Review Paper

Fresh and hardened properties of waste rubber tires based concrete:

a state art of review
Sheraz Muhammad1,2,3 · Qiang Yuan1,3 · Muhammad Alam2,4 · Muhammad Faisal Javed5 ·
Muhammad Faisal Rehman6 · Abdullah Mohamed7

Received: 10 January 2023 / Accepted: 9 March 2023

© The Author(s) 2023  OPEN

Abstract
Owing to great environmental benefits, end-of-life waste tires are often used in concrete as a partial replacement for
aggregates. However, the use of waste tires in concrete deteriorates fundamental properties. For a better knowledge
of the various characteristics of concrete with waste tires and to highlight ways to improve them, this study was con-
ducted. For this purpose, the effect of waste tires on fresh properties such as workability, air content, and unit weight
was reviewed. Moreover, the influence of waste tires on mechanical properties such as compressive strength, flexural
strength, splitting tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity was discussed in detail. The durability characteristics such
as water absorption and porosity, freeze–thaw, corrosion, chloride ion penetration, and carbonation resistance were criti-
cally evaluated. The application of waste tires for concrete used in roadside barriers was also reviewed and impact resist-
ance, energy absorption, toughness, and ductility were summarized. Results indicate the slump of concrete increased
with the substitution of rubber but decreased strength properties. Although the strength properties of rubber concrete
are less but can be used for low-strength concrete. Furthermore, rubber particles are more elastic, flexible, less stiff, and
deformable as compared to natural aggregates. Therefore, rubberized concrete is more suitable for roadside barriers. This
review is expected to advance the fundamental knowledge of concrete with end-of-life tires and promote the recycling
of end-of-life tires in the concrete industry.

Article highlights
• Compressive, tensile, and flexural capacity waste rub- • The suitability of waste rubber tires-based concrete for
ber tires-based concrete were discussed. roadside barriers were discussed.
• The durability properties of waste rubber tires-based
concrete were discussed.

* Sheraz Muhammad , [email protected] | 1School of Civil Engineering, Central South University China, Changsha 410075,
China. 2Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology Mardan, Mardan 23200, Pakistan. 3National
Engineering Research Center of High-Speed Railway Construction Technology, Changsha 410075, China. 4Department of Environment,
Land and Infrastructure Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy. 5Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad,
Abbottabad Campus, Islamabad, Pakistan. 6Department of Architecture, University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar, Abbottabad
Campus, Peshawar, Pakistan. 7Research Centre, Future University in Egypt, New Cairo 11835, Egypt.

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Keywords Rubber tires · End-of-life tires · Crumb rubber · 4 billion tires deposited in landfills around the world.
Chipped rubber · Concrete barriers · Impact resistance Aside from The European Association of Tire and Rubber
Producers, 3.2 million tons of used tires were discarded in
Abbreviations 2009. 96% of the materials were recovered, and of those,
CR Crumb rubber 18% were reprocessed or reused, 38% were recycled, and
WRT​ Waste rubber tire 40% were utilized to produce energy [8].
ITZ Interfacial transition zone If the waste tire is not disposed of environmentally, sev-
MOE Modulus of elasticity eral issues may erupt such as health problems and fire haz-
CRC​ Crumb rubber concrete ards. WRT is almost non-biodegradable, making it a signifi-
cant cause of environmental pollution. Since the majority
of used rubber tire debris is stacked up or dumped in land-
1 Introduction fills, the hazards connected with scrap tires can negatively
impact both human health and the environment. Accord-
A significant volume and variety of solid waste materials ing to [9] and [1], a huge tire fire can smoulder for several
have been produced by industrial, mining, domestic and weeks or even months and can have a dramatic impact on
agricultural activities as a result of urbanization, industri- the ecosystem. Through air, water, and soil contamination,
alization, and technical advancements in various fields [1]. stockpiled tires can provide a variety of health, environ-
According to projections, By 2050, 70% of the world’s pop- mental, and financial hazards [3, 10]. Moreover, tire rubber
ulation will reside in cities, making autos necessary since contains styrene which is very toxic to human health [11].
urban areas have greater mobility needs [2]. As a result, Therefore, dumping waste tires would be very dangerous.
waste rubber tires (WRT) are produced in ever-increasing One of the environmentally friendly options for the waste
quantities across the world. According to [3] and [4], An tire is recycling and reusing it for different applications.
estimated 1.5 billion tires are produced annually in the The strategy of use of end-of-life tires is presented in Fig. 1.
world. The rate of waste tire generation in developed Waste tire rubber can be used in a wide range of civil
countries is estimated to be one passenger tire per person, and non-civil engineering applications, including road
with an estimated 1 billion waste tires produced annually construction, geotechnical work, agriculture’s sealing of
[1]. The number of tires wasted each year was projected to silos, retaining walls, offshore and onshore breakwaters,
be between 200 and 300 million in the United States [5], in harbors and estuaries to cushion the impact of ships,
more than 10 million in Turkey [6], and 3.4 million tons in artificial reefs to improve fishing, incineration for electricity
the European Union [7]. production, as a fuel in cement kilns, or as an aggregate in
It is predicted that by 2030, there will be 1.2 billion cement-based products [8, 12, 13].
waste tires produced, and there will be a total of about

Fig. 1  End-of-life tires manage-

ment strategies [109]

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Furthermore, the aggregate, which makes up the high- In this review paper, the use of waste tire rubber on
est volume percentage of concrete and is produced in bil- different properties of concrete was discussed. In the
lions of tons annually due to the construction industries’ fresh state, the workability, air content, and unit weight
rapid growth and development, is running out quickly and were evaluated. Moreover, mechanical properties such as
many nations are concerned about a potential shortage compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile
[14–16]. To meet the challenge of incorporating sustain- strength, and modulus of elasticity were also discussed. In
ability into production processes, the construction indus- addition to these properties, different durability character-
try for the last number of years has been looking for more istics such as water absorption and porosity, freeze–thaw
environmentally friendly raw materials or using solid waste resistance, corrosion resistance, and chloride penetration
as aggregates in concrete. The waste tire can be used as a are summarized. Furthermore, the influence of rubber on
replacement for concrete components owing to its strain the rubber concrete for roadside barriers such as impact
control property, ductility, and good strength. Concrete resistance, energy absorption, toughness, and ductility are
can be used as a replacement for fine or coarse aggregate. also reviewed. Figure 2 shows the different sections of the
This effort may be environmentally better because it helps review.
to reduce environmental contamination and dispose of
used tires [17–24]. Avoiding tire burning, additionally con-
tributes to a decrease in carbon dioxide emissions. This 2 Fresh properties of concrete with waste
method is also financially feasible because it allows for the tire rubber
preservation of some of the expensive natural aggregates
[17–19, 25–27]. One of the possible solutions for waste tire rubber is to
The literature shows that waste rubber tires are a harm- include it in cement concrete as a fine or coarse natural
ful effect on the environment. However, it can be utilized aggregate. Since rubbercrete can be cast and molded
in concrete to up certain extent. Although a lot of research into any desired shape when it is in a fresh state, its work-
focuses on the utilization of waste rubber tires in concrete. ability, air content, and unit weight are crucial factors to
However, an updated review is required to explore its consider because they may have a negative impact on the
impacts on different properties of concrete. The success- rubbercrete’s hardened properties.
ful review provides a quick review for the reader to judge
its impact on concrete properties without conducting any
test which is safe time as well cost.

