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R programming language For
Beginners : Learn R Programming
Language Tutorial
(Language of Book : English)
Author
Kavi & Shila
Publisher
Kavi & Shila Book Publication House
Ukwa Balaghat 481105 (Madhya Pradesh)
Copyright © 2024 kdp copyright All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other
electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of
the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in reviews
and certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law.

Table Of Contents
Chapter - 1 : Overview
Evolution of R
Features of R
Chapter - 2 : Environment Setup
Local Environment Setup
Windows Installation
Linux Installation
Chapter - 3 : Basic Syntax
R Command Prompt
R Script File
Comments
Chapter - 4 : Data Types
Vectors
Lists
Matrices
Arrays
Factors
Data Frames
Chapter - 5 : Variables
Variable Assignment
Data Type of a Variable
Finding Variables
Deleting Variables
Chapter - 6 : Operators
Types of Operators
Arithmetic Operators
Relational Operators
Logical Operators
Assignment Operators
 Miscellaneous Operators
Chapter - 7 : Decision making
Chapter - 8 : Loops
Loop Control Statements
Chapter - 9 : Functions
Function Definition
Function Components
Built-in Function
User-defined Function
Calling a Function
Calling a Function without an Argument
Calling a Function with Argument Values (by position and by name)
Calling a Function with Default Argument
Lazy Evaluation of Function
Chapter - 10 : Strings
Rules Applied in String Construction
Examples of Valid Strings
Examples of Invalid Strings
String Manipulation
Concatenating Strings - paste() function
Syntax
Example
Formatting numbers & strings - format() function
Syntax
Example
Counting number of characters in a string - nchar() function
Syntax
Example
Changing the case - toupper() & tolower() functions
 Syntax
Example
Extracting parts of a string - substring() function
Syntax
Example
Chapter - 11 : Vectors
Vector Creation
Single Element Vector
Multiple Elements Vector
Accessing Vector Elements
Vector Manipulation
Vector arithmetic
Vector Element Recycling
Vector Element Sorting
Chapter - 12 : Lists
Creating a List
Naming List Elements
Accessing List Elements
Manipulating List Elements
Merging Lists
Converting List to Vector
Chapter - 13 : Matrices
Syntax
Example
Accessing Elements of a Matrix
Matrix Computations
Matrix Addition & Subtraction
Matrix Multiplication & Division
Chapter - 14 : Arrays
 Example
Naming Columns and Rows
Accessing Array Elements
Manipulating Array Elements
Calculations Across Array Elements
Syntax
Example
Chapter - 15 : Factors
Example
Factors in Data Frame
Changing the Order of Levels
Generating Factor Levels
Syntax
Example
Chapter - 16 : Data Frames
Create Data Frame
Get the Structure of the Data Frame
Summary of Data in Data Frame
Extract Data from Data Frame
Expand Data Frame
Add Column
Add Row
Chapter - 17 : Packages
Check Available R Packages
Get the list of all the packages installed
Install a New Package
Install directly from CRAN
Install package manually
Load Package to Library
Chapter - 18 : Data Reshaping
Joining Columns and Rows in a Data Frame
Merging Data Frames
Melting and Casting
Melt the Data
Cast the Molten Data
Chapter - 19 : CSV Files
Getting and Setting the Working Directory
Input as CSV File
Reading a CSV File
Analysing the CSV File
Get the maximum salary
Get the details of the person with max salary
Get all the people working in IT department
Get the persons in IT department whose salary is greater than 600
Get the people who joined on or after 2014
Writing into a CSV File
Chapter - 20 : Excel File
Install xlsx Package
Verify and Load the "xlsx" Package
Input as xlsx File
Reading the Excel File
Chapter - 21 : Binary Files
Syntax
Example
Writing the Binary File
Reading the Binary File
Chapter - 22 : XML Files
Input Data
 Reading XML File
Get Number of Nodes Present in XML File
Details of the First Node
Get Different Elements of a Node
XML to Data Frame
Chapter - 23 : JSON Files
Install rjson Package
Input Data
Read the JSON File
Convert JSON to a Data Frame
Chapter - 24 : Web Data
Install R Packages
Input Data
Example
Verify the File Download
Chapter - 25 : Databases
RMySQL Package
Connecting R to MySql
Querying the Tables
Query with Filter Clause
Updating Rows in the Tables
Inserting Data into the Tables
Creating Tables in MySql
Dropping Tables in MySql
Chapter - 26 : Pie Charts
Syntax
Example
Pie Chart Title and Colours
Example
 Slice Percentages and Chart Legend
3D Pie Chart
Chapter - 27 : Bar Charts
Syntax
Example
Bar Chart Labels, Title and Colours
Example
Group Bar Chart and Stacked Bar Chart
Chapter - 28 : Box Plots
Syntax
Example
Creating the Boxplot
Boxplot with Notch
Chapter - 29 : Histograms
Syntax
Example
Range of X and Y values
Chapter - 30 : Line Graphs
Syntax
Example
Line Chart Title, Color and Labels
Example
Multiple Lines in a Line Chart
Chapter - 31 : Scatterplots
Syntax
Example
Creating the Scatterplot
Scatterplot Matrices
Syntax
 Example
Chapter - 32 : Mean, Median and Mode
Mean
Syntax
Example
Applying Trim Option
Applying NA Option
Median
Syntax
Example
Mode
Example
Chapter - 33 : Linear Regression
Steps to Establish a Regression
Input Data
lm() Function
Syntax
Create Relationship Model & get the Coefficients
Get the Summary of the Relationship
predict() Function
Syntax
Predict the weight of new persons
Visualise the Regression Graphically
Chapter - 34 : Multiple Regression
lm() Function
Syntax
Example
Input Data
Create Relationship Model & get the Coefficients
 Create Equation for Regression Model
Apply Equation for predicting New Values
Chapter - 35 : Logistic Regression
Syntax
Example
Create Regression Model
Conclusion
Chapter - 36 : Normal Distribution
dnorm()
pnorm()
qnorm()
rnorm()
Chapter - 37 : Binomial Distribution
dbinom()
pbinom()
qbinom()
rbinom()
Chapter - 38 : Poisson Regression
Syntax
Example
Create Regression Model
Chapter - 39 : Analysis of Covariance
Example
Input Data
ANCOVA Analysis
Model with interaction between categorical variable and predictor
variable
Model without interaction between categorical variable and predictor
variable
 Comparing Two Models
Chapter - 40 : Time Series Analysis
Syntax
Example
Different Time Intervals
Multiple Time Series
Chapter - 41 : Nonlinear Least Square
Syntax
Example
Chapter - 42 : Decision Tree
Install R Package
Syntax
Input Data
Example
Conclusion
Chapter - 43 : Random Forest
Install R Package
Syntax
Input Data
Example
Conclusion
Chapter - 44 : Survival Analysis
Install Package
Syntax
Example
Applying Surv() and survfit() Function
Chapter - 45 : Chi Square Test
Syntax
Example
 Conclusion

Chapter - 1 : Overview
R is a programming language and software environment for statistical
analysis, graphics representation and reporting. R was created by Ross
Ihaka and Robert Gentleman at the University of Auckland, New Zealand,
and is currently developed by the R Development Core Team.
The core of R is an interpreted computer language which allows branching
and looping as well as modular programming using functions. R allows
integration with the procedures written in the C, C++, .Net, Python or
FORTRAN languages for efficiency.
R is freely available under the GNU General Public License, and pre-
compiled binary versions are provided for various operating systems like
Linux, Windows and Mac.
R is free software distributed under a GNU-style copy left, and an official
part of the GNU project called GNU S.

