Q1: Define the term "image representation" in computer graphics.

A1: Image representation in computer graphics refers to the way visual information is digitally stored,
manipulated, and displayed. It typically involves the use of raster or vector formats to represent an
image.

Q2: Give an example of an application of computer graphics in the entertainment industry.

A2: Animation and special effects in movies and video games are prominent applications of
computer graphics in the entertainment industry.

Q3: What is the basic difference between a raster-scan display and a random-scan display?
A3: A raster-scan display scans the screen line by line from top to bottom to form an image, while a
random-scan display draws images by directly plotting lines and shapes based on mathematical
descriptions.

Q4: Name one type of flat-panel display commonly used in modern devices.
A4: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).

Q5: What is a pixel in the context of computer graphics?

A5: A pixel is the smallest unit of a digital image or display that can be independently controlled to
represent visual information such as color or brightness.

Q6: Explain briefly how cathode ray tubes (CRTs) work.

A6: CRTs operate by emitting electron beams from an electron gun onto a phosphorescent screen,
where the beams are deflected by magnetic or electric fields to produce images.

Q7: What is meant by the term "input technology" in computer graphics?

A7: Input technology refers to devices and methods used to interact with and provide data to
computer graphics systems, such as keyboards, mice, touchscreens, and graphic tablets.

Q8: Describe the differences between vector graphics and raster graphics.
A8: Vector graphics use mathematical equations to represent images, resulting in scalable and
resolution-independent graphics. Raster graphics use a grid of pixels, making them resolution-
dependent.

Q9: Explain the concept of the coordinate system in computer graphics.

A9: The coordinate system in computer graphics defines a framework for positioning and
manipulating objects in a space, typically involving x, y (and sometimes z) axes in 2D or 3D
environments.
Q10: What are the advantages of using Bresenham's line drawing algorithm over the Digital
Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm for line drawing?
A10: Bresenham's algorithm is more efficient as it uses integer calculations, reducing computational
overhead compared to DDA, which relies on floating-point operations.

Q11: How does the scan-conversion process work for rendering graphics primitives?
A11: The scan-conversion process converts geometric primitives, such as lines and shapes, into pixel
representations on a raster display by calculating which pixels should be illuminated.

Q12: Discuss the role of display devices in computer graphics.

A12: Display devices are critical in computer graphics for presenting visual information to the user,
translating digital representations into perceivable images using technologies like CRTs, LCDs, or
LEDs.

Q13: What are some challenges associated with rendering images on flat-panel displays?
A13: Challenges include maintaining consistent brightness, handling resolution limitations, color
accuracy, and ensuring fast refresh rates for smooth animations.

Q14: Why is the concept of anti-aliasing important in computer graphics?

A14: Anti-aliasing reduces the appearance of jagged edges in digital images, improving visual quality
by smoothing transitions between pixels.

Q15: Explain how a random-scan display differs from a raster-scan display in terms of drawing
primitives.
A15: A random-scan display draws primitives directly as vector graphics, whereas a raster-scan
display represents primitives by filling pixel grids.

Q16: Describe the characteristics of a Flat Panel Display.

A16: Flat-panel displays are lightweight, thin, energy-efficient, and use technologies like LCD or OLED
to produce high-quality visuals with minimal depth.

Q17: How does Bresenham's algorithm handle diagonal line drawing?

A17: Bresenham's algorithm efficiently determines the closest pixel to the theoretical line using
integer calculations, ensuring accurate diagonal representation.

Q18: Discuss the trade-offs between DDA and Bresenham's algorithm in line drawing.
A18: DDA offers simplicity and flexibility but is slower due to floating-point calculations. Bresenham's
algorithm is faster and more efficient due to integer-only operations but is less straightforward to
implement.

Q19: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using cathode ray tubes (CRTs) as display devices
in the context of modern computer graphics.
A19: Advantages of CRTs include high color accuracy and refresh rates. Disadvantages include their
bulkiness, energy consumption, and reduced resolution compared to modern displays.

Q20: In computer graphics, what term is used to describe the process of converting digital data into
an image on the screen?
A20: A) Rendering.

Q21: Describe the working principles of CRTs in the context of computer graphics. What are their
advantages and limitations?

Working Principles:

1. Electron gun emits electron beams.

2. Beams are directed to the screen via deflection coils.

3. Phosphor coating glows upon electron impact.

4. The intensity of the beams determines brightness.

5. The display is refreshed periodically to maintain the image.

Advantages:

1. High refresh rates for smooth animations.

2. Good color accuracy and contrast.

3. Can display multiple resolutions natively.

4. Wide viewing angles.

5. Durable and resistant to physical shocks.

Limitations:

1. Bulky and heavy design.

2. High power consumption.

3. Generates heat during operation.

4. Limited resolution compared to modern displays.

5. Prone to image burn-in over time.

Q22: Discuss the applications of computer graphics in various fields and industries.