1. Workability
Fresh 2. Air Content
Concrete
3. Unit Weight

1. Compressive Strength
Strength 2. Flexural Strength
Properites 3.Tensile Strength
4. Modulus of Elasticity
Introduction 1. Water Absorption and Porosity
2. Freeze and Thaw Resistance
Durability
3. Corrosion Resistance
Properties
4. Chloride penetration
5. Carbonation resistance
1. Impact Resistance
2. Strength Improved
Roadside
3. Energy Absorption
Barriers
4. Fracture Toughness
5. Ductility

Fig. 2  Section of review

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260

240

220
Khab and Bayomy (1999) Slump (mm)
200
(Khaloo et al. 2008)
180 (Ozbay et al. 2011)
160 (Holmes et al. 2014a)
(Dong et al. 2013)
Slump (mm)

140 (Bravo and de Brito 2012)

120 (Batayneh et al. 2008)
(Aiello and Leuzzi 2010)
100
(Güneyisi et al. 2004)
80 (Kardos and Durham 2015)
(Elchalakani et al. 2016)
60
(Su et al. 2015)
40 (Fedroff et al. 1996)

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
CR % volume

Fig. 3  Workability of concrete containing CR [8, 20, 25, 28, 29, 31, 32, 35, 53, 88, 110–112]

2.1 Workability 2.2 Air content

Figures 3 show the workability of concrete containing Figures 4 and 5 show the air content of concrete contain-
crumb rubber and chipped rubber respectively, studied ing crumb rubber and chipped rubber respectively. These
by different researchers. A maximum of authors noted Figures show that the air content of rubberized concretes
that the workability of concrete containing fine rubber improved with an increase in rubber content as compared
or coarse rubber particles has reduced with an increase to control concrete. However, the air content of crumb rub-
in rubber content as shown in Fig. 3. The cause for the ber concrete is higher than compared of chipped rubber
decrease in workability of rubberized concrete is reduced concrete. Most of the authors have reported an increase in
inter-particle friction between the rubber and other con- the air content of rubberized concrete an increase in rub-
stituents, reduced flowability of the larger rubber parti- ber content. The main factors contributing to increasing air
cles [28], the surface roughness of fine rubber aggregates content are the non-polar nature and hydrophobic proper-
[8], low density of rubber particles [29]. The workability ties of rubber, the large specific area of the fine rubber, the
of crumb rubbercrete is adversely affected due to the size of rubber, and the amount of rubber in concrete.
smaller size and surface roughness of crumb rubber. The Due to the non-polar nature and hydrophobic prop-
increased friction caused by the crumb rubber’s rougher erties of rubber, crumb rubber acts as an air-entraining
surface could reduce the flowability of the fresh rubber- agent by repelling water and trapping air on its surface.
crete mixture [30, 31]. As a result, crumb rubber is being utilized to add more
However, fewer of them showed that workability has air to rubbercrete, improving its resilience to freeze and
improved with an increase in rubber content as shown thaw [33, 34]. According to [34], because fine crumb rub-
in Fig. 3 [32] proved that the slump value of fresh con- ber has a large specific area, the air content of fresh con-
crete increased with partial substitution of fine and coarse crete increases as the crumb rubber content increases and
aggregate with waste rubber. This also signifies that rub- consequently adding more crumb rubber (CR) will result
berized concrete can be easily mixed, cast, and vibrated in more air becoming trapped in the concrete. According
like normal concrete. to studies by [35], the size of the tire particles affects the
air content of rubberized concrete. As the size of rubber
particles increases, the air content of rubberized concrete

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11
10 Khab and Bayomy (1999)
10 (Dong et al. 2013)
9.2 (Kardos and Durham 2015)
9 (Fedroff et al. 1996)
8.25
8

7 6.5 6.5
Air content (%)

6.3
6
6 5.25
5.2 4.9
5
3.9
4 3.4

3
2.1 2.3 2.1
2
2 1.6 1.7
1.3
1
1

0
0 4.32 8.65 17.3 25.95 34.59 43.24
Crumb Rubber (%)

Fig. 4  Air content of crumb rubbercrete [29, 31, 35, 112]

Kha
b and Bayomy (1999) (Turatsinze and Garros 2008)

10

9 8.7

8
7.2
7
6.2
Air content (%)

5 4.6

4
3.1 3
3 2.4

2 1.5
1.2 1.3
1 1.1
1

0
0 2.84 11.35 22.7 34.05 45.41 56.76
Chipped rubber (%)

Fig. 5  Air content of chipped rubbercrete [35, 113]

drops. This statement is also supported by the authors’ 2.3 Unit weight

data given in Figs. 4 and 5. The amount of rubber has a
clear effect on air content [36]. Data plotted in Figs. 4 and Figures 6 and 7 show a past study on the unit weight of
5 has depicted an improvement in air content with an concrete containing crumb rubber and chipped rubber
increase in rubber content. respectively. These Figures show that the unit weight

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(Khaloo et al. 2008) (Ozbay et al. 2011) (Holmes et al. 2014a) (Holmes et al. 2014a)
(Dong et al. 2013) (Bravo and de Brito 2012) (Batayneh et al. 2008) (Aiello and Leuzzi 2010)
(Kardos and Durham 2015) (Uygunoğlu and Topcu 2010) (Su et al. 2015) (Gupta et al. 2014a)
(Atahan and Yücel 2012) (Fedroff et al. 1996) (Zheng et al. 2008b) (Gesoğlu et al. 2014)
2600
(Gesoğlu et al. 2014) (Sukontasukkul and Chaikaew 2006)

2400

2200

2000

1800

1600
Unit weight (Kg/m3)

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 12.5 25 37.5 50

Crumb Rubber (%)

Fig. 6  Unit weight of crumb rubber concrete [8, 19, 25, 28, 28, 29, 31, 32, 32, 53, 65, 67, 95, 97, 110–112, 114]

of rubberized concretes decreased with an increase in have reported a decrease in unit weight as compared to
rubber content as compared to control concrete. The control concrete with an increase in rubber content of
reasons for the reduction in the unit weight of rubber- concrete mixes containing crumb rubber and chipped
ized concrete are the non-polar and hydrophobic nature rubber respectively.
of rubber particles, the higher air content of rubberized
concrete, the number of rubber particles, and the low
density and specific gravity of rubber particles. 3 Hardened properties of concrete
A study [34] explained that because of the non-polar with waste tire rubber
and hydrophobic nature of crumb rubber, it acts as
an air-entraining agent by trapping air on its surface 3.1 Mechanical properties
thus reducing the unit weight of rubbercrete. Accord-
ing to [4] the unit weight of mixes containing rubber 3.1.1 Compressive strength
falls as the amount of rubber content increases due to
the low specific gravity of rubber particles. In addition, The effect of fine (CR) and coarse rubber (chipped rub-
when rubber content rises, air content rises as well, con- ber) on the compressive strength of rubbercrete (rub-
sequently lowering the unit weight of rubberized con- berized concrete) with different replacement levels
crete. Studies [37] and [19] added that another factor are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The compressive strength
that contributes to the reduced unit weight of rubber- of concrete containing fine rubber or coarse rubber
crete is the lower density of rubber particles, the density decreases as illustrated by Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
of fine rubber particles (Crumb rubber) is 192% lower These Tables have experimental data of the number of
than natural fine sand. The amount of rubber has also researchers who used fine or coarse rubber aggregates
the main impact on the reduction of the unit weight in concrete as partial replacement of sand or crush
of rubbercrete. Figures 6 and 7 show that all authors (coarse aggregate) respectively with different sizes and