Evolution of R
R was initially written by Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman at the
Department of Statistics of the University of Auckland in Auckland, New
Zealand. R made its first appearance in 1993.
 1. A large group of individuals has contributed to R by sending
code and bug reports.
2. Since mid-1997 there has been a core group (the "R Core Team")
who can modify the R source code archive.

Features of R
As stated earlier, R is a programming language and software environment
for statistical analysis, graphics representation and reporting. The following
are the important features of R −
1. R is a well-developed, simple and effective programming
language which includes conditionals, loops, user defined
recursive functions and input and output facilities.
2. R has an effective data handling and storage facility,
3. R provides a suite of operators for calculations on arrays, lists,
vectors and matrices.
4. R provides a large, coherent and integrated collection of tools for
data analysis.
5. R provides graphical facilities for data analysis and display either
directly at the computer or printing at the papers.

As a conclusion, R is the world's most widely used statistical programming

language. It's the # 1 choice of data scientists and supported by a vibrant
and talented community of contributors. R is taught in universities and
deployed in mission critical business applications. This tutorial will teach
you R programming along with suitable examples in simple and easy steps.

Chapter - 2 : Environment Setup

Local Environment Setup
If you are still willing to set up your environment for R, you can follow the
steps given below.
Windows Installation
You can download the Windows installer version of R from R-3.2.2 for
Windows (32/64 bit) and save it in a local directory.
As it is a Windows installer (.exe) with the name "R-version-win.exe". You
can just double click and run the installer accepting the default settings. If
your Windows is a 32-bit version, install the 32-bit version. But if your
windows is 64-bit, then it instals both the 32-bit and 64-bit versions.
After installation you can locate the icon to run the Program in a directory
structure "R\R3.2.2\bin\i386\Rgui.exe" under the Windows Program Files.
Clicking this icon brings up the R-GUI which is the R console to do R
Programming.

Linux Installation
R is available as a binary for many versions of Linux at the location R
Binaries.
The instructions to install Linux vary from flavour to flavour. These steps
are mentioned under each type of Linux version in the mentioned link.
However, if you are in a hurry, then you can use yum command to install R
as follows −
$ yum install R

Above command will install core functionality of R programming along

with standard packages, still you need additional package, then you can
launch R prompt as follows −
$R
R version 3.2.0 (2015-04-16) -- "Full of Ingredients"
Copyright (C) 2015 The R Foundation for Statistical Computing
Platform: x86_64-redhat-linux-gnu (64-bit)
R is free software and comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY.
You are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions.
Type 'licence()' or 'licence()' for distribution details.
R is a collaborative project with many contributors.
Type 'contributors()' for more information and
'citation()' on how to cite R or R packages in publications.
Type 'demo()' for some demos, 'help()' for on-line help, or
'help.start()' for an HTML browser interface to help.
Type 'q()' to quit R.
>

Now you can use the install command at the R prompt to install the
required package. For example, the following command will install the
plotrix package which is required for 3D charts.
> install.packages("plotrix")

Chapter - 3 : Basic Syntax

As a convention, we will start learning R programming by writing a "Hello,
World!" program. Depending on the needs, you can program either at the R
command prompt or you can use an R script file to write your program.
Let's check both one by one.

R Command Prompt
Once you have R environment setup, then it’s easy to start your R command
prompt by just typing the following command at your command prompt −
$R

This will launch R interpreter and you will get a prompt > where you can
start typing your program as follows −
> myString <- "Hello, World!"
> print ( myString)
[1] "Hello, World!"
Here the first statement defines a string variable myString, where we assign
a string "Hello, World!" and then the next statement print() is being used to
print the value stored in variable myString.

R Script File
Usually, you will do your programming by writing your programs in script
files and then you execute those scripts at your command prompt with the
help of an R interpreter called Rscript. So let's start with writing following
code in a text file called test.R as under −
Live Demo
# My first program in R Programming
myString <- "Hello, World!"
print ( myString)
Save the above code in a file test.R and execute it at Linux command
prompt as given below. Even if you are using Windows or another system,
syntax will remain the same.
$ Rscript test.R

When we run the above program, it produces the following result.

[1] "Hello, World!"

Comments
Comments are like helping text in your R program and they are ignored by
the interpreter while executing your actual program. Single comment is
written using # in the beginning of the statement as follows −
# My first program in R Programming

R does not support multi-line comments but you can perform a trick which
is something as follows −
Live Demo
if(FALSE) {
"This is a demo for multi-line comments and it should be put inside either
a
 single OR double quote"
}
myString <- "Hello, World!"
print ( myString)
[1] "Hello, World!"

Though the above comments will be executed by the R interpreter, they will
not interfere with your actual program. You should put such comments
inside, either single or double quotes.

Chapter - 4 : Data Types

Generally, while doing programming in any programming language, you
need to use various variables to store various information. Variables are
nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This means that,
when you create a variable you reserve some space in memory.
You may like to store information of various data types like character, wide
character, integer, floating point, double floating point, Boolean etc. Based
on the data type of a variable, the operating system allocates memory and
decides what can be stored in the reserved memory.
In contrast to other programming languages like C and Java in R, the
variables are not declared as some data type. The variables are assigned
with R-Objects and the data type of the R-object becomes the data type of
the variable. There are many types of R-objects. The frequently used ones
are −
1. Vectors
2. Lists
3. Matrices
4. Arrays
5. Factors
6. Data Frames
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
State;24 in regard to the terraces and the estuarine deflections of the
Delaware and Susquehanna, reference should be made also to
McGee's studies.25
24 Especially Carll, Reports I3, I4; White, Reports G5, G6; Lewis, Report Z.

25 Amer. Journ. Science, xxxv, 1888, 367, 448; Seventh Annual Rep. U. S. G. S., 1888,
545.

42. Doubtful cases.—It is hardly necessary to state that there are

many facts for which no satisfactory explanation is found under the
theory of adjustments that we have been considering. Some will
certainly include the location of the Susquehanna on the points of
the Pocono synclines under this category; all must feel that such a
location savors of an antecedent origin. The same is true of the
examples of the alignment of water-gaps found on certain streams;
for example, the four gaps cut in the two pairs of Pocono and
Pottsville outcrops at the west end of the Wyoming syncline, and the
three gaps where the Little Schuylkill crosses the coal basin at
Tamaqua; the opposite gaps in pairs at Tyrone and Bedford have
already been sufficiently explained. The location of the upper North
Branch of the Susquehanna is also unrelated to processes of
adjustment as far as I can see them, and the great area of plateau
drainage that is now possessed by the West Branch is certainly
difficult to understand as the result of conquest. The two
independent gaps in Tussey's mountain, maintained by the Juniata
and its Frankstown branch below Tyrone are curious, especially in
view of the apparent diversion of the branch to the main stream on
the upper side of Warrior's ridge (Oriskany), just east of Tussey's
mountain.