1. Entertainment: Used for creating animation, special effects, and video games.

2. Medicine: Enables 3D imaging for diagnostics like CT scans and MRIs.

3. Education: Provides interactive simulations and visual aids.

4. Engineering: Facilitates CAD for design and modeling.

5. Architecture: Helps in visualizing building designs and structures.

Q23: Explain the concept of image representation in computer graphics. How does it differ from
object representation?

Image Representation:

1. Uses pixels (raster) or mathematical equations (vector).

2. Focuses on the visual display of objects.

3. Primarily concerned with 2D or rendered 3D data.

4. Data is resolution-dependent in raster graphics.

5. Example: Photos, digital art.

Object Representation:

1. Uses points, lines, and polygons to model objects.

2. Focuses on geometric data of objects.

3. Primarily used in 3D modeling.

4. Resolution-independent until rendered.

5. Example: CAD models, 3D animations.

Q24: Compare and contrast Raster-Scan Display and Random-Scan Display.

Raster-Scan Display:

1. Scans the screen line-by-line.

2. Best for rendering detailed images like photos.

3. Limited to a fixed resolution.

4. Refresh rates affect flicker.

5. Used in TVs and computer monitors.

Random-Scan Display:

1. Draws images directly as lines.

 2. Suitable for line-drawing and wireframes.

3. Resolution-independent.

4. Limited to simple graphics.

5. Used in oscilloscopes and vector displays.

Q25: Explain the DDA algorithm for scan-converting lines. Provide a step-by-step example.

1. Calculate the slope (mmm): m=y2−y1x2−x1m = \frac{y_2 - y_1}{x_2 - x_1}m=x2−x1y2−y1.

2. Decide increments: Based on slope, increment either xxx or yyy.

3. Start with initial points: (x1,y1x_1, y_1x1,y1).

4. Calculate next points: Use x=x+dx,y=y+dyx = x + dx, y = y + dyx=x+dx,y=y+dy, where dx,dydx,

dydx,dy depend on slope.

5. Plot points: Repeat until endpoint (x2,y2x_2, y_2x2,y2) is reached.

Example: From (1, 1) to (5, 4), slope m=0.75m = 0.75m=0.75:

 Start: (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1).

 Increment: x+1,y+0.75x + 1, y + 0.75x+1,y+0.75.

 Points: (2,1.75),(3,2.5),(4,3.25),(5,4)(2, 1.75), (3, 2.5), (4, 3.25), (5, 4)(2,1.75),(3,2.5),(4,3.25),

(5,4).

Q26: Compare and contrast Bresenham's Line Drawing Algorithm with the DDA algorithm. Under
what circumstances is Bresenham's algorithm more efficient?

Bresenham's Algorithm:

1. Uses integer calculations for efficiency.

2. Better suited for devices where integer arithmetic is faster.

3. Handles diagonal lines more accurately.

4. Does not require rounding, reducing errors.

5. Ideal for simple hardware implementations.

DDA Algorithm:

1. Uses floating-point calculations.

2. Easier to implement but slower due to rounding.

3. Handles lines with fractional slopes naturally.

4. Requires additional memory for floating-point values.

5. Suitable for software implementations where precision is critical.

Efficiency: Bresenham’s algorithm is more efficient when speed is critical and hardware supports
integer operations.

Q27: Describe the differences between vector graphics and raster graphics. Give examples of
situations where each is more suitable.

Vector Graphics:

1. Composed of paths defined by mathematical equations.

2. Resolution-independent and scalable.

3. Best for illustrations, logos, and diagrams.

4. Smaller file sizes for simple graphics.

5. Example: SVG files for web design.

Raster Graphics:

1. Composed of a grid of pixels.

2. Resolution-dependent; quality decreases when scaled.

3. Best for photographs and detailed images.

4. Larger file sizes for high resolutions.

5. Example: JPEG, PNG for photography.

Q28: Compare and contrast Raster-Scan and Random-Scan display devices, highlighting their
advantages and disadvantages.