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Khab and Bayomy (1999) (Khaloo et al. 2008) (Khaloo et al. 2008)
(Holmes et al. 2014a) (Holmes et al. 2014a) (Bravo and de Brito 2012)
2700
(Bravo and de Brito 2012) (Aiello and Leuzzi 2010) (Güneyisi et al. 2004)
(Meddah et al. 2014) (Turatsinze and Garros 2008) (Zheng et al. 2008b)
(Gesoğlu et al. 2014) (Gesoğlu et al. 2014) Poly. (Khab and Bayomy (1999) )
2400

2100

1800
Unit Weight (Kg/m3)

1500

1200

900

600

300

0
0 2.84 11.35 22.7 34.05 45.41 56.76

Chipped Rubber (%)

Fig. 7  Unit weight of chipped rubbercrete [8, 20, 25, 28, 32, 35, 56, 112–114]

percentages by volume. Not a single paper showed an concrete components, rubber tends to rise during vibra-
increase in the compressive strength of rubberized con- tion, which causes a higher concentration of rubber at the
crete but showed a gradual decrease in the compressive top layer, causing so non-homogeneous concrete mix and
strength of rubbercrete. thus compressive strength to be reduced.
The causes of the loss in compressive strength of the Similarly, the cause of the decrease in compres-
rubberized concrete have been discussed by [38] (i) The sive strength of rubberized concrete was explained
aggregates would be encircled by a cement paste that by [19]. Due to the porous nature of rubber parti-
contained rubber particles. With the rubber particles, this cles and their shaped surface, they were said to have
cement paste would be considerably softer as compared reduced adhesion between the rubber and cement
to the control cement paste. Due to this, fast formation matrix. According to [39–41] and [24] the physical
of cracks occurs around the rubber particles during load- characteristics of CR and its compatibility with fine
ing and hence specimens fail quite quickly. (ii) As opposed aggregate were the primary causes of the loss in
to cement paste and natural aggregates, rubber particles compressive strength of rubbercrete as indicated in
and cement paste would not adhere well to one another. Tables 1 and 2. Due to the hydrophobic nature of CR,
consequently, cracks occur when non-uniform stresses increased air content in the fresh rubbercrete mix
are applied. (iii) The compressive strength of concrete results in increased void content in the hardened
is influenced by the material’s mechanical and physical rubbercrete, allowing stresses to concentrate across
properties. If rubber completely or partially substitutes the pore and resulting in the formation of micro
any of the materials, it will weaken those materials. (iv) cracks and a corresponding decrease in compres-
Due to its low specific gravity and lack of adhesion with sive strength. Also entrapped air on the CR surface

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Table 1  Compressive strength (MPa) of CR concrete Table 1  (continued)

Author Days Crumb Compressive Author Days Crumb Compressive
rubber (V%) strength (Mpa) rubber (V%) strength (Mpa)

Khatib and Bayomy 7 0 20 Aiello and Leuzzi [32] 28 0 27.11

[35] 4.32 13 15 23.97
8.65 10.5
30 20.41
17.3 8
25.95 6 50 19.4
30 4 75 17.06
43.24 3 Güneyisi et al. [20] 28 0 53.8
28 0 38 2.5 47
4.32 30 5 41.5
8.65 26 10 31.8
17.3 18 15 24.3
25.95 8 25 16.2
30 4 50 7.1
43.24 3 Azevedo et al. [119] 7 0 69
Khaloo et al. [25] 28 0 30.77 5 48
12.5 6.36 10 32
25 1.22 15 28
37.5 0.81 28 0 79
50 0.55 5 52
Ozbay et al. [53] 28 0 62 10 34
5 60 15 29
15 58 Uygunoğlu and Topcu 7 0 17
25 47 [19] 10 16
Holmes et al. [118] 7 0 51 20 14
7.5 27 30 12
15 25 40 11
28 0 56 50 10.5
7.5 34 28 0 24.5
15 30 10 22.5
Dong et al. [29] 7 0 33 20 17.5
15 23 30 14
30 18 40 13
28 0 38 50 11
15 25.5 Thomas and Gupta 28 0 42.5
30 22.5 [120] 2.5 41
Bravo and de Brito [8] 28 0 56 5 37.5
5 45 7.5 37
10 36 10 33.5
15 27 12.5 30
Batayneh et al. [110] 28 0 25.33 17.3 23.30
20 18.96 20 20
40 12.27 Su et al. [111] 28 0 61.1
60 8.05 20 54.60
80 4.47 Li et al. [121] 28 0 44
100 2.5 2 36
4 33
6 31
8 29
10 25

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Table 1  (continued) Table 2  Compressive strength (MPa) of chipped (coarse) rubber-

crete
Author Days Crumb Compressive
rubber (V%) strength (Mpa) Author Days Chipped Compres-
rubber sive strength
Ganjian et al. [38] 7 0 20.7 (%) (Mpa)
5 20
Khatib and Bayomy [35] 7 0 20
7.5 17.45 2.84 13
10 14 11.35 5.0
22.7 5.0
28 0 32
34.05 4.0
5 30 45.41 3.0
7.5 27 56.76 3.0
10 20 28 0 37.5
Gupta et al. [67] 28 0 51 2.84 24
5 50 11.35 14
10 50 22.7 9
15 48 34.05 6
20 48 45.41 3.5
90 0 69 56.76 3
5 60 Khaloo et al. [25] 28 0 30.77
10 58 12.5 6.52
15 58 25 1.49
20 57 37.5 0.65
Issa and Salem [93] 7 0 19.22 50 0.37
15 17.55 Holmes et al. [118] 7 0 51
25 13.14 7.5 50
50 11.6 15 36
100 4.51 28 0 56
28 0 31.87 7.5 57
15 16.26 15 39
25 20.39 Bravo and de Brito [8] 28 0 56
50 13.3 5 47
100 5.19 10 38
Atahan and Yücel [95] 28 0 9.3 15 28
20 3.95 Aiello and Leuzzi[32] 28 0 45.8
40 3 25 23.9
60 2.2 50 20.87
80 1 75 17.4
100 0.60 Meddah et al. [56] 7 0 23.01
Fedroff et al. [112] 7 0 45 5 18.70
10 20 10 16.24
20 16 15 15.58
30 11 20 14.15
28 0 54 25 12.5
10 25 30 11.9
20 19
30 15.5
56 0 58
10 26
20 22
30 18

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Table 2  (continued)
Author Days Chipped Compres-
rubber sive strength
(%) (Mpa)

Ganjian et al. [38] 7 0 20.70

5 24
7.5 22
10 19.90
28 0 32
5 33
Fig. 8  Three-point loading test on concrete containing coarse rub-
7.5 30 ber
10 25
Atahan and Sevim [96] 28 0 36
20 28 limestone to densify the ITZ and so increase bonding.
40 24 In another case, cement mortar has been used to pre-
60 19.5 coat rubber aggregates [22, 46–49]. To improve the
80 14 bond between rubber particles and cement paste,
100 11 some researchers [50, 51] have made the surface of
Hernandez-Olivares et al. [122] 7 0 36 CR rougher by sodium hydroxide treatment. Similar
4 29 to this, CR has been treated with UV utilizing water
5 28 retention to modify its surface energy, preventing it
28 0 40 from entrapping air and repelling water and therefore
4 30 enhancing its bonding [52]. In addition, cement alter-
5 30 natives such as fly ash, metakaolin, ground-granulated
blast furnace slag, and silica have been employed to
densify the hardened rubbercrete microstructure [50,
thickens the interfacial transition zone (ITZ), which 53–55].
is a porous zone between cement paste and aggre-
gate. The ITZ’s poor bonding with the hardened 3.1.2 Flexural strength
matrix results in the production of micro cracks,
which reduces strength and causes premature fail- The flexural strength of rubberized concrete can be
ure. [35, 42–45] attributed compressive strength assessed by using the three-point loading method on
reduction to two factors. First, upon loading, frac- beams (Figs. 8 and 9) [32]. Tables 3 and 4 show, respec-
tures are promptly begun around the rubber par- tively, how crumb and chipped rubber affect rubbercrete’s
ticles in the mixture because they are significantly flexural strength, where the maximum authors’ data
softer (elastically malleable) than the surrounding shown indicates a decrease in flexural strength of both CR
cement paste, this accelerates the rubber-cement and chipped rubber concrete. As the percentage of rubber
matrix’s failure. Second, because they don’t adhere
to the paste, soft rubber particles may act like voids
in the concrete matrix. However, the performance
can be improved with the chemicals which it’s sur-
face rough. Also, the performance can be improved
with the help of filler materials which fills the voids
cause due to rubber particle and lead to more com-
pact concrete.
Furthermore, different scholars have made several
attempts to either strengthen the bond between hard-
ened cement paste and CR or to speed up the chemi-
cal reaction in cement to densify the hardened rub-
bercrete microstructure to reduce the strength loss in
rubbercrete. For instance, CR has been pre-coated with Fig. 9  Crack behavior of concrete beam after flexural test