43. Complicated history of our actual rivers.—If this theory of the

history of our rivers is correct, it follows that any one river as it now
exists is of so complicated an origin that its development cannot
become a matter of general study and must unhappily remain only a
subject for special investigation for some time to come. It was my
hope on beginning this essay to find some teachable sequence of
facts that would serve to relieve the usual routine of statistical and
descriptive geography, but this is not the result that has been
attained. The history of the Susquehanna, the Juniata, or the
Schuylkill, is too involved with complex changes, if not enshrouded
in mystery, to become intelligible to any but advanced students; only
the simplest cases of river development can be introduced into the
narrow limits of ordinary instruction. The single course of an ancient
stream is now broken into several independent parts; witness the
disjointing and diversion of the original Juniata, which, as I have
supposed, once extended from Broad Top lake to the Catawissa
basin. Now the upper part of the stream, representing the early
Broad Top outlet, is reduced to small volume in Aughwick creek; the
continuation of the stream to Lewistown is first set to one side of its
original axial location and is then diverted to another syncline; the
beheaded portion now represented by Middle creek is diverted from
its course to the Catawissa basin by the Susquehanna; perhaps the
Catawissa of the present day represents the reversed course of the
lower Juniata where it joined the Anthracite. This unserviceably
complicated statement is not much simplified if instead of beginning
with an original stream and searching out its present disjointed
parts, we trace the composition of a single existing stream from its
once independent parts. The Juniata of to-day consists of
headwaters acquired from Ohio streams; the lake in which the river
once gathered its upper branches is now drained and the lake
bottom has become a mountain top; the streams flow around the
margin of the lake, not across its basin; a short course towards
Lewistown nearly coincides with the original location of the stream,
but to confound this with a precise agreement is to lose the true
significance of river history; the lower course is the product of
diversion at least at two epochs and certainly in several places; and
where the river now joins the Susquehanna, it is suspected of having
a superimposed course unlike any of the rest of the stream. This is
too complicated, even if it should ever be demonstrated to be wholly
true, to serve as material for ordinary study; but as long as it has a
savor of truth, and as long as we are ignorant of the whole history of
our rivers, through which alone their present features can be
rightfully understood, we must continue to search after the natural
processes of their development as carefully and thoroughly as the
biologist searches for the links missing from his scheme of
classification.

44. Provisional Conclusions.—It is in view of these doubts and

complications that I feel that the history of our rivers is not yet
settled; but yet the numerous accordances of actual and deductive
locations appear so definite and in some cases so remarkable that
they cannot be neglected, as they must be if we should adhere to
the antecedent origin of the river courses.

The method adopted on an early page therefore seems to be

justified. The provisional system of ancient consequent drainage,
illustrated on fig. 21, does appear to be sufficiently related to the
streams of to-day to warrant the belief that most of our rivers took
their first courses between the primitive folds of our mountains, and
that from that distant time to the present the changes they have
suffered are due to their own interaction—to their own mutual
adjustment more than to any other cause. The Susquehanna,
Schuylkill, Lehigh and Delaware are compound, composite and
highly complex rivers, of repeated mature adjustment. The middle
Susquehanna and its branches and the upper portions of the
Schuylkill and Lehigh are descendants of original Permian rivers
consequent on the constructional topography of that time; Newark
depression reversed the flow of some of the transverse streams, and
the spontaneous changes or adjustments from immature to mature
courses in the several cycles of development are so numerous and
extensive that, as Löwl truly says, the initial drainage has almost
disappeared. The larger westward-flowing streams of the plateau are
of earlier, Carboniferous birth, and have suffered little subsequent
change beyond a loss of headwaters. The lower courses of the
Atlantic rivers are younger, having been much shifted from their
Permian or pre-Permian courses by Newark and Cretaceous
superimposition, as well as by recent downward deformation of the
surface in their existing estuaries. No recognizable remnant of rivers
antecedent to the Permian deformation are found in the central part
of the State; and with the exception of parts of the upper Schuylkill
and of the Susquehanna near Wilkes-Barre, there are no large
survivors of Permian consequent streams in the ordinary meaning of
the term "consequent." The shifting of courses in the progress of
mature adjustment has had more to do with determining the actual
location of our rivers and streams than any other process.

Harvard College, June, 1889.

TOPOGRAPHIC MODELS.
BY COSMOS MINDELEFF.

Of the many methods by which it has been sought to represent the

relief of a country or district, only two have been at all widely used.
These methods are, in the order of their development, by hachured
and by contoured maps. Both have advantages and both have
serious disadvantages. Without entering into the controversy that is
even yet raging over the relative merits of the two systems, some
slight notice of what each claims to accomplish is necessary.

The representation of relief by hachures is a graphic system, and in

the best examples we have is an attempt to show, upon a plane
surface, the actual appearance of a given area under given
conditions of lighting,—as in the Dufour map of the Alps. Of course
certain details that would really disappear if the assumed conditions
were actual ones, must be shown upon the map,—so that it is, after
all, but a conventional representation. The very best examples are,
for this and other reasons, unsatisfactory, and far more so is this the
case in the vastly larger class of medium grade and poor work.

The contour system represents relief by a series of lines, each of

which is, at every point throughout its length, at a certain stated
elevation above sea-level, or some other datum-plane; in other
words, each contour line represents what would be the water's
edge, if the sea were to rise to that elevation. It possesses the
advantage of great clearness, but fails to a large degree in the
representation of surface detail; moreover, one must have
considerable knowledge of topography, in order to read the map
correctly.1
1 For specimens of representation of the same subject on different scales, in both the
hachure and contour systems, see plate from "Enthoffer's Topographical Atlas."

To those who must give first place to the quantity of relief rather
than the quality, as, for example, the geologist or the engineer, a
contoured map is now considered essential. On the other hand,
where quality of relief is the prime consideration and the quantity a
secondary one, as, for example, for the use of the army, a hachured
map is considered the best. The method of hachures may be roughly
characterized as a graphic system with a conventional element, and
the contour method as a conventional system with a graphic
element,—for if the contour interval is small enough a sort of
shading is produced which helps considerably the idea of relief.

In addition to these two great systems, with which everyone is more

or less familiar, there is another method of representing a country or
district,—a method that succeeds where others fail, and which
although by no means new, has not received the attention it
deserves: this is the representation of a country by a model in relief.
Certain striking advantages of models over maps of all kinds are,
indeed, so apparent that one almost loses sight of such slight
disadvantages as can, of course, be urged against them. In the
graphic representation of the surface they are far superior to the
hachured map, and they have the further advantage of expressing
the relative relief, which the hachured map fails to do, except in a
very general way. They have also the advantage of showing actual
shadows, exactly as they would be seen in a bird's-eye view of the
district, instead of more or less conventional ones, and are,
consequently, more easily comprehended by the layman, without
becoming any less valuable to the skilled topographer. In short, they
combine all the graphic features of a hachured map with all the
advantages of the best class of contoured maps, and in addition they
show more of the surface detail, upon which so much of the
character of the country depends and which is very inadequately
expressed by hachures and almost completely ignored in a
contoured map of large interval. The contours themselves can be
made to appear upon the model very easily and without interfering
with other features.