Raster-Scan:

1. Scans the entire screen line-by-line.

2. Supports complex images and shading.

3. Flicker may occur at low refresh rates.

4. Resolution-dependent.

5. Used in modern monitors and TVs.

Random-Scan:

1. Draws directly as vectors.

2. Limited to simple line-drawing applications.

3. Flicker is less noticeable.

4. Resolution-independent for lines.

5. Used in vector-based systems like oscilloscopes.

Q29: Discuss various input technologies used in computer graphics and their significance in user
interaction.

1. Mouse and Keyboard: Basic tools for navigation and data input.

2. Touchscreens: Enable intuitive interaction, widely used in mobile devices.

3. Graphics Tablets: Essential for precision drawing and design.

4. 3D Scanners: Capture real-world objects for 3D modeling.

5. Motion Sensors: Used in gaming and virtual reality for immersive interaction.

Q30: How do modern display technologies, such as OLED and LED, compare to traditional CRT
displays in computer graphics applications? Discuss their advantages and disadvantages.

OLED/LED Displays:

1. Slim, lightweight, and energy-efficient.

2. Superior resolution and color accuracy.

3. Minimal flicker and heat generation.

4. High manufacturing costs.

5. Vulnerable to burn-in over prolonged use.

CRT Displays:

1. High refresh rates and color fidelity.

2. Robust and durable for heavy use.

3. Bulky and heavy.

4. Consumes more power.

5. Limited to lower resolutions compared to modern displays.

Q31: How does the Random-Scan Display differ from the Raster-Scan Display in terms of operation
and application areas? Provide examples of situations where each type is preferred.

Random-Scan Display:

1. Operates by drawing images using mathematical equations for lines and shapes.

2. Efficient for line-drawing applications.

3. Limited to simple graphics without shading or textures.

4. Preferred in CAD systems and oscilloscopes.

 5. Example: Engineering designs requiring precise line drawings.

Raster-Scan Display:

1. Operates by scanning the screen pixel-by-pixel line-by-line.

2. Handles detailed images and textures.

3. Supports color and shading for photorealistic rendering.

4. Preferred in multimedia displays like monitors and TVs.

5. Example: Watching videos or playing video games.

Q32: Describe the coordinate system overview used in computer graphics. Explain the differences
between 2D and 3D coordinate systems and their importance in rendering.

Coordinate Systems:

1. Provide a framework for positioning and manipulating objects.

2. Defined by axes, such as x,yx, yx,y in 2D or x,y,zx, y, zx,y,z in 3D.

3. Transformations (translation, rotation, scaling) are applied within these systems.

2D Systems:

1. Use xxx and yyy axes.

2. Suitable for flat images, UI design, and diagrams.

3. Example: 2D game design.

3D Systems:

1. Include zzz axis for depth.

2. Enable realistic object representation and rendering.

3. Example: 3D modeling for movies or VR.

Importance: Coordinate systems enable accurate placement and transformation of objects, essential
for rendering scenes.

Q33: Provide a detailed explanation of Bresenham's Line Drawing Algorithm. How does it differ
from the DDA algorithm, and what advantages does it offer in terms of efficiency?

Bresenham's Algorithm:

1. Uses integer calculations to determine the closest pixel to the theoretical line.

2. Eliminates floating-point arithmetic for efficiency.

3. Iteratively calculates the decision parameter to choose the next pixel.

4. Suitable for all slopes using symmetrical transformations.

 5. Example: Drawing a line from (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1) to (7,5)(7, 5)(7,5).

Difference from DDA:

1. Bresenham uses integer calculations; DDA uses floating-point.

2. Bresenham is faster and more hardware-friendly.

3. DDA requires rounding, increasing computational overhead.

Advantages:

1. Faster execution due to integer-only operations.

2. Accurate and suitable for hardware implementations.

Q34: Compare and contrast the different types of display devices used in computer graphics,
including CRTs, Raster-Scan Displays, Random-Scan Displays, and Flat Panel Displays.

CRTs:

1. High refresh rates, good color accuracy.

2. Bulky and energy-intensive.

3. Used in early computer monitors and TVs.

Raster-Scan Displays:

1. Pixel-by-pixel rendering of images.

2. Handles complex, photorealistic images.

3. Dominates modern displays like LCDs and LEDs.

Random-Scan Displays:

1. Line-based rendering of shapes.

2. Suitable for simple, precise graphics.

3. Limited to specialized applications like CAD.

Flat Panel Displays:

1. Lightweight, energy-efficient.

2. Offers high resolutions and wide color gamut.

3. Includes LCD, OLED, and LED technologies, widely used today.

Q35: Explain the fundamental concepts of computer graphics and its significance in various fields.
Provide examples of applications where computer graphics play a crucial role.