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Table 3  Flexural strength (MPa) of crumb rubber concrete Table 3  (continued)

Author Days CR Replacement Flexural Author Days CR Replacement Flexural
Levels (V%) Strength Levels (V%) Strength
(Mpa) (Mpa)

Khatib and Bayomy [35] 7 0 5 28 0 7.2

4.32 3.2 2.5 7.3
8.65 2.5 5. 0 6.90
17.5 2.4 7.5 6.90
25.95 2.5 10 6.6
34.59 2 12.5 6.1
43.24 2 15 5.7
28 0 11 17.5 5.7
4.32 4 20 5.5
8.65 3.9 90 0 7.8
17.5 3.8 2.5 7.9
25.95 2.5 5 7.2
34.59 2 7.5 7.1
43.24 1.8 10 6.8
Batayneh et al. [110] 28 0 3.68 12.5 6.6
20 2.55 15 6.4
40 2.04 17.5 6
60 1.38 20 5.7
80 0.77 Uygunoğlu and Topcu [19] 7 0 1.45
100 0.64 10 1.45
Aiello and Leuzzi [32] 28 0 5.34 20 1.40
15 5.10 30 1.38
30 5.03 40 1.20
50 4.95 50 0.9
Kardos and Durham [31] 28 0 4.52 28 0 1.75
10 4.2 10 1.60
20 4.0 20 1.60
30 3.76 30 1.55
50 3.45 40 1.4
56 0 5.10 50 1.3
10 4.79 Thomas and Gupta [120] 28 0 5.32
20 4.38 2.5 5.20
30 4.00 5 5.01
50 3.31 7.5 4.8
Thomas et al. [123] 7 0 6.2 10 4.46
2.5 6.2 12.5 4.48
5 6.1 15 4.16
7.5 5.6 17.5 4.04
10 5.30 20 4
12.5 5.2
15 4.8
17.5 4.6
20 4.6

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Table 4  Flexural strength (MPa) of chipped rubbercrete strength of concrete which always showed lose. As shown
Author Days Chipped rub- Flexural strength (Mpa) in Fig. 10, when a load is applied to a concrete specimen
ber replace- a ductile failure was observed and the beam was able to
ment levels (%) hold one-quarter of the ultimate load for a significant time
as compared to the control concrete beam which showed
Khatib and 7 0 5
Bayomy [35] sudden failure after reaching its ultimate strength capac-
2.84 3.9
ity. This phenomenon occurred as a result of the CR acting
11.35 3
like fiber reinforcement and upon deformation bridging
22.70 3
the fracture. This could be advantageous where crack-wid-
34.05 2
ening prevention is desired. [56] and [57] also supported
45.41 2
the higher ductility and crack resistance behavior of rub-
56.76 0
berized concrete and mortars.
28 0 11
The same factors can be identified as the cause of the
2.84 3.25
reduction in flexural strength as that for compressive
11.35 2.25
strength because flexural strength or modulus of rup-
22.70 3
ture (MOR) is the function of compressive strength and to
34.05 2
decrease this lose in flexural strength, the same measures
45.41 1.5
could be taken as that for compressive strength.
56.76 1.0
Aiello and 28 0 3.51
Leuzzi [32] 3.1.3 Splitting tensile strength
25 2.94
50 2.52
75 2.52
Splitting tensile strength is the indirect method of deter-
Meddah et al. 7 0 4.90
mination of the tensile strength of concrete. Same to
[56] 5 4.70
compressive strength, similarly splitting tensile strength
10 4.25
decreases. In general, the decrease in indirect (splitting)
15 4.12
tensile strength is proportional to the decrease in com-
20 4.15
pressive strength. This could be attributed to the same
25 2.89
causes as the decline in compressive strength, namely
30 3.23
the creation of air voids [58]. Figures 11 and 12 is show-
Ganjian et al. 28 0 5.40
ing the past work of some of the researchers on splitting
[38] 5 5.20
tensile strength of concrete containing CR and chipped
7.5 3.90
rubber respectively. From these figures, it is clear that the
10 3.30
splitting tensile strength of both crumbs and chipped rub-
Hernandez- 7 0 6
bercerete decreases as compared to control concrete. In
Olivares 2.84 5
the case of CR content, the splitting tensile strength values
[122]
5 4.5
are higher as compared to chipped rubber content which
28 0 6.50
signifies that rubber particle size also affects splitting ten-
2.84 5.30
sile strength [59].
5 4.80
According to [60] and Najim et al., the crumb rubber
Toutanji [124] 28 0 3.80
particles’ lower elastic modulus compared to the sand par-
25 3.50
ticles may be the cause of the reduction in tensile splitting
50 3.10
strength caused by the substitution of sand with crumb
75 2.80
rubber. The low density of concrete manufactured with
100 2.40
crumb rubber, which results in reduced tensile strength
of concrete, may also be a factor [61].
Su et al. explained that to control the loss of rubber-
increased as a partial replacement of sand and crush for ized concrete tensile splitting strength, well-graded rub-
CR and chipped rubber respectively, flexural strength got ber particles must be used. Additionally [29] suggested
decreased. that by developing a cementitious coating of silane cou-
A study [31] noted a decrease in the modulus of rup- pling agent around rubber particles Fig. 13, the splitting
ture (MOR) of rubbercrete as CR content increased. This tensile strength will not reduce significantly. It was noted
was expected because MOR is the function of compressive that concrete specimens containing coated rubber par-
ticles did not disintegrate after failure. Figure 14 displays

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Fig. 10  Flexural failure behav-

iour of rubberized concrete
[31]

Fig. 11  Surface treatment of silane Coupling agent Cement paste

rubber particles in two stages Cement
Coupling
agent

Rubber Rubber
particle particle

(a) Before hydration (b) after hydration

3.1.4 Modulus of elasticity ­(Ec)

The "modulus of elasticity" (MOE) ­(Ec) of the concrete is the

ratio of the applied stress to the corresponding strain". It
shows the concrete’s stiffness and resistance to deforma-
tion due to applied stress. In other words, it demonstrates
the concrete’s elastic deflection feature. Although add-
Control 15%U 30%U 15%C
ing rubber to concrete lowers its compressive strength
and elastic modulus, it also benefits the seismic safety of
Fig. 12  Split tensile test of specimens after 28 days structures by preventing the stiffness of structures from
being too large based on structural safety [62, 63]. Since
the breakage surfaces of concrete specimens following the use of CR and chipped rubber decreased the compres-
the split tensile strength test. Cement hydration products sive strength of rubberized concrete, thus MOE would also
covered the surface of coated rubber particles, whereas decrease.
nothing remained on the surface of uncoated rubber, Figure 15 depicts a reduction in the MOE of concrete
demonstrating that the weakest part of the specimen incorporating crumb rubber as a volumetric partial replace-
was not the rubber-concrete interface. Thus, the interfacial ment for sand. With an increase in the particle content of
characteristics between rubber particles and the cement recycled waste tires, it was expected that the MOE of rubber-
matrix were significantly improved by the chemical bond- crete would drop. This is because the more elastic material
ing that was produced. (recycled waste tire rubber) was incorporated into a more