The uses of models are many and various. Within the past few years
their usefulness has been much extended, and, now that they are
becoming better known, will probably receive a still further
extension. To the geologist they are often of great value in working
out the structure of complicated districts, for the reason that so
many important structural relations can be presented to the eye at a
single glance. Similarly, for the graphic presentation of results there
is no better method, as the topography, the surface geology, and
any number of sections can be shown together and seen in their
proper relationship. To the engineer an accurate model is often of
the greatest assistance in working out his problems, and it is simply
invaluable to explain the details of a plan to anyone who has little or
no technical training; for, as has been stated, a model is easily
comprehended by anyone, while more or less technical knowledge is
required for the proper understanding of even the best maps.

I might go on cataloguing in detail the many uses to which models

may be put, but shall now mention only one more—perhaps the
most important of all—their use in the education of the young. No
method has yet been devised that is capable of giving so clear and
accurate a conception of the principles of physical geography as a
series of well selected models; models have, indeed, already been
used for this purpose, but unfortunately their great cost has
prevented their general use in schools. Since, however, the study of
geography has been placed upon a new basis and a new life has
been infused into it, many men have given their attention to the
subject of models, and have experimented with a view to cheapen
the cost of reproduction, which has hitherto prevented their wide
distribution; and probably this objection will soon be remedied. The
ability to read a map correctly,—to obtain from a study of the map a
clear conception of the country represented,—is more uncommon
than is usually supposed. Some of the recent methods of teaching
geography are intended to cultivate this very faculty, but it is
doubtful whether there is any better method than that which
consists in the study of a series of good models in conjunction with a
series of maps, all on the same scale and of the same areas. The
value of a series of good models in teaching geology is so apparent
that it need only be mentioned. It is often, for reasons stated above,
far more valuable even, than field instruction.

For the construction of a good relief map the first requisite is a good
contoured map. To this should be added, when possible, a good
hachured map, upon which the elevations of the principal points are
stated,—if the interval in the contoured map is a large one,—and as
much material in the way of photographs and sketches as it is
possible to procure. The modeler should, moreover, have some
personal acquaintance with the region to be represented, or, failing
that, a general knowledge of topographic forms, and at least a clear
conception of the general character of the country which he seeks to
represent. This is very important, for it is here that many modelers
fail: the mechanical portion of the work any ordinarily intelligent
person can do. A model may be as accurate as the map from which
it is made, every contour may be placed exactly where it belongs,
and yet the resulting model may be,—indeed, often is—"flat,"
expressionless, and unsatisfactory. Every topographer in drawing his
map is compelled to generalize more or less, and it is fortunate for
the map if this be done in the field instead of in the draughtsman's
office. But topographers differ among themselves: there may be,
and often is, considerable difference in two maps of the same region
made by different men; in other words, the "personal equation" is a
larger element in a map than is usually supposed. This being the
case, there is something more required in a modeler than the mere
transferring of the matter in the map,—giving it three dimensions
instead of two: he must supply through his special knowledge of the
region (or, failing that through his general knowledge) certain
characteristics that do not appear upon the map, and undo, so far as
it is necessary, certain generalizations of the topographer and
draughtsman. This artistic or technical skill required correctly to
represent the individuality of a given district is especially important
in the modeler; it is more important, perhaps, in small-scale maps of
large districts than in large-scale maps of small ones,—for in the
latter the generalizing process has not been carried so far, and the
smaller interval of the contour lines preserves much of the detail.

The methods by which relief maps are made have always received
more attention than would, at first sight, appear to be their proper
proportion. It may be due, however, to the difficulty of applying any
test to determine the accuracy of the finished model, and perhaps
also to the general impression that any one can make a relief map,—
and so he can, though of course there will be a wide difference in
the value of the results. Some, indeed, have devoted their attention
to methods exclusively, letting the result take care of itself,—and the
models show it. There is no more reason why a modeler should tie
himself down to one method of work, than that a water-colorist, or a
chemist, or anyone engaged in technical work, should do so; though
in some cases he might be required, as the chemist is, to show his
methods as well as his results.

One of the earliest methods, with any pretension to what we may

term mechanical control, is that described by the Messrs. Harden in
a paper on "The construction of maps in relief," read before the
American Institute of Mining Engineers in 1887. The method was
published in 1838. Upon a contoured map as a basis cross-section
lines are drawn at small and regular intervals, and, if the topography
be intricate, corresponding lines at right angles. The sections thus
secured are transferred to thin strips of some suitable material, such
as card-board or metal, and cut down to the surface line,—the strips
themselves thus forming the cross-sections. These cross-sections are
mounted upon a suitable base-board, and the cavities or boxes are
then filled up with some easily carved material, such as plaster or
wax. The top is then carved down to the form of the country or
district,—the necessary guidance being obtained by the upper edges
of the strips that form the cross-sections. It will be readily seen that
this method is a very crude and laborious one. It necessitates in the
first place a good contoured map upon which to draw the sections,
but sacrifices much of the advantage thus gained because only a
number of points on each contour line are used, instead of the entire
line. It is no better, although actually more laborious, than the later
method of driving contour pins (whose height above a base-board
may be accurately measured,) along the contour lines, and then
filling in. A slight modification of the latter method can be used to
advantage when no contoured map is available, and when the points
whose elevation is known are not numerous enough to permit the
construction of one. In this case the only control that can be secured
is by means of a number of pins driven into the base-board at those
points whose elevation is known. The remainder of the map is then
sketched in. This method is perhaps as satisfactory as any, when the
material upon the map is scanty. Another method, however, growing
out of the same scantiness of material, is in some cases to be
preferred, especially for large models. The map is enlarged to the
required size, and a tracing of it is mounted upon a frame. Another
deep frame, just large enough to contain the mounted tracing, is
made, and laid upon a suitable base-board upon which a copy of the
map has been mounted. Upon this base-board the model is then
commenced, in clay or wax. The low areas are modeled first,—
horizontal control being obtained by pricking through the mounted
tracing of the map with a needle point, and vertical control by
measuring down from a straight edge sliding on the top of the deep
frame. This system is rather crude, and only useful where the
material upon the map is very scanty, but it gives excellent control.

A method used by Mr. F. H. King in the preparation of his large map

of the United States is described by him in a letter to Messrs.
Harden, and published by them in the place mentioned. A solid block
of plaster is used,—the contoured map being transferred to it—and
the plaster is carved down to produce a series of steps like those
made by building up the contours. The shoulders are then carved
down to produce a continuous surface. This method is one of the
best of those that require carving instead of modeling.

Many other methods of producing relief maps might be mentioned,

but, as most of them have been used only to make special models,
they need not be described. The method that has been more used
than any other still remains to be described. It is that which the
writer has used almost exclusively, and consists in building up the
model and modeling the detail, instead of carving it. It is a maxim of
the modeler that the subject should be built up as far as possible,
should be produced by adding bits of clay or wax, or other material,
and not by carving away what is already on,—by addition and not by
subtraction. This may be illustrated by a reference to the methods of
the sculptor. The bust, or figure, or whatever the subject may be, is
first modeled in clay or wax; from this model a plaster mould is
made, and from this mould a plaster cast is taken. This cast is called
the original, and the finished production, whether in marble, bronze,
or any other hard substance, is simply a copy of this original. No one
ever attempts to produce the finished bust or figure directly from the
object itself. Even where the artist has for a guide a death mask, the
procedure does not change. The bust is first made in clay, and this
clay model, as a rule, contains all the detail which subsequently
appears in the finished bust. It seems strange, therefore, that the
relief map maker should use a method which the sculptor, with
infinitely more skill and judgment, is afraid to use; and this on
subjects that do not differ as much as might be imagined.
The contour interval to be used depends on the use to which the
model is to be put. It is not always necessary to carry into the model
all the contour lines upon the map: I may go further and say that it
is not always desirable to do so. The number to be used depends to
some extent on the skill of the modeler. As already stated, the
contours are only a means of control, and one modeler requires
more than another. To build into a model every contour in a
contoured map of ten foot interval is a very laborious proceeding,
and not worth the time it takes, as in nine out of ten maps of such
interval only the fifty-foot or the one hundred-foot curves are
definitely fixed, the intermediate lines being merely filled in. This
filling in can be done as well, or better, by the modeler.

