
appearance. After a delay of up to 3 weeks, germination should be rapid.

Pre-nursery: Traditionally, the germinated seeds were planted out not less than 7.5cm X
7.5cm apart at a depth of 2.5cm in 10-,15cm sterilised soil which was placed in raised
wooden or concrete trays measuring 1m X 0.5m. The trays were lightly mulched and watered
as conditions required. At about 4 ½ months the seedlings were separated by cutting through
the soil with a sharp knife, and planted not less than 60cm X 60cm apart in a field nursery,
where they remained for a year or slightly over.

Single stage polybag nursery: In this modern method, seedlings are raised more
economically by the use of 490-500 gauge black polythene bags measuring 39cm wide X
49cm deep when flat, perforated at the bottom to allow excess water to drain out. The bags
are filled with topsoil and placed at 45cm spacing. Germinated seeds are planted into these
polythene bags and thickly mulched with shredded, partly decomposed bunch refuse.
The polybag seedlings are easily maintained by watering with 1.5 litres of water applied by
hand per week, especially in dry season. A mixture of NPK Mg fertilizer in the ratio of
1:1:1:2 using sulphate of ammonia, muriate of potash, single super phosphate and magnesium
sulphate should be applied twice at the rate of 55g per seedling at 2 and 8 months seedlings
age. Dithane M45 is used to spray against diseases fortnightly. Weeding should be done to
eliminate competition for water and nutrients. Shading is not necessary, except in extreme
harmattan condition. Polybag nursery seedlings are usually transplanted into field as from 10-
12th month.

Two stage polybag nursery: In the far east, germinated seeds are usually planted in small
polybag 22 5cm x 15cm for their pre-nursery stage and transplanted at the 4 or 5 leaf stagei
into perforated polybag 50cm x 37.5cm for their nursery stage with a final spacing of 1 m on
triangle between bags. The large bags and wide spacings produce a very robust seedlings
when adequate water is supplied. This method is really advantageous on large estates where
seedlings have to be transported as the pre-nursery seedlings can be raised in large quantities
a a central location, and the small bags are easily moved to separate nurseries adjacent to the
final planting area.

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Oil palm nursery Young oil palm in plantation

Land preparation: Usually from virgin forest, secondary jungles or existing plantation or
more rarely from cleared lands. The area is underbrushed and trees felled either by hand or
machines. If by machine, the area is stumped and rubbish windrowed. Hand clearing required
heaping up, drying and burning, followed by a second clearing up and burning. The area is
thereafter lined and paths cleared, blocking is done, pegging and holes digging at 60-70cm
cubes and refilled with topsoil and cover crops planted. The holes are re-dug at the beginning
of rainy season just before planting, after the fill has settled.

Planting: Seedlings from traditional nurseries transplant more successfully if the roots are cut
in circle 15cm from the base. Half circle is cut with sharp spade 6weeks before transplanting
and the other half at 2weeks later. A ball of earth should be remain round the roots when the
plants are lifted from the nursery, and when replanted the soil level at the base of the
seedlings should not be higher than it was before.
Polybag seedlings should be planted in the field together with the entire soil in the polybag.
The bag is laid on its side with its base at the edge of the dug hole which is wider than and of
same depth as the bag itself. An X-shape cut is made in the bottom of the polybag which is
then cut along the side uppermost, and content slid into the hole, removing the bag with care
so as not to disturb the soil around the roots. Where the plantation is far from nursery and
cost of transporting the heavy polybag is high, roots are dipped in a thick suspension of clay
(clay slurry) and the seedlings tied in bundles covered with grass or fibre during transport,
and planted into holes made in form of a cross, with the roots distributed evenly down the
arms. The young palms are protected from rodents attack by a collar of wire-netting. These
collars should be removed once the plants are fully established.

Spacing: The recommended spacing is 9m triangular giving about 60 palms per hectare. In
highly fertile areas with optimum climate wider spacing may be needed.
Intercultivation: A legume cover should be sown before planting. A less satisfactory
methods to crop the land during the first three years with arable crops, suitably manured.
Pollination: In the far east pollination is necessary to obtain maximum yields. This is
generally not necessary in West Africa.
Ablution: It is usual in commercial estates to remove female inflorescences on developing
palms up to 3 years from field planting. This increases the yields. It should not be done for
more than a one year period.