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7 days * 28 days * 60 days *

4.5
28 days ** 28 days *** 28 days ****
56 days **** 28 days ^ 7 days ^^
4
28 days ^^ 56 days ^^ 28 days ^^^
28 days ^^^^ 28 days ^^^^ 28 days ^^^^^
3.5
Spling Tensile Strength ( MPa)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 15 30
Crumb Rubber (%)

Fig. 13  Crumb Rubbercrete split tensile strength. *[29], ^[38], ^^^^^[137, **[110], ^^[112], ***[20], ^^^[9], ****[31], ^^^^[114]

3.5 7 days * 14 days * 28 days * 28 days ** 28 days *** 28 days **** 28 days ^ 28 days ^^ 28 days ^^^

2.5
Spling Tensile Strength (MPa)

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Chipped Rubber % V

Fig. 14  Chipped Rubbercrete Split Tensile Strength. *[56], ***[115], ^, ^^ and ^^^[114], **[38], ****[116]

rigid material (concrete) [31]. The MOE of rubber is only According to [65] The particle size and quantity of
0.0007 to 0.004 GPa while that of rock often ranges from 20 rubber affected the MOE of rubberized concrete. The
to 100 GPa [64]. subsequent decrease in the paste amount of rubberized

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35

30.12 30 (Gesoğlu, Güneyisi et al. 2014)

30 (Kardos, Durham et al. 2015)
28 28 (Gupta, Chaudhary et al. 2014)
27
Modulus of elas city (GPa)

2524.13 23.58 24

22.1

20 18.96 18.96

17 16.8
15.93

15

10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Crumb Rubber (%)

Fig. 15  MOE of crumb rubber concrete at 28 days [31, 67, 114]

w/c= 0.35 (Gupta et al. 2014)* w/c= 0.45 (Hilal 2011)*** w/c= 0.45 (Hilal 2011)*
w/c= 0.35 (Gesoglu et al. 2011)* w/c= 0.35 (Gesoglu et al. 2011)**** w/c= 0.4 (Pedro et al. 2013)*
w/c= 0.47 (Fidiel et al. 2014)* w/c= 0.4 (Uygunoglu et al. 2010)* w/c= 0.43 (Uygunoglu et al. 2010)*
w/c= 0.47 (Uygunoglu et al. 2010)* w/c= 0.51 (Uygunoglu et al. 2010)*
18

16

14
Water Absorp on ( %)

12

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
Rubber Content (V%)

Fig. 16  Water absorption of concrete containing rubber (*28 days curing, ** 7 days, ***21 days, ****90 days, ***** 56 days) [19, 71, 78, 102,
111, 117]

concrete led to a statistically significant decrease in aggregate is one of the critical factors that affects the
MOE. The addition of very very low modulus crumb MOE of rubbercrete [24]. In line with these research-
rubber in concrete as a partial replacement of fine ers [66] also declared that the fine size and increase of

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Table 5  Effect of waste recycled tire rubber on water absorption and Porosity of concrete
References Rubber content Size (mm) Remarks
(%)

Gupta et al. [67] 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 0.15–1.9 All percentages of rubber increased water absorption
Hilal [102] 0, 20, 30 0.7-5 mm All percentages of rubber increased water absorption
Mohammed et al. [40] 0, 10,25, 50 0.6 (mesh size 30) Increased water absorption for all mixes
Sukontasukkul and Tiamlom [69] 0, 10, 20, 30 Passing sieve no.26 and no.6 Reduced water absorption for no.26 and increases for
no.6
Azevedo et al. [119] 0, 5 1–2.4 Water absorption increased
Gesoğlu and Güneyisi [78] 0, 5, 15, 25 <4 Water absorption and porosity increased
Pedro et al. [71] 0, 5, 10, 15 0.18–4.75 Water absorption on 5% rubber content reduced
water,10% increased water absorption, with 15%
better permeability

Table 6  Effect of waste recycled tire rubber on freezing and thawing resistance of concrete
Author Rubber (%) Size (mm) Optimum dose (%) w/c Freeze/thaw
resistance
increased

Richardson et al. [70] 0.6* 0.6–0.15 0.60 0.45 ✓

Richardson [34] 0.6* 0.5–2.5 0.5 mm 0.44 ✓
Pedro et al. [71] 5, 10, 15 4.75–0.15 15 ✓
Paine and Dhir [125] 2,4,6 0.5–1–5, 2–8, 5–25 4 0.5,0.45,0.40 ✓
Al-Akhras and Smadi [73] 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10* 0.15 5 and 10 0.65 ✓
Yesilata et al. [126] 10–70 4.75–0.075 50 0.45 ✓

rubber content in concrete caused the reduction in MOE rubber’s capacity to trap air bubbles on its surface due to
of rubberized concrete. its non-polar nature. As a result of this phenomenon the
interface formed between rubber aggregates and cement
3.2 Durability properties is highly porous and absorptive [68]. Sukontasukkul and

3.2.1 Water absorption and porosity

Water absorption of rubbercrete is more as compared to

ordinary concrete. It is due to different reasons which are
explored by different researchers by experimentally inves-
tigating concrete containing different types of waste rub-
bers with different percentages by volume or by weight.
According to [67] water absorption of concrete contain-
ing CR is increased due to an increase in w/c and con-
tent of rubber. Rubber content and w/c increase poros-
ity which subsequently increases the water absorption
capacity of concrete. For rubberized concrete, it is difficult
to achieve proper compaction as compared to control
concrete therefore the density of rubberized concrete is
lower than control concrete. This ultimately causes con-
crete to absorb more water. The trend in water absorption
increase with rubber content is also shown in Fig. 16. The
reason for the increase in water absorption is the forma-
tion of the porous internal structure of rubbercrete, the
Fig. 17  80 × magnification of crumb rubber [70]

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34.62% respectively. The summary of the above discus-

sion is presented in Fig. 16 and Table 5.