Fundamental Concepts:

1. Involves generating visual content from data.

 2. Covers rendering, modeling, and animation.

3. Includes algorithms for visual realism.

4. Requires input/output devices for interaction and display.

5. Uses coordinate systems for object placement.

Applications:

1. Movies: Special effects and animation.

2. Video Games: Immersive environments.

3. Education: Interactive visual learning tools.

4. Medicine: 3D imaging and simulations.

5. Engineering: CAD for design and prototyping.

Q36: Describe the process of image representation in computer graphics. How do raster and vector
graphics differ, and what are their respective advantages and disadvantages?

Image Representation:

1. Involves storing visual data digitally.

2. Raster: Pixel grid, each pixel represents color/brightness.

3. Vector: Mathematical equations for lines and shapes.

4. Rendering converts data to displayable images.

5. Efficiency depends on format and application.

Raster Graphics:

 Advantages: Supports photorealism, easy to manipulate.

 Disadvantages: Resolution-dependent, large file sizes.

 Example: Digital photographs (JPEG, PNG).

Vector Graphics:

 Advantages: Scalable, smaller file sizes for simple graphics.

 Disadvantages: Limited realism, complexity in rendering.

 Example: Logos and illustrations (SVG, AI files).

 UNIT 2

Q1: Explain the concept of 2D transformations using homogeneous coordinates briefly.

Homogeneous coordinates extend traditional 2D coordinates by adding a third coordinate,

typically set to 1, represented as (x,y,1)(x, y, 1)(x,y,1). This allows all geometric transformations
(translation, scaling, rotation, etc.) to be represented as matrix operations, enabling easy
combination and manipulation of transformations.

Q2: Why are homogeneous coordinates useful in 2D transformations? Provide one specific
advantage.

Homogeneous coordinates simplify transformations like translation, which can’t be represented by

standard matrix operations in 2D. By using homogeneous coordinates, translation can be
incorporated into a transformation matrix, making it easier to combine with other
transformations.

Q3: What is a combined transformation in 2D graphics?

Answer:
B) A transformation that combines rotation and translation

Q4: How can you perform a rotation about an arbitrary point in 2D graphics?

Answer:
D) Combine rotation and translation matrices

Q5: In 2D graphics, what is a shear transformation?

Answer:
A) A transformation that changes an object's shape while preserving its area

Q6: Which type of transformation changes the orientation of an object without changing its size?

Answer:
C) Rotation

Q7: Which of the following is NOT a type of transformation in two-dimensional graphics?

Answer:
B) Homogeneous transformation
Q8: What is the identity transformation in two-dimensional graphics?

Answer:
B) A transformation that doesn't change the object

Q9: Explain the concept of an "Identity Transformation" in 2D graphics.

An identity transformation is a transformation that leaves the object unchanged, meaning its
position, size, and orientation remain the same. It is represented by the identity matrix, where all
elements are 1 along the diagonal.

Q10: Define what a transformation is in the context of two-dimensional graphics.

A transformation in 2D graphics refers to the process of changing the position, size, or orientation
of an object in a 2D space using mathematical operations, such as translation, scaling, rotation,
and shearing.

Q11: Provide an example of how a shear transformation can be used to distort a 2D object.

A shear transformation can be used to slant an object, such as making a rectangle look like a
parallelogram by shifting one of its sides without altering its area.

Q12: In simple terms, what does translation transformation achieve in 2D graphics?

Translation moves an object from one location to another in 2D space without changing its shape
or size. It is done by adding a constant value to the object's coordinates.

Q13: Differentiate between scaling and shearing transformations. Provide examples.

Scaling changes the size of an object, either enlarging or reducing it. Example: Enlarging a square.
Shearing distorts the object by shifting its vertices along one axis, like turning a square into a
parallelogram.

Q14: What is scaling transformation, and how does it change the size of an object?

Scaling transformation resizes an object by a scaling factor in the x and y directions. A scaling factor
greater than 1 enlarges the object, while a factor less than 1 reduces it.

Q15: What is the significance of translating an object about an arbitrary point in 2D graphics?

Answer:
C) It changes the object's position without rotation
Q16: How is a combined transformation achieved in 2D graphics?

Answer:
A) By applying multiple transformations in a specific order

Q17: In a 2D transformation matrix, what does the element (1,1) represent?

Answer:
A) x-scale factor

Q18: What type of transformation involves skewing or stretching an object in one direction?

Answer:
C) Shear

Q19: When might you use translation in 2D graphics, and what does it accomplish?

Translation is used when you need to move an object from one position to another in 2D space
without altering its size or orientation. It shifts all points of the object by a constant distance.

