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CMBL302-lec 1

The document provides an overview of the cell cycle, detailing its phases (G1, S, G2, and M) and the checkpoints that regulate cell division. It explains the significance of each phase, including DNA replication and the conditions under which cells may enter a resting state (G0). Additionally, it distinguishes between benign and malignant tumors in the context of cancer, emphasizing the consequences of uncontrolled mitosis.

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9 views33 pages

CMBL302-lec 1

The document provides an overview of the cell cycle, detailing its phases (G1, S, G2, and M) and the checkpoints that regulate cell division. It explains the significance of each phase, including DNA replication and the conditions under which cells may enter a resting state (G0). Additionally, it distinguishes between benign and malignant tumors in the context of cancer, emphasizing the consequences of uncontrolled mitosis.

Uploaded by

mostafayasser662
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Cancer

Molecular
Biology (302)
Hussein Sabit, PhD

Lec. 1
What is cancer?
Cell Cycle
Regulation
Cell cycle

▪ The cell cycle is the series of events that take place in


a cell that causes it to divide into two daughter cells.
▪ These events include the duplication of its DNA and
some of its organelles, and subsequently the
partitioning of its cytoplasm and other components
into two daughter cells in a process called cell
division.
Cell cycle

The cell cycle is divided into two main stages: interphase and the
mitotic phase.

During interphase (G1, S, and G2), the cell


grows, accumulating nutrients needed for
mitosis, and replicates its DNA and some of
its organelles.

During the mitotic phase, the replicated


chromosomes, organelles, and cytoplasm
separate into two new daughter cells.
Phases of the cell cycle

Interphase:
• G1
• Activation of each phase is
• S dependent on the proper
• G2 progression and completion of
the previous one.
Mitotic phase:
• Cells that have temporarily or
• Prophase reversibly stopped dividing are
• Metaphase said to have entered a state of
• Anaphase quiescence called G0 phase.
• Telophase
Phases description

State Abbrev. Description


Resting G0 A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing.

Cells increase in size in Gap 1. The G1 checkpoint control


G1
mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis.

Interphase S DNA replication occurs during this phase.

During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell will
G2 continue to grow. The G2 checkpoint control mechanism ensures
that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase and divide.

Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on the
Cell orderly division into two daughter cells. A checkpoint in the middle of
M
division mitosis (Metaphase checkpoint ensures that the cell is ready to
complete cell division.
G0 phase

• G0 is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has
stopped dividing.
• Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular eukaryotes
generally enter the quiescent G0 state and may remain quiescent
for long periods of time or perminently (e.g. neurons).

• Some cells enter the G0 phase semi-


permanently and are considered post-mitotic
(quiescent and senescent) e.g., some liver,
kidney, and stomach cells.
• Many cells do not enter G0 and continue to
divide throughout an organism's life, e.g.,
epithelial cells.
Interphase

• Interphase represents the phase between two successive M phases. Interphase


is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus
before it becomes capable of division again.
• It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Typically interphase lasts for
at least 91% of the total time required for the cell cycle.
• Interphase proceeds in three stages; G1, S, and G2, followed by the cycle of
mitosis and cytokinesis.
G1 phase

• It is also called the growth phase. During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the
cell resume at a high rate. The duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different
cells of the same species.
• In this phase, the cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of
organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size.
• In G1 phase, a cell has three options:
o To continue cell cycle and enter S phase;
o To stop cell cycle and enter G0 phase for undergoing differentiation, or
o Become arrested in G1 phase hence it may enter G0 phase or re-enter
cell cycle.
S phase

• The S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is


complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated.
• Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has
doubled.
• Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low
during this phase. An exception to this is histone production, most
of which occurs during the S phase.
G2 phase

• G2 phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of


protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for
mitosis.

• Before proceeding to mitotic phase, cells must be checked at


the G2 checkpoint for any DNA damage within the
chromosomes.
Mitotic phase

It is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. M phase consists of


4 stages:
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
It is followed by cytokinasis (division of cytoplasm).
Cytokinesis
Mitosis is immediately followed
by cytokinesis, which divides
the nuclei, cytoplasm,
organelles and cell membrane
into two cells containing roughly
equal shares of these cellular
components.

This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell


cycle. Errors in mitosis can result in cell death
through apoptosis or cause mutations that may
lead to cancer.
Checkpoints
Checkpoints

To ensure the proper replication of


cellular components and division,
there are control mechanisms
known as cell cycle checkpoints.
Three main checkpoints are there:
• G1/S checkpoint,
• G2/M checkpoint
• Metaphase checkpoint
Main checkpoints
G0/G1 checkpoint
An extra one

• In this checkpoint, cells are checked for maturity. If


the cells fail to pass this checkpoint by not being
ready yet, they will be discarded from dividing.
• These checkpoint regulates the entry of a quiescent
cell back into the cycle, G1/S, and G2/M.
G1/S checkpoint

• G1/S transition is a rate-limiting


step in the cell cycle and is also
known as point.
• This is where the cell checks Takes normally
whether it has enough raw about 19 h in
materials to fully replicate its DNA. humans
• An unhealthy or malnourished cell
will get stuck at this checkpoint.
G2/M checkpoint

• The G2/M checkpoint is where the cell ensures that it


has enough cytoplasm and phospholipids for two
daughter cells.
• It also checks to see if it is the right time to divide.
• There are some situations where many cells need to
all replicate simultaneously (for example, a growing
embryo should have a symmetric cell distribution
until it reaches the mid-blastula transition). This is
done by controlling the G2/M checkpoint
Metaphase checkpoint

• The metaphase checkpoint is a fairly


minor checkpoint, in that once a cell
metaphase, it has committed to
undergoing mitosis.
• In this checkpoint, the cell checks to
ensure that the spindle has formed
that all of the chromosomes are
at the spindle equator before
begins.
Cyclin
is the major player in the game!
CDKs/Cyclins

Timothy Hunt
Timothy Hunt
Frequency of cell division

Embryo
cell cycle < 20 minute
Skin cells
divide frequently throughout life (12-24 hours cycle)
Liver cells
retain ability to divide, but keep it in reserve (divide once every
year or two)
Mature nerve cells & muscle cells
do not divide at all after maturity (permanently in G0)
Why do cells divide?

1. They become too large

• The volume of the cell increases


faster than the surface area.
• Cells need large surface area (cell
membranes) to move things in and
out.
Why do cells divide?

2. To make more cells so the organism can grow.


3. To replace old, worn out cells.
Mutations
Types of
mutations
In cancer, mitosis is uncontrolled

Benign tumors: remain clumped; can be removed.


Malignant tumors: break apart (metastasize) and can form
tumors in other parts of the body.
thank you!

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