3.2.2 Freeze–thaw resistance

According to [34, 64, 68, 70–73] freezing and thawing

resistance of rubbercrete increases with an increase in
rubber sand percentage in concrete which is also shown
in Table 6.
Rubbercrete has better resistance to freeze/thaw cycles
as compared to control concrete, this is brought on by
the rubbercrete’s increased void ratio. These voids com-
paratively provide larger space which accommodates the
frozen volume of water in rubbercrete [74]. Due to this
relaxation internal pressure exerted by freeze water in
hardened rubbercrete is relieved and no cracks occur in
the rubbercrete [41].CR is a non-polar and hydrophobic
substance that repels water and traps air on its surface
Fig. 18  2000 × magnification of crumb rubber [70]
[34, 66, 68, 70]. Figures 17 and 18 show the shape of CR as
seen using the Leica S6D scanning electron microscope
Tiamlom [69] reported that concrete containing rubber (SEM), which demonstrates that during the production of
of size passing sieve no. 26 experienced a decrease in CR, the rubber is broken down and transformed into angu-
water absorption, while the increase in water absorption lar shapes with a rough surface [70]. According to Benaz-
for rubber of size passing from sieve no. 6. With the inclu- zouk et al. (2008), this irregular shape of CR is responsible
sion of small rubber, the decrease in water absorption for for air entrainment on its surface in rubbercrete. Another
10%, 20%, and 30% rubber content was 30.77%, 15.38%, study conducted by [75] investigated that there is a gap
and 11.54% respectively. While for the same percentage in the interfacial zone between the CR and the concrete/
replacement levels the increase in water absorption for cement paste. This zone’s presence in hardened concrete
coarse-size rubber aggregates was 11.54%, 21.15%, and will also help to provide a pressure release system that

Table 7  Effect of waste recycled tire rubber on chloride penetration of concrete

Author Rubber content % Size (mm) Days w/c Comment

Gupta et al. [67] 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 1.9–0.15 28 0.35, 0.45, 0.55 Increases resistance to chloride-ion
penetration
Onuaguluchi and Panesar [24] 5, 10, 15 < 2.3 28 0.47 Increases resistance to chloride-ion
penetration
Al-Akhras and Smadi [73] 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10* 0.15 28, 90 0.65 Reduced chloride ion penetration at
5% and 10% replacement level
Oikonomou and Mavridou [12] 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15* 1.18–0.075 28 0.44 Increase in rubber % increases resist-
ance to chloride ion penetration
Gesoğlu and Güneyisi [22] 5, 15, 25 Same as 3, 7, 28 0.4 Increased chloride ion penetration
sand gra- depth
dation
Bravo and de Brito [8] 5, 10, 15 4 28, 91 0.43 Chloride penetration resistance
decreases
Gesoğlu and Güneyisi [78] 5, 15, 25 4–0.15 28, 90 0.35 Reduced chloride ion penetration
resistance
Gupta et al. [49] 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 5–0.075 28 0.35, 0.45, 0.55 For the change in chloride ion resist-
ance, no trend is seen
Thomas et al. [123] 2.5,5,7.5,10,12.5,15,17.5,20 0.8–2, 2–4 28,56,91 0.30 Chloride ion penetration depth
increased

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enables freeze/thaw protection. Finally, it is advantageous to the corrosion resistance of steel imbedded rubber-
to utilize waste tire rubbers in concrete where freeze/thaw ized concrete consequently, it will be a crucial subject
cycles occur. for further research.
Chloride penetration leads to the steel reinforce-
3.2.3 Corrosion resistance and chloride penetration ment corrosion of cement concrete. Thus, research on
chloride permeability is crucial since it has an impact on
A study [76] replaced the sand with fine rubber with the durability of rubberized concrete. Some of the past
percentages of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% by volume and size literature is tabulated in Table 7 which describes the
0.6 or 0.3 mm. It was concluded that with a 5% replace- effect of CR as a partial replacement of fine aggregate in
ment level, the best anti-sulfate corrosion resistance concrete [24, 67, 73]. Reported an increase in resistance
can be achieved [77]. Incorporated CR in concrete to to chloride-ion penetration with the increase in rubber
check the corrosion resistance of reinforced rubber- percentage. While [1, 8] and [78] investigated contrary
crete. It was found that concrete containing 10% CR results. From Fig. 19 it is evident that chloride penetra-
size 4.75–0.15 mm by volume and concrete without tion depth increases with increased rubber component
rubber had the same results of reinforcing bar mass which is highest for the 3 and 91 days curing period and
loss. From his study, it is clear that when the percentage lowest for 28 days. The main reason for the increase in
of CR increased the corrosion resistance decreased and chloride ion penetration in rubbercrete is high perme-
at a 30% replacement level mass loss of reinforcing bars ability, interconnected voids, and poor internal packing.
was two times greater than the control concrete. The CR entraps air on its surface as previously discussed due
possible reason for corrosion to steel imbedded rub- to which the porosity of rubbercrete increases and this
berized concrete is because raising the CR percentage favors higher chloride ion penetration through absorp-
causes rubbercrete’s porosity and void ratio to grow. tion, permeation, or diffusion [1, 49, 67]. By substituting
But from the literature review, it is worth mentioning fly ash (FA) for a portion of the cement in self-compacting
that the corrosion resistance property of rubberized rubberized concrete [78] or by substituting 10% of the
concrete containing steel needs to be investigated cement with silica fume (SF), the depth of chloride ion
experimentally and very scarce data is available related penetration can be lowered in rubberized concrete [22].

3 days curing period (Gesoglu et al. 2007) 7 days curing period (Gesoglu et al. 2007)
28 days curing period (Gesoglu et al. 2007) 28 days curing period (Thomas et.al 2015)
17 56 days curing period (Thomas et.al 2015)
Chloride ion Penetra on Depth (mm)

15

13

11

5
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Rubber Content (%)

Fig. 19  Chloride ion penetration depth with CR percentage [1, 22]]

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3.2.4 Carbonation resistance

Concrete’s capacity to withstand carbonation is a key indi-

cator of its longevity. Concrete will eventually lose its abil-
ity to protect steel due to a chemical reaction between
atmospheric carbon dioxide and internal alkaline concrete,
which will ultimately result in the corrosion phenomenon.
The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rose due
to the continued growth of industry, which was aggra-
vated by the greenhouse effect and had a negative impact
on the resilience of concrete structures [79–81]. Pathak
et al. [1] exposed concrete samples (w/c = 0.30) to C ­ O2 cur-
ing in a chamber according to CPC 18 RILEM specifications
containing CR in 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 12.5%, 15%, 17.5%,
and 20% as replacement of sand. Three pieces from each
Fig. 20  SEM image of rubber fiber at 60 × magnification sample were tested after 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 weeks of C ­ O2
exposure. Thomas et al. concluded that samples contain-
ing CR up to 12.5% have decreasing values for carbonation
resistance. From 12.5 to 20% substitution samples there
is a gradual increase in carbonation depth. A reduction
of up to 12.5% CR can be attributed to the lower water-
cement ratio which improves pore structures. Also, the
size of the CR and replaced sand is the same which results
in a closely packed concrete mass and prevents entry
of ­CO2 gas in the rubbercrete. The increase in carbona-
tion depth beyond 10% substitution of rubber results in
increased carbonation depth which might be due to the
poor internal packing of concrete specimen. This can also
be justified by Figs. 20 and 21 [49]. A large cavity is shown
in Fig. 21 which acts as a large pore in rubberized con-
crete and hence allows ­CO2 gas from the environment to
penetrate. Figure 22 also represents a micro crack in the
concrete internal structure. These cracks revealed a lack of
adequate interfacial adhesion between the rubber fibers
Fig. 21  SEM image of rubber fiber at 600 × magnification
and cement paste which provides a favorable environment
for ­CO2 diffusion.