Q20: Explain the concept of combined transformations and provide an example.

Combined transformations involve applying multiple transformations (e.g., translation, rotation,

scaling) in a sequence. For example, to rotate an object around a specific point, you would first
translate the object to the origin, rotate it, and then translate it back.

Q21: Explain shear transformations and provide an example of their practical use in computer
graphics.

Shear transformations alter the shape of an object by shifting its vertices in a specific direction,
typically parallel to one of the coordinate axes. This results in distortion without changing the area of
the object. For example, a square can be transformed into a parallelogram through a shear in the x-
direction. In computer graphics, shear transformations are often used in simulations or artistic
effects, such as distorting an object to create perspective views or animations that involve dynamic
changes in the shape of objects.

Q22: Can you provide a real-world example of a situation where multiple transformations are
applied to an object in 2D graphics, using both homogeneous and non-homogeneous methods?

A real-world example is animating a character moving along a path while rotating and scaling its
appearance. First, you might use non-homogeneous transformations like scaling (to change the size)
and rotation (to change the orientation) applied directly to the character. Then, to move the
character along a curved path, you can use homogeneous transformations (translation matrices),
where multiple transformations (rotation, scaling, and translation) are combined into a single
transformation matrix, enabling smoother animation without altering the character’s geometry.

Q23: Given a point (2, 3), find the result of applying a scaling transformation with scale factors of 2
in both the x and y directions.

To apply a scaling transformation, multiply the x and y coordinates of the point by the scaling factors:

 New x-coordinate: 2×2=42 \times 2 = 42×2=4

 New y-coordinate: 3×2=63 \times 2 = 63×2=6

Thus, the new coordinates after scaling are (4,6)(4, 6)(4,6).

Q24: Describe the concept of a transformation matrix and its role in 2D graphics transformations.

A transformation matrix is a mathematical tool used to apply transformations such as scaling,

rotation, translation, or shearing to an object in 2D space. It typically consists of a 3x3 matrix for
homogeneous coordinates. The matrix allows these transformations to be represented and
combined through matrix multiplication. This simplifies the process of applying multiple
transformations to an object, as you can multiply the object's coordinate vector by the
transformation matrix to achieve the desired result. The matrix ensures transformations are applied
efficiently and consistently.

Q25: Describe the three main types of transformations in 2D graphics: geometric transformations,
rigid transformations, and non-rigid transformations. Provide examples of each.

1. Geometric Transformations: These involve altering the shape, position, or size of an object.
Examples include translation (moving an object), scaling (changing size), and rotation
(changing orientation).

2. Rigid Transformations: These transformations preserve the shape and size of an object.
Examples include rotation and translation. The object’s shape and size remain unchanged,
but its position or orientation might change.

3. Non-Rigid Transformations: These transformations change both the shape and size of an
object. Examples include shearing (distorting the shape) and scaling with unequal factors
(non-uniform scaling), which alters the aspect ratio of the object.

Q26: A point P(4, 5) is reflected across the x-axis. Find the coordinates of the reflected point.

Reflection across the x-axis changes the y-coordinate to its opposite while the x-coordinate remains
the same.

 New coordinates after reflection: (4,−5)(4, -5)(4,−5).

Q27: Find the transformation matrix for a shear transformation that shears an object in the x-
direction by a factor of 2 and leaves the y-direction unchanged.

A shear transformation matrix for shearing in the x-direction by a factor of 2 is:

This matrix multiplies the x-coordinate by a factor of 1 (no change), adds 2 times the y-coordinate to
the x-coordinate (shearing), and leaves the y-coordinate unchanged.

Q28: Given a point (3, 2), perform a translation by (-1, 4). Find the new coordinates of the point
after the translation.

To perform translation, add the translation values to the coordinates:

 New x-coordinate: 3+(−1)=23 + (-1) = 23+(−1)=2

 New y-coordinate: 2+4=62 + 4 = 62+4=6

Thus, the new coordinates after translation are (2,6)(2, 6)(2,6).

Q29: Find the transformation matrix for a shear transformation that shears an object in the x-
direction by a factor of 2 and leaves the y-direction unchanged.

The transformation matrix for a shear in the x-direction by a factor of 2 (leaving the y-direction
unchanged) is:

This matrix applies the shear effect by altering the x-coordinate based on the y-coordinate, while
leaving the y-coordinate unaffected.

Q31: Reflect a line segment with endpoints (1, 2) and (4, 5) over the x-axis. Find the coordinates of
the reflected endpoints.