The question as to the proper amount of exaggeration to be given

the vertical scale, as compared with the horizontal, is the question
about which has raged most of the controversy connected with relief
map making. This controversy has been rather bitter; some of the
opponents of vertical exaggeration going to the length of saying that
no exaggeration is necessary, and that "he that will distort or
exaggerate the scale of anything will lie." On the other hand the
great majority of those who have made relief maps insist upon the
necessity of more or less exaggeration of the vertical scale—
generally more than seems to me necessary, however.

An increase of angle of slope accompanies all vertical exaggeration,

and this is apparent even in models in which the vertical element is
only very slightly exaggerated. It produces a false effect by
diminishing the proportionate width of the valleys, and by making
the country seem much more rugged and mountainous than it really
is. A secondary effect is to make the region represented look very
small—all idea of the extent of the country being lost. This can be
illustrated better than described. The King model of the United
States is an example of one extreme; it is worthy of note that no
examples of the other extreme—too little exaggeration—are known.
In small-scale models of large districts some exaggeration of the
vertical scale is necessary in order to make the relief apparent, but
the amount of this exaggeration is often increased much beyond
what is essential. The proportion of scales must depend to a large
extent on the character of the country represented, and on the
purposes for which the model is made. It has been suggested by a
writer, quoted by the Messrs. Harden, that the following
exaggeration would afford a pleasing relief: "For a map, scale 6
inches to 1 mile: if mountainous, 1:3; if only hilly, 1:2; if gently
undulating, 2:3. For smaller scales, except for very rugged tracts,
the exaggeration should be correspondingly increased. For a tract
consisting wholly of mountains no exaggeration is necessary." I
know of no country of such a character that its relief, in all its detail,
cannot be shown upon a scale of 6 inches to 1 mile without any
exaggeration at all.

It seems to me that the absolute and not the relative amount of

relief is the desideratum, and I have always used this as my guiding
principle. For small scale models I have found half an inch of relief
ample. It may be worth while to state that in a model of the United
States made for the Messrs. Butler, of Philadelphia, the horizontal
scale was 77 miles to 1 inch, the vertical scale 40,000 feet to 1 inch,
and the proportion of scales as 1 to 10. This proportion could have
been brought down as low as 1:6 with advantage. One-fortieth of an
inch to a thousand feet seems a very small vertical scale, but it
sufficed to show all the important features of the relief. It should be
stated, moreover, that the model in question was very hurriedly
made—in fact, was hardly more than a sketch-model—and that more
care and more minute work would have brought out many details
that do not now appear. This amount of care was not considered
necessary in this instance, as the model was made to be
photographed and published as a photo-engraving, and was to
suffer an enormous reduction—coming down to five by seven
inches.2
2 See plate from "Butler's Complete Geography."
It has been frequently urged by the advocates of large exaggeration
that the details of a country cannot be shown unless the vertical
scale is exaggerated; that hills 200, 300, or even 500 feet high—
depending of course upon the scale—flatten out or disappear
entirely. This seems plausible, but the advantages of great
exaggeration are more apparent than real. Its effect upon the model
has already been mentioned; it should be added that, with the
proper amount of care in finishing the model, exceedingly small
relief can be so brought out as to be readily seen. With ordinary
care, one-fortieth of an inch can be easily shown, and with great
care and skill certainly one-eightieth and probably one-hundredth of
an inch. Another plausible argument that has been advanced in favor
of vertical exaggeration as a principle, is well stated by Mr. A. E.
Lehman, of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey, in a paper on
"Topographical Models," read before the American Institute of Mining
Engineers in 1885. "A perfectly natural expression is of course
desired; and to cause this the features of the topography should be
distorted and exaggerated in vertical scale just enough to produce
the same effect on the beholder or student of the district of country
exhibited as his idea of it would be if he were on the real ground
itself. Care should be taken, however, not to make the scales so
disproportionate as to do violence to mental impressions. Often,
indeed, prominent or important features, when they will bear it, may
be still more effectively shown by additional exaggeration in the
vertical scale." The fallacy of this argument is obvious. It assumes
that the object of a model is to show the country as it appears to
one passing through it, and not as it really is—and there is often a
very wide difference between the two. The impression derived from
passing through a country is, if I may use the term, a very large-
scale impression, as any one who has tried it can certify; it is
certainly a mistake to attempt to reproduce this impression in a
small-scale model, with the help of vertical exaggeration. Even if the
principle were a good one, its application would be very limited. It
could only be used in large-scale models; to apply it to a model of a
large area—the United States, for example—is obviously absurd.
The method referred to as being now generally in use may be briefly
described as follows: requisites, a good contoured map; a hachured
map in addition, if possible; a clear conception on the part of the
modeler of the country to be represented; and a fair amount of skill.
Materials: a base-board of wood or other suitable material; card-
board or wood of the thickness required by the contour interval and
the scale; and modeling wax or clay. Procedure: reproduce the
contours in the wood or other material; mount these upon the base-
board in their proper relationship; then fill in the intervening spaces,
and the space above the topmost contour, with the modeling
material.

In a series of models of the Grand Divisions of the earth, made

about a year and a half ago, the contours of card-board were made
as follows: the map was photographed up to the required scale, and
as many prints were made as there were contour intervals to be
represented—in a model of the United States of 1,000 feet contour
interval there were fourteen prints. Thirteen of these were mounted
upon card-board of the exact thickness required by the vertical
scale, and one upon the base-board. All large paper companies use
a micrometer gauge, and card-board can easily be obtained of the
exact thickness required—even to less than the thousandth part of
an inch. The lowest contour was then sawed out upon a scroll saw,
and placed upon the corresponding line of the map mounted upon
the base-board. This process was repeated with each of the
succeeding contours until all were placed and glued into their proper
positions. At this stage the model presents the relief in a series of
steps, each step representing a rise corresponding to the contour
interval. The disadvantages of the method lie in the fact that unless
the greatest care is exercised in making the photographic prints
there will be considerable distortion, owing to the stretching of the
paper in different directions, and consequently much trouble in
fitting the contours. If care be exercised in having the grain of the
paper run in the same direction in all the prints, trouble in fitting the
contours will be much reduced, but the distortion in one direction
will remain. In our experience this distortion amounts to about two
per cent.; in other words, a model that should be fifty inches long
will in reality be fifty-one inches; but, as this error is distributed over
the whole fifty inches, it is not too great for an ordinary model. If
greater accuracy be required, it can be secured by transferring the
contours to the card-board by means of tracing or transfer paper.
The great advantage of the photographic method lies in the fact that
when the model has been built up, with all the contours in position,
it presents a copy of the map itself, with all the details, drainage,
etc., in position, instead of blank intervals between the contours.
Such details and drainage are a great help in the subsequent
modeling.