No Carbonation

Arrows Indicate Depth of Carbonation

Fig. 22  Rubbercrete Specimens showing the depth of carbonation [1]

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Fig. 23  Carbonation depth 14

(mm) with respect to rubber %
volume *[1], **[8] 12
10
8
6 14 days*
28 daya*
4 42 days*
2 56 days*
91 days*
0 7 days**

4 Rubber concrete for roadside barriers

The barrier is typically made of reinforced concrete and

is designed to absorb the impact of a vehicle in the
event of a collision, reducing the risk of injury or death
to drivers and passengers. The F shape of the barrier as
shown in Fig. 24 allows for a gradual redirection of the
vehicle in the event of a collision, helping to prevent it
from rebounding back into traffic or crossing over into
oncoming lanes. Concrete barriers are considered one of
the important transportation safety elements on roads
to prevent vehicles from leaving the road [82]. Concrete
barriers are crucial in preventing vehicles from entering
the opposite road lane, falling into the ravines, collision
Fig. 24  The F shape concrete barrier [82] with road side objects or infrastructure, and protecting
cyclists and pedestrians from traffic [83, 84].
In case of a vehicle crash on the road or highway may
A study [8] conducted a test on rubberized concrete cause serious injuries to passengers which may further
(5%, 10%, and 15% coarse natural aggregate replaced by cause serious traffic accidents such as rollovers on the
coarse rubber by volume) for carbonation penetration. The road or falling off the cliff. Every year there is a number
depth of carbonation increases with an increase in rubber of crashes occur on roads, in 2009 only in China there
percentage as shown in Fig. 23. The possible reason for were approximately 54,599 crashes occurred on rural
the increase in carbonation depth is more water is needed highways [85]. As compared to steel barrier vehicles
for concrete containing used tire aggregate to maintain when colliding with concrete barriers a little portion of
workability and space between cement paste and rubber kinetic energy is transferred into the concrete barrier
aggregate. From the data, a 56% increase in carbonation and a great portion is absorbed by the vehicle, there-
depth was observed at 28 days for a 15% replacement fore vehicles are badly collapsed, and passengers and
level of coarse aggregate. Bravo et al. also cleared that vehicle drivers are severely injured [82]. Moreover, con-
carbonation depth increases with an increase in the size crete barriers are cheaper and require low maintenance
of rubber. as compared to steel non-rigid road safety barriers [86].
Many researchers have tried to reduce the severity of
crashes of vehicles with these concrete roadside barriers

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by increasing their energy absorption capacity, thus mini- in cement mortars. They reported that cement mortar
mizing the chances of fatalities. For this purpose [87] specimens showed improvement in impact behavior. A
intended to use rubberized concrete for the construction study [92] prepared concrete beams containing CR. it was
of concrete road side barriers. Avcular et al. added that concluded that fracture energy, inertial load, impact tup
rubberized concrete has the ability of higher impact resist- load, and bending load of rubbercrete increased with an
ance (energy absorption) as compared to control concrete increase in rubber aggregate content. Researchers [65]
which results in less damage and injuries during the colli- also revealed that the addition of rubber increased the
sion of vehicles with the barrier. [88] tested concrete con- fracture energy of aggregates in concrete. For 10% and
taining CR and concluded that the mechanical properties 20% rubber inclusion fracture energy increased by 1.38
(flexural strength, compressive strength, and tangential and 1.33 times greater respectively.
modulus of elasticity) of rubbercrete reduced as compared In view of the above literature (Also summarized in
to control concrete but impact resistance, ductility, flex- Table 8) it can be concluded that impact resistance or
ibility, and energy absorption are greatly enhanced, thus impact energy absorption increases with an increase in
such type of concrete can be used for structures where CR content in concrete as a partial replacement of natural
strength is not much important. Hence for concrete road- sand. The development of impact resistance can be attrib-
side barriers it would be a best option to utilize end-of-life uted to some of the properties of rubber-like more elastic
tire rubber in concrete. behavior, lower stiffness, and higher deformation of CR
Impact resistance is the ability of concrete to withstand in comparison to natural sand. Therefore, concrete con-
repeated blows by absorbing energy without cracking or taining CR as a partial replacement for sand has a better
spalling. To utilize rubbercrete in concrete roadside bar- capability of absorbing shocks, and vibrations and conse-
riers impact resistance is much more important because quently having higher impact resistance [53, 93].
vehicles collide with the high velocity of these barri- The energy absorption capacity can be measured
ers. According to [89], the inclusion of CR in concrete through different methods like peak deflection, peak
improves the impact load behavior of rubbercrete. They strain, brittleness index, ultimate strain, load–deflection
also explained that fracture energy also improves with CR curve, and peak load [94]. [53] replaced natural sand
sand inclusion in concrete. Fracture energy enhancement with CR in percentages of 0, 5, 15, and 25% by volume.
was 34.61%, 38.46%, and 46.15% for 5%, 10%, and 20% The energy absorption improved with an increase in CR
rubber replacement levels respectively. A researcher [90] percentage. According to Ozbay et al., the reason for the
reported that crack initiation resistance of concrete con- increase in energy absorption is higher rubber content.
taining CR under impact load can be improved. A study The more CR aggregates in concrete more will be energy
[91] added CR sand in concrete by volume with different absorption capacity. Researchers [91] conducted fracture
percentages. They proved that with up to 50% inclusion and microstructural properties of rubberized concrete that
of CR impact energy improved while beyond 50% replace- tire particles in rubberized concrete provide crack bridg-
ment level impact energy showed a decrease. A scholar ing, compress and twist, and the ability to bend. Tire par-
[71] partially added natural sand with shredded rubber ticles present in concrete absorb a part of energy when
an external load is applied. Due to the lower stiffness of
Table 8  Effect of CR on the impact resistance of rubbercrete
rubber particles, the rubberized concrete relatively shows
Author Rubber (%) Size (mm) Increased higher flexibility and due to this nature of rubberized con-
in impact crete, more energy is absorbed as compared to control
strength
concrete. Studies [25] and [53] also added that due to the
Al-Tayeb et al. [127] 5, 10, 20 1 ✓ low stiffness property of CR internal friction is reduced and
Sallam et al. [90] 0, 10, 20, 30 5–0.16 ✓ recovering extra strain in the rubberized concrete mass.
Reda Taha et al. 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 5-1 mm ✓ [95] replaced natural sand with CR at levels of 0, 20,
[91] 40, 60, 80, and 100% by volume. Fine rubber was passed
Pedro et al. [71] 0, 5, 10, 15 ~ 4.74–0.15 ✓ through sieves 10 and 20 (10 and 20 holes per inch respec-
Atahan and Yücel 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, ✓ tively). It was concluded that with an increase in rubber
[95] 100 percentage energy dissipation increases as shown in
Al-Tayeb et al. [128] 0, 5, 10, 20 ✓ Fig. 25. Between the control and 100% rubber specimen,
Gesoğlu et al. [65] 0, 10, 20 4 ✓ the increment measured was 160.8%.
Vadivel et al. [129] 0, 6* 4.75–0.10 ✓
A researcher [96] used shredded tire chips (STC) in con-
Chaikaew et al. 0, 25, 50 ✓ crete as a replacement for coarse aggregate with the same
[130]
replacement level as that of Atahan et al. 2012 also shown
*Sign shows rubber inclusion by weight in concrete

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Fig. 25  Energy absorption of (Atahan and Yücel 2012) (Atahan and Sevim 2008)
concrete containing CR [95, 96] 120

100

Energy Absorp on (Joule)

80

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Rubber (%)

Fig. 26  ECC matrix fracture 0.8

toughness [101] Huang et al. (2013)
0.7 0.67
Fracture Toghness (MPa-m1/2)

0.6

0.5

0.4 0.37

0.29
0.3 0.25 0.26

0.2

0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40
Rubber Content (Volume%)

Table 9  Toughness of concrete Author Rubber (%) Size (mm) Toughness increased/decreased
containing CR
Sukontasukkul and 0, 10 and 20%* Passing from ASTM Yes
Chaikaew [97] sieve no. 6 and no.
20
Balaha et al. [98] 0, 5, 10, 15, 20% <4 Yes
Najim and Hall [18] 0, 5, 10, 15%* 6-2 mm Yes
Liu et al. [99] 0, 5, 10, 15% 2 Yes
Guo et al. [131] 0, 4, 8, 12, 16% 1.4–0.85 Fracture toughness increased
up to 8% inclusion then
decreased
Reda et al. [91] 0, 25, 50, 75, 100% 5-1 mm Yes
Shu and Huang [132] 0, 10, 20, 30, 40% Average size 0.135 No