Reflection over the x-axis changes the y-coordinate of a point while leaving the x-coordinate
unchanged. To reflect each point of the line segment over the x-axis:

1. For point (1,2)(1, 2)(1,2), the reflection will give:

 o New coordinates: (1,−2)(1, -2)(1,−2)

2. For point (4,5)(4, 5)(4,5), the reflection will give:

o New coordinates: (4,−5)(4, -5)(4,−5)

Thus, the coordinates of the reflected endpoints of the line segment are (1,−2)(1, -2)(1,−2) and (4,−5)
(4, -5)(4,−5).

Q32: Given a point (2, 3) and a scaling factor of 2, apply the scaling transformation to find the new
coordinates of the point.

Scaling transformation multiplies each coordinate by the scaling factor. For a scaling factor of 2:

 New x-coordinate: 2×2=42 \times 2 = 42×2=4

 New y-coordinate: 3×2=63 \times 2 = 63×2=6

Thus, the new coordinates of the point after the scaling transformation are (4,6)(4, 6)(4,6).

Q33: Apply a sequence of transformations (scaling by 3, followed by a shear transformation in the

x-direction with a shear factor of 2, then a translation by (-1, 2)) on a point (2, 2). Calculate the
final coordinates of the point.

1. Scaling by 3:
Scaling the point (2,2)(2, 2)(2,2) by 3 gives:

o New x-coordinate: 2×3=62 \times 3 = 62×3=6

o New y-coordinate: 2×3=62 \times 3 = 62×3=6

o Intermediate point after scaling: (6,6)(6, 6)(6,6)

2. Shear in the x-direction with a shear factor of 2:

The shear transformation in the x-direction by a factor of 2 changes the x-coordinate by
adding 2 times the y-coordinate to the x-coordinate:

o New x-coordinate: 6+2×6=186 + 2 \times 6 = 186+2×6=18

o New y-coordinate remains unchanged: 666

o Intermediate point after shear: (18,6)(18, 6)(18,6)

3. Translation by (-1, 2):

The translation transformation adds the translation factors to the coordinates:

o New x-coordinate: 18+(−1)=1718 + (-1) = 1718+(−1)=17

o New y-coordinate: 6+2=86 + 2 = 86+2=8

Thus, the final coordinates of the point after all transformations are (17,8)(17, 8)(17,8).
Q34: Discuss the difference between a "Scaling Transformation" and a "Shear Transformation" in
two-dimensional graphics. Provide examples of when each type of transformation might be used.

1. Scaling Transformation:
Scaling alters the size of an object in 2D space without changing its shape. The object is
either enlarged or reduced uniformly in all directions or non-uniformly along the x and/or y
axes. This transformation maintains the object’s proportions (unless non-uniform scaling is
applied).
Example: Scaling a logo for different sizes without changing its shape, such as making a
graphic smaller for use as an icon.

2. Shear Transformation:
Shearing distorts the shape of an object by shifting the vertices in one direction while leaving
the other direction unchanged. It skews the object, often creating a parallelogram from a
rectangle. The size and area may be altered depending on the shear factor.
Example: Shearing is used in perspective drawing or to simulate the effect of an object being
seen at an angle, such as a text box that appears slanted in a graphical user interface.

Q35: Homogeneous coordinates are often used in 2D transformations. Explain what homogeneous
coordinates are, and how they simplify the process of combining multiple transformations. Provide
an example of how homogeneous coordinates can be used in a transformation pipeline.

Homogeneous Coordinates:
Homogeneous coordinates are an extension of the standard Cartesian coordinate system that adds
an extra dimension (usually denoted as www) to represent points in projective space. In 2D, a point
(x,y)(x, y)(x,y) is represented in homogeneous coordinates as (x,y,1)(x, y, 1)(x,y,1). This extra
dimension simplifies the mathematics behind transformations such as translation, rotation, scaling,
and shearing. Homogeneous coordinates allow all transformations to be represented as matrix
multiplications, which makes combining multiple transformations more efficient.

Advantages of Homogeneous Coordinates:

1. Simplified Matrix Operations: Transformations such as translation (which is not linear in

Cartesian coordinates) can be handled easily as matrix multiplications.

2. Combining Transformations: Multiple transformations (such as scaling, rotation, and

translation) can be combined into a single transformation matrix by multiplying the
individual matrices together.