The next step in the process is to fill in with clay or wax the intervals
between the contours. I have always found wax more convenient
than clay for this purpose as, unless the surface coating is a thick
one, the clay is difficult to keep moist. To obviate this difficulty, some
modelers have used clay mixed with glycerine instead of water; this,
of course, does not become dry, but the material is, at its best,
unsatisfactory. The filling-in process is the most important one in
relief map making, for it is here that the modeler must show his
knowledge of, and feeling for, topographic forms. Some models seem
to have been constructed with the idea that when the contours have
been accurately placed the work of the modeler is practically done.
This is a great mistake. The card-board contours are only a means of
control, occupying somewhat the same relation to the relief map
that a core or base of bricks, or a frame of wood, does to other
constructions as, for example, an architectural ornament or a bust.
It is sometimes necessary to cut away the contour card; for, as has
been already explained, a map is more or less generalized, and a
contour is frequently carried across a ravine, instead of following it
up, as it would do if the map were on a larger scale. Such
generalizing is of course perfectly proper in a map, but, with the
same scale, we expect more detail in a model. The modeler must
have judgment enough and skill enough to read between the lines,
and to undo the generalizing of the topographer and draughtsman,
thus supplying the material omitted from the map. This can be done
without materially affecting the accuracy of the model, considered
even as a copy of the contoured map.

The contours of card-board or other material are, let me repeat, only

a means of control. The perfect modeler—a variety, by the way, yet
to be evolved—would be able to make an accurate relief map
without them, in the same way that other subjects are made; as, for
example, a flower panel, an architectural ornament, or any other
subject in low relief, where the object sought is artistic effect and
great accuracy is not a desideratum. It is the converse of this idea
that has produced the numerous models that one sees; accurate
enough, perhaps, but wholly expressionless and absolutely without
feeling. This is the great fault of nearly all models made by building
up the contours in wood and then carving down the shoulders. It is
then necessary to sand-paper them, and what little character they
might otherwise have had is completely obliterated by the sand-
paper. Such models almost invariably look wooden. Let the modeler,
then, have a clear conception of his subject and not depend wholly
on the contours, and let him work out that conception in his model,
"controlled" and helped by the contours, but not bound by them; the
resulting model will thus be far more satisfactory and a far better
representation of his subject, in other words, it will be more life-like
—more nearly true to nature.

The model, provided it be not of clay, is sometimes used in the state

in which it is left when finished. It is much more common, however,
to make a plaster mould, and from this a plaster cast. For this
purpose a moulder is usually called in; but moulders as a rule are
ignorant men, accustomed to one line of work only, and the result is
not always satisfactory. It is much better for the modeler himself to
do this work, though to obtain good results from plaster it is
necessary to know the material thoroughly, and this knowledge
comes only from experience. The mould is generally made quite
heavy, in order to stand the subsequent hard treatment that it may
receive, and should be retouched and thoroughly dried before being
prepared for the cast. The method used by some modelers of
placing a frame about the model and pouring in the plaster, filling
the frame to the top, is a crude and very wasteful one and not at all
to be recommended. In a model of large size—say seven or eight
feet square—it would require a derrick to move the mould. It is
wholly unnecessary, as, with a small amount of care, a good mould
can be made not more than an inch thick, or, at most, an inch and a
half. The drying of the mould before use can sometimes be
dispensed with, but is always desirable.

Nearly all American moulders (as distinguished from French and

Italian ones) varnish the mould, and thus lose some of the finest
detail and sharpness. This is unnecessary. The mould can be easily
prepared with a solution of soap so as to leave nothing on the
surface but a very thin coating of oil, which is taken up and replaced
by the plaster of the cast. Of course, if the model has been sand-
papered, no fine work in moulding or casting is necessary, as there
is nothing to save. If the subject is a very intricate one, with
"undercuts" (as they are called), it is customary to make a waste
mould; as this is very seldom necessary in relief map work, however,
the process need not be described.

To make the cast it is only necessary to repeat the processes used in

making the mould. With great care and some skill a cast can be
produced but little inferior in point of sharpness and detail to the
original model. It is customary to make the cast very thick, and,
consequently, very heavy; this is unnecessary. In our work we
seldom make a cast thicker than one inch, and yet are never
troubled with changes in the model after it is finished. Even in a very
large cast (now in the National Museum), weighing nearly 1,500
pounds and presenting a surface of over 160 square feet, the
average thickness is less than one inch, although it required over
five barrels of plaster to make it. The cast, after being thoroughly
dried, should be finished—all its imperfections being carefully
repaired. The surface, however, should be touched as little as
possible, as the slight roughness of surface that comes from the
original model, through the mould, is removed by any tooling. This
roughness adds much to the effect of the model; in fact, where the
scale is large enough, it is sometimes desirable to emphasize it.

The proper way to paint a model is a matter that must rest

principally upon the judgment of the modeler, depending to some
extent, also, on the use to which the model is to be put. The plain
cast is sometimes used, drainage, lettering, etc., being put directly
upon it. This has the advantage of preserving all the detail that
comes from the mould, but it has also the disadvantage of a surface
easily soiled and impossible to clean. If the model is to be
photographed, the surface should be nearly white—in our practice
we use a small amount of yellow with the white. This yellow is
hardly appreciable by the eye, but its effect upon the photographic
negative is quite marked. Yellow becomes grey in a photograph,
and, in a photograph of a model colored as described, a grey tint is
given to the whole surface. The high lights are not pure white, and
there is no harsh contrast between light and shade. There is another
point of great importance in photographing models: the surface
should have a dead finish—that is, should have no gloss, or, at most,
should have only what is known among painters as an egg-shell
gloss. It is almost impossible satisfactorily to photograph a model
that has a shiny surface. Any portion of a model that it is desired to
separate from the rest should be painted a different color—the
water, for example, should be painted a light blue; not a blue
composed of indigo, however, or any of the grey blues, as these
produce in the photograph a dead grey, and are not pleasant to the
eye. The most satisfactory color that we have used is a mixture of
cobalt—the purest of the blues—with Antwerp blue—which is quite
green—and white. This gives a color that is pleasant to the eye, has
the retreating quality to perfection, and photographs well.

Models intended for exhibition as such should be painted realistically.

There is room here for an immense improvement in the usual
practice, which is to paint the model either in some conventional
scheme of light and shade, or else to put a single flat tint upon it. If
the model is to be colored conventionally it is, in my opinion, much
better to use a flat tint, light in tone, and with a dead surface. The
use of a variety of colors upon the face of a model interferes
materially with the relief, especially if the relief is finely modeled. For
this reason models colored to indicate geologic formations should
always be accompanied by duplicates representing topography only,
colored realistically, if possible, and without lettering. Well-defined
lines other than those pertaining to the model itself, such, for
example, as those used to define the boundaries of geologic
formations, should not be allowed upon a model when it is desired
to bring out all the relief. The lettering on such models should be
kept down as small as possible, or wholly dispensed with. The latter
is much the better method.