*Sign shows rubber inclusion by weight in concrete

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in Fig. 26. They concluded that with a replacement level to decrease. [101] used rubber (Average size 0.135 mm)
of STC from 0 to 100% the energy absorption capacity is in engineered cementitious composites (ECC) as a partial
187% increased. It means that kinetic energy imparted by replacement of iron ore tailings (IOTs). It resulted that the
the vehicle to concrete safety barriers during collision is fracture toughness of ECC-containing rubber was signifi-
effectively absorbed which reduces the chances of occu- cantly reduced (almost 50% as compared to control con-
pant injury. This discussion clarifies that waste tires can crete) as shown in Fig. 26. This reduction in fracture tough-
be used with confidence in concrete as a fine and coarse ness may be attributed to the higher porosity of the ECC
aggregate replacement to increase the energy absorption matrix when rubber is added. The weak interfacial bond
of rubbercrete. between cement paste and rubber particles allows the
The toughness of rubbercrete is its ability to absorb crack to easily develop around rubber particles [38].
energy without fracture when an external load is applied. From the above study, it is clear that with rubber par-
As energy absorption of rubbercrete increases with an ticles included in concrete toughness fracture of rubber-
increase in rubber content, thus Toughness of rubbercrete crete increases as compared to conventional concrete. This
will also possibly increase with the increase in rubber con- increase in the toughness of rubberized concrete is due to
tent. A past study on the toughness of rubbercrete is listed the bending property of rubber, anti-cracking, enhanced
in Table 9. A study [97] incorporated CR in concrete (See strain energy, and compressing and twisting of rubber par-
Table 9) and noticed that with sand and coarse aggregate ticles in concrete. The increased toughness of rubberized
replacements and also with combined replacement the concrete is one of the advantages to utilize end-of-life tires
toughness of concrete blocks containing CR increased. A rubber in concrete for concrete road barriers.
study [98] reported higher toughness of ground waste tire Studies [100] and [102] used CR in concrete as a
rubber (GWTR) concrete as compared to control concrete. natural sand replacement with different percentages.
The inclusion of 5% rubber content showed the highest They reported an increase in ductility of concrete con-
toughness. Researchers [99] partially replaced natural sand taining CR as compared to control concrete. [103] uti-
with CR in concrete and reported that toughness increased lized waste tire rubber (average size 1.5 mm) in mor-
as rubber content increased as shown in Table 9. tar and concrete with different percentages of 0, 10,
A study [100] added CR in steel fiber reinforced recycled 15, 20, 30, and 50% by volume as sand replacement.
aggregate concrete with 0, 4, 8, 12, and 16% by volume as Test results revealed that rubberized cement mortars
the sand replacement and noticed that toughness frac- exhibited significant ductility as compared to control
ture increased up to 8% inclusion of rubber then started concrete. [104] reported higher ductility of concrete

Fig. 27  Effect of CR on concrete cylinders crack pattern (a) and (d) no rubber, 20% rubber (b) and (e), 40% rubber in c, f, and g. Data
obtained from [106]

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specimens containing CR of size 4–0.5 mm with par- converting used tires into graphene, which may be used to
tial replacement of sand in percentages of 10, 20, and produce stronger and more ecologically friendly concrete.
30% by volume. With these percentages of CR sand in Other possible uses for recovered tire trash include the
concrete, the increment in ductility index was 25%, recovery of high-value components such as polymeric oils,
81.25%, and 93.75% respectively. Azevedo et al. [93] which may be utilized to manufacture new elastomers. It
reported that when rubber is added to concrete with may also be used to make a very durable multi-use aero-
partial replacement of natural sand the ductility and gel for applications such as oil spill cleanup, thermal and
damping properties of concrete increase. Researchers acoustic insulation, playgrounds, grass, and roadways.
[105] replaced natural sand with CR (size 4.75 mm) in Recycled tire debris may assist to lessen the environ-
SCCs at levels of 5, 10, 15, and 20% by volume. They mental effect of tire disposal while also providing a valu-
reported a decrease in brittleness index values of SCC able resource for the circular economy. It is critical to con-
containing CR. (Ling 2012) also demonstrated ductile tinue exploring and developing innovative techniques for
failure rather than a brittle failure of concrete speci- recycling scrap tires and incorporating them into a wide
mens containing fine rubber as partial replacement of range of goods and materials.
natural sand at levels of 10, 20, and 30% by volume.
A study [106] partially replaced natural sand with CR
in concrete. They concluded that crack propagation
in rubbercrete was gradual and not sudden also no 6 Conclusion
major crack was observed as compared to control con-
crete which showed sudden failure with major cracks The past research on the characteristics of rubbercrete
as shown in Fig. 27. in both its fresh and hardened states and the application
potential of end-of-life tire rubber in roadside concrete
barriers have been reviewed in this review study. The fresh
5 Circular economy properties include workability, air content, and unit weight
while hardened properties cover mechanical and durabil-
Tires are converted into the garbage at the end of their use- ity performances study. Moreover, the potential use of
ful life and either stored or recycled or repurposed. Aside end-of-life tire rubber in roadside concrete barriers was
from retracting or storing tires, good waste management reviewed. Considering an assessment of the prior research
procedures include various options for profiting from undertaken by several researchers listed in this review, the
reused rubber resources. In a market economy, the potential following findings may be drawn:
of recycling is directly tied to the recovery of residual value
in proportion to the desire to undertake such efforts. Used 1. The majority of studies concluded that adding crumb
tires are remarkable recycling materials since the number rubber (CR) or chipped rubber to the concrete mixture
of recycling without significant quality is infinite. decreased workability. However, some opposite find-
End-of-life tire management is a significant environ- ings were also observed. In addition, the air content of
mental concern. Because of the benefits it may provide, rubbercrete increased.
recycling discarded rubber tires in civil engineering is 2. The unit weight of the concrete mixture was decreased
regarded as an environmentally friendly and cost-effec- by the addition of CR or chipped rubber.
tive alternative. It protects natural resources and creates an 3. The compressive strength of concrete containing crumb
environmentally beneficial substance. The use of recycled rubber (CR) or chipped rubber decreased substantially
discarded tires in civil engineering techniques, namely as the percentage of replacement of natural aggregate
asphalt paving mixes and cement-based products, is gain- (fine or coarse) with CR or chipped rubber increased. To
ing popularity across the globe [107]. control and improve rubbercrete compressive strength,
Every year, about 17 million tonnes of recovered rub- incorporating various supplementary cement materi-
ber particles are utilized for civil engineering applications als (SCMs) such as fly ash, metakaolin, silica, nano silica,
including backfilling. The remaining 31% of waste tires are and ground-granulated blast furnace slag are quite
transferred to landfills and stockpiles across the globe. The successful techniques. Moreover, pre-treatment of
United States of America (U.S.A.) is a leading tire producer rubber aggregates also can be applied to improve the
with a moderate to high market share, accounting for compressive strength such as pre-coating of rubber
around 65 percent of annual industrial sales [108]. aggregates with limestone or cement paste, treating
Tire recycling is vital not just for trash reduction, but it rubber surface with NaOH solution, UV utilizing water
may also generate valuable materials for other purposes. retention to modify its surface energy, and oxidation of
Rice University, for example, has devised a method for CR with potassium permanganate solution. Moreover,

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rubber concrete showed lower splitting tensile, flexural 6. Yesilata B, Bulut H, Turgut P (2011) Experimental study on ther-
strength, and modulus of elasticity (MOE) as compared mal behavior of a building structure using rubberized exterior-
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