Example of Homogeneous Coordinates in a Transformation Pipeline: Consider a point P(3,2)P(3,

2)P(3,2) that undergoes scaling by a factor of 2, followed by a translation by (1,−1)(1, -1)(1,−1). In
homogeneous coordinates:

1. Scaling: The scaling matrix for a factor of 2 is:

Multiplying the point by this matrix gives the scaled point (6,4)(6, 4)(6,4).
 2. Translation: The translation matrix for (1,−1)(1, -1)(1,−1) is:

Multiplying the scaled point by this matrix gives the final point (7,3)(7, 3)(7,3).

In this way, the two transformations (scaling and translation) are combined through matrix
multiplication, and the transformations can be applied efficiently to the object in the graphics
pipeline.

Q36: Describe the concept of "Homogeneous Coordinates" and how they are used in two-
dimensional transformations. Explain why they are important in graphics transformations.

Homogeneous Coordinates:
Homogeneous coordinates extend the usual 2D Cartesian coordinate system by introducing an
additional dimension, typically denoted as www. A point (x,y)(x, y)(x,y) in standard Cartesian
coordinates is represented as (x,y,1)(x, y, 1)(x,y,1) in homogeneous coordinates. This transformation
allows for more general forms of transformations to be applied in graphics, such as translation, which
would otherwise be difficult to express using just matrix multiplication.

How Homogeneous Coordinates are Used in 2D Transformations:

In 2D graphics, homogeneous coordinates are used to represent points and vectors in a way that
simplifies combining multiple transformations (such as scaling, rotation, and translation) using matrix
multiplication. Transformations in homogeneous coordinates can be combined into a single matrix,
and this matrix can be applied to any point or object in the scene.

For instance, a translation can be represented as:

where txtxtx and tytyty are the translation amounts in the x and y directions, respectively. Without
homogeneous coordinates, translation would require more complicated addition steps, but using
homogeneous coordinates, it becomes a simple matrix multiplication.

Importance in Graphics Transformations:

Homogeneous coordinates are crucial because they simplify the representation and application of
transformations in computer graphics. They allow for all transformations (scaling, rotation,
translation, shearing) to be represented using the same matrix structure, which is particularly useful
when combining multiple transformations in a single, efficient operation. They also allow for
projective transformations, such as perspective projections, which cannot be handled with Cartesian
coordinates alone.
 UNIT 3

Q1: In perspective projection, which part of the object appears smaller if it is farther from the
viewer?

Answer:
C) Both top and bottom equally
In perspective projection, all parts of an object that are farther from the viewer appear smaller,
regardless of the specific part of the object.

Q2: Which transformation is applied to change the position of an object in three-dimensional

space without altering its shape or orientation?

Answer:
C) Translation
Translation shifts an object in space without affecting its shape or orientation.

Q3: Explain the concept of scaling transformation in three dimensions. Provide an example of how
scaling can be applied to a 3D object.

Answer:
Scaling in 3D is a transformation that changes the size of an object along the x, y, and z axes. For
example, scaling a cube with vertices (1,1,1)(1, 1, 1)(1,1,1) by a factor of 2 in all directions results in a
new cube with vertices (2,2,2)(2, 2, 2)(2,2,2), (2,−2,2)(2, -2, 2)(2,−2,2), and so on.

Q4: Which of the following is NOT a type of perspective projection?

Answer:
D) Orthographic projection
Orthographic projection is a type of parallel projection, not a perspective projection.

Q5: Describe the difference between translation and rotation transformations in 3D space.

Answer:
Translation moves an object in space without changing its orientation or shape, while rotation
changes the orientation of the object around a specific axis without altering its shape or size.

Q6: What is the primary purpose of shear transformations in three-dimensional graphics?

Answer:
B) To stretch or skew an object in a particular direction
Shear transformations distort an object by shifting its vertices along one axis, causing skewing or
stretching.

Q7: How can composite transformations be used to transform a 3D object?

Answer:
Composite transformations involve applying multiple transformations (such as scaling, rotation, and
translation) in sequence. They can be combined into a single transformation matrix and applied to a
3D object for efficient processing.

Q8: Discuss the concept of a "viewing transformation" in the context of 3D graphics. Why is it
important, and what does it involve?

Answer:
Viewing transformation converts a 3D scene into a 2D view by applying a series of transformations
such as translation, rotation, and scaling. It defines the camera's perspective and is essential for
generating the image from a specific viewpoint.

Q9: In three-dimensional transformations, what does the term "homogeneous coordinates" refer
to?

Answer:
B) Coordinates used to represent points in projective geometry.
Homogeneous coordinates are used to represent points in a higher-dimensional space and simplify
the mathematical operations for transformations, including translation, rotation, and scaling.

Q10: Describe the process of hidden surface removal in 3D graphics.