The cheap reproduction of models is the most important problem

connected with the art, and the one that is attracting most attention
among those engaged in it; as, until models can be reproduced
cheaply, they will never have any wide distribution and there will be
far less incentive to the modeler. Various materials have been
suggested and experimented on, but nine-tenths of the models that
are made to-day are made of plaster of Paris. Although this material
was the first to be used for this purpose, it has not yet been
superseded. A plaster cast is heavy, expensive and easily injured;
but plaster gives an accurate copy of the original, retains
permanently the form given it, and is easily finished and repaired.
The weight is an obstacle that can be easily overcome. By the
incorporation in the plaster of fine tow, or of bagging or netting of
various kinds, the cast can be made very light and at the same time
strong, but the expense is increased rather than diminished by this
method. Models made in this way, however, have the advantage that
when broken the pieces do not fall out, they are, however, fully as
liable to surface injury as the other kind. The large cast in the
National Museum, before referred to, was made in this way. It
weighed nearly 2,000 pounds when boxed—not an easy thing to
handle—but it stood shipment to New Orleans and back without
suffering any material injury. This would hardly have been possible
had the cast been made from plaster alone.
Paper seems, at first sight, to be the material best adapted for the
reproduction of models; but no one has succeeded well enough with
it to bring it into use. Like nearly all those who have given this
subject attention, I have experimented with paper, but the only
positive result has been a loss of a large part of the confidence that
I once had in the suitability of the material. Paper has been used
extensively for large scale models of pueblos, ruins, etc., but I have
never obtained a satisfactory result with subjects in low relief and
fine detail. A paper cast may look well when first made, but it
absorbs moisture from the atmosphere, and contracts and expands
with the weather. The contraction is apt to flatten out the model and
the expansion to make it buckle up.

Casts of models have been made in iron; but this, while suitable
perhaps for models of mounds and subjects of like character, would
hardly be applicable to small scale models with fine detail; such
casts require too much surface finishing. The material known as
Lincrusta-Walton seems to me to be the ideal material for this
purpose. It is tougher than rubber, will take the finest detail, and its
surface can be treated in any way desired. Unfortunately the
manufacture of models in this material would require expensive
machinery, and is outside the scope of a modeling room. Should it
ever become commercially advantageous, however, casts of a model
of ordinary size, in every way equal to the original, can be turned
out in this material at a very small cost.

It remains to speak of the reproduction of models by process-

engravings—a method that will probably receive much more
attention in the future than it has in the past. It is perhaps along this
line that the cheap reproduction of models will develop; but the
subject is too large a one to be adequately treated here, and must
be postponed until some future occasion.
 HACHURED AND CONTOURED MAPS.

REPRESENTATION OF A HILL ACCORDING TO THE TWO SYSTEMS AND ON DIFFERENT

SCALES.

From Supplement to Enthoffer's Topographical Atlas by permission of Mr. Enthoffer.

FROM BUTLER'S COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY.

 COPYRIGHT, 1888, BY E. H. BUTLER & CO.
Printed by permission.
 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
ABSTRACT OF MINUTES.

October 5, 1888, Ninth Meeting.

A paper was read entitled, "Topographic Models," by Mr. Cosmos

Mindeleff. Published in the "National Geographic Magazine," Vol. I,
No. 3.

October 19, 1888, Tenth Meeting.

The attendance being very small, no paper was read.

November 2, 1888, Eleventh Meeting.

The paper of the evening was entitled, "Surveys, their Kinds and
Purposes," by Mr. Marcus Baker. The paper was discussed by Messrs.
Ogden, Goodfellow, Gannett and Baker. Published in "Science," Vol.
XII, No. 304.

November 16, 1888, Twelfth Meeting.

A paper was read by Mr. Henry Gannett, giving certain "Physical

Statistics Relating to Massachusetts," derived from the map of that
State recently prepared by the United States Geological Survey. A
discussion followed which was participated in by Messrs. Baker,
Kenaston, Fernow, Weed, and the author. A second paper entitled,
"Something about Tornadoes," was read by Lieut. J. P. Finley, U. S.
Signal Corps.

November 30, 1888, Thirteenth Meeting.

The annual reports of vice-Presidents Herbert G. Ogden and Gen. A.

W. Greely were delivered. Published in the "National Geographic
Magazine," Vol. I, No. 2.

December 20, 1888, Fourteenth Meeting.

Held in the Law Lecture Room of the Columbian University. The

President delivered his Annual Address, entitled, "Africa." Published
in the "National Geographic Magazine," Vol. I, No. 2.

December 28, 1888, Fifteenth Meeting.

The Society met in the Society Hall of the Cosmos Club, President
Hubbard in the chair. Owing to the absence from the city of the
Secretaries, Mr. O. H. Tittmann was requested to act as Secretary of
the meeting. The minutes of the first and fourteenth meetings were
read and approved. The report of the Secretaries was read, in their
absence, by the temporary Secretary, and was approved. The
Treasurer's report, showing a balance on hand of $626.70, was read
and approved, as was also that of the auditing committee.

The President announced that vacancies caused by the resignation

of two of the managers, Messrs. W. D. Johnson and Henry Mitchell,
had been filled by the Board on the 15th of November, by the
election of Messrs. O. H. Tittmann and C. A. Kenaston; and that a
vacancy caused by the resignation of Vice-President John R. Bartlett,
had been filled by the election of Lieut. George L. Dyer, on
November 30th.
The Society then proceeded to the election of officers, with following
result:

President—GARDINER G. HUBBARD.
Vice-Presidents—HERBERT G. OGDEN, [land]; GEORGE L. DYER,
[sea]; A. W. GREELY, [air]; C. HART MERRIAM, [life]; A. H.
THOMPSON, [art].
Treasurer—CHARLES J. BELL.
Recording Secretary—HENRY GANNETT.
Corresponding Secretary—GEORGE KENNAN.
Managers—CLEVELAND ABBE, MARCUS BAKER, ROGERS BIRNIE, JR., G.
BROWNE GOODE, W. B. POWELL, J. C. WELLING, C. A. KENASTON, O. H.
TITTMANN.

January 11, 1889, Sixteenth Meeting.

The paper of the evening was entitled, "The Great Plains of Canada,"
and was presented by Professor C. A. Kenaston, of Howard
University.

January 25, 1889, Seventeenth Meeting.

The paper of the evening was entitled, "Irrigation in California," by

Mr. William Hammond Hall, State Engineer of California. To be
published in the "National Geographic Magazine," Vol. I, No. 4.

February 8, 1889, Eighteenth Meeting.

The following papers were read by Prof. W. M. Davis, of Harvard

University: "Topographic Models," and "Certain Peculiarities of the
Rivers of Pennsylvania." Published in the "National Geographic
Magazine," Vol. I, No. 3.
 February 22, 1889, Nineteenth Meeting.

The paper of the evening was entitled, "Round about Asheville, N.

C.," by Mr. Bailey Willis. The paper was illustrated by charcoal
sketches and lantern slides. Discussion followed, which was
participated in by Messrs. Baker, Merriam and McGee. To be
published in the "National Geographic Magazine," Vol. I, No. 4.

March 8, 1889, Twentieth Meeting.

The following amendments to the By-Laws were adopted.

[For Article VI substitute the following]:

ARTICLE VI.

MEETINGS.

"Regular meetings of the Society shall be held on alternate Fridays,

from November until May, and excepting the annual meeting, they
shall be devoted to communications. The Board of Managers shall,
however, have power to postpone or omit meetings, when deemed
desirable. Special meetings may be called by the President.