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Manuring: Generally soils in West Africa are low in potassium. Dressing of 1-1.5kg potash
per annum has been used, too heavy applications may induce magnesium deficiency.
Weed control: A cutlass is used to cut all weeds to the ground, in a ring of 1m radius from
the base of the palm. Alternatively, herbicide can be used twice yearly round the base of the
palm.

Harvesting: Plants begin to yield 3-4 years from transplanting. They crop throughout the
year but the peak is reached in the early rains. A bunch is ready for harvest when it had just a
few loose fruits. Axes, cutlasses, chisel and sickle shaped harvesting knives on long poles are
used to severe bunches from the fronds. Fruits should be transported and processed within
12-24hrs of cutting from the tree and with minimum damage to the fruits. Bruising cause
enzyme fermentation which increases acid content and lowers quality of oil

Yields: Maximum yield occurs in the 9-12th years and although 7,000kg is normal, yield
varies from 4,500-11,000kg bunches per hectare. With improved seeds, peak yield may be as
high as 13,500kg per acre although wild groves may be as low as 1,100-2,200kg.

Processing:
Oil quality: Requirements for oil selling in the world market are: less than 5% FFA (Free
Fatty Acid), good bleach-abillity, less than 0.1% moustand less than 0.02% dirt. The presence
of moisture and dirt increases the rate at which FFA is formed.
Oil quantity: High oil production is dependent on Harvesting at the correct time and efficient
extraction metho.
Sterilisation: Bunches must be steamed for about 1hr. This destroys bacteria and fungi on,
and enzymes in the fruit which otherwise cause a rapid rise in FFA. Sterilisation should begin
within 12hrs of harvesting. Sterilisation loosens th fruit from the bunch. In major mills,
sterilisation is done in pressure sterilisers at about 3 atmospheres for 45-60 minutes.
Removal of fruit from bunch: In traditional methods this is done before sterilisation by
maturing the bunches under shade for 3-5 days. This loosens the fruit which is then removed
by light beating. In large mills, fruit are separated from the bunch in rotating, threshing
drums, the loose fruit falling through the openings in the drum and the bunchrefuse
discharged at the end.
Maceration: After sterilisation the fruit is heated again and pounded with sticks in a mortar or
drum, until ait becomes a pulp. Heat is important during this process and further heating after
maceration and during pressing will increase the extraction of oil and maintain the quality.
Pressing: Treading, hand squeezing and washing are the traditional methods of extractng oil
from the pulp. Hand scew presses give 65% efficiency, hand hydraulic presses, although
more expensive give 80-90% efficiency, power driven centrifuge, as in pioneer oil mill give
75-80% efficiency, power driven hydraulic and screw presses in large mills give 80-95%
efficiency. The efficiency of the pressing is very dependent on the efficiency of the cooking
and maceration.
Clarifications: The newly-pressed oil is cleaned by heating it in water: the oil rises to the top
(where it is collected) and the dirt and sludge sinkto the bottom of the water. Then the oil is
heated again to remove the last traces of moisture. This process has been mechanised in
various degrees, up to large factory production.

Palm kernel
Separation of nuts from fibre: is done by hand, or by mechanical rotary separator.
Cracking the nut: is done by hand, or mechanically by centrifugal force, casting the nuts
against an iron cracking ring.
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Separating kernel from shell: is done by hand picking or by floatation in a clay bath or
pneumatically in a cyclone.
Drying of kernel: is done either in the open in the sun or on steam-heated beds or by hot air
in kernel silos.
Kernel oil: is extracted by pressing the kernels, and the residue makes high-protein cattle
feed, but this is an industrial process seldom undertaken on the estate.

Useful data
Fruit composition: Fruit to bunch ratio averages about 66% mesocarp to fruit : thick shelled
25%-55%, thin shelled 65%-85%. Oil to mesocarp (both types): 48%.
Figures
1 tin of oil cold weighs 16.5kg
1 tin of oil hot (93 oC) weighs 15 5kg
1 tin of fruit filled level weighs 13.5kg
1 tin of fruit heaped weighs 15.5kg
1 tin of dried nuts, level full weighs 13.5kg
1 tin of dried nuts, heaped full weighs 15.5kg
*18-litre kerosine tin