"The annual meeting for the election of officers shall be the last
regular meeting in December.

"The meeting preceding the annual meeting shall be devoted to the

President's annual address.

"The reports of the retiring Vice-Presidents shall be presented at the

meetings in January.

"A quorum for the transaction of business shall consist of twenty-five

active members."
In Article V, the following paragraph was introduced immediately
after the first paragraph of the article:

"The dues of members elected in November and December shall be

credited to the succeeding year."

The following papers were then presented: "A Trip to Panama and
Darien," by Mr. R. U. Goode, and "Survey of Mason and Dixon's
Line," by Mr. Mark B. Kerr.

A Trip to Panama and Darien, to be published in the "National

Geographic Magazine," Vol. I, No. 4.

March 22, 1889, Twenty-first Meeting.

The paper of the evening was entitled, "Recent Events in the U. S. of

Columbia," by Mr. W. E. Curtis. The discussion which followed was
participated in by Messrs. Baker, Gannett, and others.

April 5, 1889, Twenty-second Meeting.

The paper of the evening was entitled, "House Life in Mexico," by Mr.
A. B. Johnson.

April 19, 1889, Twenty-third Meeting.

This meeting was devoted to papers upon the Samoan Islands. The
following programme was presented:

"Samoa; the General Geography and Hydrography of the Islands and

Adjacent Seas," by Mr. Everett Hayden.
"Climate," by Prof. Cleveland Abbe.

"Narrative of a Cruise Among the Islands," by Capt. R. W. Meade, U.

S. N.

"The Home Life of the Samoans and the Botany of the Islands," by
Mr. W. E. Safford, U. S. N.

May 3, 1889, Twenty-fourth Meeting.

The paper of the evening was entitled, "Across Nicaragua with

Transit and Machéte," by Mr. R. E. Peary, U. S. N. To be published in
the "National Geographic Magazine," Vol. I, No. 4.

May 17, 1889, Twenty-fifth Meeting.

The paper of the evening was entitled, "The Krakatoa Eruption," by

Dr. A. Graham Bell. The paper was discussed by Captain C. E.
Dutton.

(Translated by Mr. R. L. Lerch.)

INTERNATIONAL LITERARY CONTEST

To be held at Madrid, Spain, under the auspices of the Commission
in charge of the celebration of the Fourth Centennial Anniversary of
the Discovery of America.

PROGRAM.
The work for which a prize is offered is to be a prose essay, a true
historic picture giving a just estimate of the grandeur of the occasion
to be celebrated.

So much has been written on this subject since the opening of the
XVIth century that it would seem difficult to say anything new and
good. Perhaps the details, perhaps the circumstances in the life and
acts of Columbus are worthy of no little research; but already the
Royal Academy of History is engaged in the erudite and diligent task
of bringing together and publishing the un-edited or little known
papers bearing on this question.

The book required by this contest must be of a different nature: it

must be comprehensive and synoptic, and must be sufficiently
concise without being either obscure or dry.

Although there is an abundance of histories of America, of voyages

and discoveries, of geographic science, and of the establishment of
Europeans in remote regions of the earth, there is no book that sets
forth as it can be done the combined efforts of the nations of the
Iberian peninsula, who, since the commencement of the XVth
century, have, with a fixity of purpose and marvelous tenacity, in
almost a single century of silent efforts brought about the
exploration of vast continents and islands, traversed seas never
before cut by Christian prows, and in emulous strife obtained almost
a complete knowledge of the planet on which we live.

There is a growing interest and manifest unity in all those more

important events; not to mention the circumstantial evidence borne
by the charts of 1375 and the semi-fabulous voyages, such as that
of Doria y Vivaldi and others less apocryphal though isolated and
barren of results, like that of Ferrer, begun in 1434, when Gil Eannes
doubled Cape Bojador, discovered Guinea, and dispelled the terror
inspired by the unknown ocean, and ended in 1522 with Elcano's
arrival at Sanlucar after circumnavigating the globe.
In all this activity very little occurs by chance. The progressive series
of geographic discoveries, due to persistent premeditation and not to
accident, was inaugurated at Sagres by the Infante D. Enrique and
his illustrious pilot Jaime de Mallorca.

Well might Pedro Nuñes exclaim that from that time forth until the
form and size of the terraqueous globe were thoroughly known, the
most to be obtained would not be firmly established, "unless our
mariners sailed away better instructed and provided with better
instruments and rules of Astronomy and Geography than the things
with which cosmographers supplied them."

The culmination in the progress of that beautiful history falls on the

12th of October, 1492, when Columbus was the first European to set
foot upon the intertropical shores of the New World. But this act,
considered apart from its intrinsic value, as purely the individual
inspiration of a mariner and the generous enthusiasm of a patron
Queen, derives a higher value when regarded as part of a
summation of efforts, a grand development of an idea, a purpose to
explore and know the whole globe, to spread the name and the law
of Christ together with the civilization of Europe, and to reap a
harvest of gold, spices, and all the riches of which costly samples
and exaggerated reports were furnished by the traffic of the
Venetians, Genoese and Catalonians, who in turn got them from
Mussulmans.

Doubtless the moving cause, whose gorgeous banner so many men

of our peninsula followed, was clothed in great sentiments, good or
bad; their hearts were filled with religious fervor, thirst for glory,
ambition, Christian love, cupidity, curiosity, and violent dissatisfaction
(even during the Renaissance), to seek and undergo real adventures
that should surpass the vain, fruitless, and fanciful adventures of
chivalry; and to make voyages and conquests eclipsing those of the
Greeks and Romans, many of which, recorded in classic histories and
fables, were now disinterred by the learned.
What must be described is the complete picture in all its
sumptuousness so that its magnificent meaning may stand out
distinctly, without which the conviction would be lacking that the
studies, voyages, and happy audacity of Bartolomé Diaz, Gama,
Alburquerque, Cabral, Balboa, Magallanes, Cortes, Pizarro, Orellana,
and a host of others, do not dim the glory of the hero whose
centennary is to be celebrated, even though it heighten and add
greater luster to the work of civilization begun by Portugal....

The book here vaguely outlined must also contain a compendious

introduction, notices of voyages, ideas, and geographic progress up
to the date of D. Enrique's establishment at Sagres, and an epilogue
or conclusion of greater extent, in which are examined and weighed
the changes and progress that our subject has made, collectively, in
the civilization of the world—in the commerce, economics and
politics of the peoples, in regard to the broad field opened to the
intelligent activity of Europe, over which it could spread and
dominate; the abundance of data, sunken hopes, and more secure
basis lent to the studious and wise for the extension of our
knowledge of Nature, the unraveling of her laws, and penetration of
her mysteries.

The vast, elevated argument of the book requires it be a finished

work of art, not in fullness and richness of diction, but in plan and
order, in sobriety and unity of style, whose nobility and beauty must
lie in simplicity of phrase, correctness of judgment and richness of
thought.

There may enter into this contest any unpublished work written to
this end in Spanish, Portuguese, English, German, French or Italian.

The tribunal that is to award the prize will be composed of two

members of the R. Acad. of History, and one member from each of
the Spanish R. Academies of Moral Sciences and Politics, and Exact
and Natural Sciences—all to be chosen by the Academies
themselves.
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