Answer:
Hidden surface removal (HSR) involves determining which surfaces of a 3D object are visible to the
viewer and which are occluded by other objects. Techniques like the Z-buffer algorithm are used to
eliminate invisible surfaces and ensure only visible parts of the object are rendered.

Q11: What type of projection results in an image where parallel lines in the 3D world remain
parallel in the 2D projection?

Answer:
C) Orthographic Projection
In orthographic projection, parallel lines in 3D space remain parallel in the 2D image, unlike
perspective projection where they converge.

Q12: Explain the concept of a "view frustum" in perspective projection.

Answer:
A view frustum is the 3D region visible to the camera in a perspective projection. It is a pyramid-like
shape, with the apex at the camera and the base being the projection plane, and it defines the
boundaries for the visible portion of the scene.

Q13: How does a shear transformation affect the shape of a 3D object?

Answer:
A shear transformation skews the shape of an object by shifting points in a specific direction,
distorting the object while maintaining its area or volume. For example, a cube might turn into a
parallelepiped after a shear transformation.

Q14: Which type of transformation preserves the shape of an object but changes its size?

Answer:
C) Scaling
Scaling changes the size of an object but preserves its shape, unlike transformations like rotation or
shear that modify the object’s geometry.

Q15: Discuss the advantages and limitations of parallel projection in 3D graphics.

Answer:
Advantages:

 Parallel projection maintains accurate relative proportions and parallel lines, making it useful
for technical drawings and architectural designs.
Limitations:

 It does not convey depth perception as perspective projection does, so objects may appear
unnatural, especially when viewed from angles other than head-on.

Q16: Explain the concept of homogeneous coordinates and why they are important in three-
dimensional transformations.

Answer:
Homogeneous coordinates extend 3D Cartesian coordinates by adding an extra dimension, allowing
all transformations (including translation, rotation, and scaling) to be represented as matrix
operations. This simplifies the combination of multiple transformations and is vital for efficient
rendering.

Q17: Given a point P(2, 3, 4) in 3D space, perform a translation by (1, -2, 3) units. Find the new
coordinates of P after the translation.
Answer:
New coordinates after translation:
(2+1,3−2,4+3)=(3,1,7)(2 + 1, 3 - 2, 4 + 3) = (3, 1, 7)(2+1,3−2,4+3)=(3,1,7)

Q18: A cube with one vertex at (1, 1, 1) and the opposite vertex at (3, 3, 3) is scaled by a factor of 2
in all dimensions. Calculate the coordinates of the new vertices of the scaled cube.

Answer:
Scaling by a factor of 2 in all dimensions changes the coordinates of the opposite vertex to (6,6,6)(6,
6, 6)(6,6,6), and the cube's other vertices are scaled similarly. New vertices include:

 (2,2,2)(2, 2, 2)(2,2,2), (6,6,2)(6, 6, 2)(6,6,2), (2,6,6)(2, 6, 6)(2,6,6), and others based on the
scaling factor.

Q19: In parallel projection, if the projection plane is located at a distance of 10 units from the
origin and a point with coordinates (5, 0, 0) is projected onto this plane, what will be the
coordinates of the projected point?

Answer:
A) (5, 0, 0)
In parallel projection, the projection is along parallel lines, so the coordinates of the projected point
remain the same as the original point.

Q20: If you apply a shear transformation to a square with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), and (0, 1)
such that it shears along the x-axis by a factor of 2, what will be the new coordinates of the
vertices?

Answer:
A) (0, 0), (2, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1)
In shear along the x-axis, the x-coordinate of each point is shifted based on the y-coordinate, causing
the square to distort into a parallelogram.

Q21: In the context of 3D projection, explain what the vanishing point is and how it relates to
perspective projection. How does it affect the perception of depth in a scene?

Answer:
In 3D projection, the vanishing point is a point on the image plane where parallel lines appear to
converge due to perspective projection. As objects move further from the viewer, their lines
converge toward the vanishing point, creating the illusion of depth. This phenomenon is central to
perspective projection, as it simulates the way objects appear smaller as they recede into the
distance. The vanishing point enhances the perception of depth and distance in a scene, making
objects look more natural and providing a sense of space.
Q22: Differentiate between scaling, translation, and rotation transformations in three-dimensional
space. Provide an example for each transformation.

Answer:

 Scaling: This transformation changes the size of an object. It is defined by a scaling factor
that stretches or shrinks the object along one or more axes.
Example: Scaling a cube with side length 2 by a factor of 3 results in a cube with side length
6.

 Translation: Translation shifts an object from one location to another without altering its
shape or orientation. It involves adding specific values to the coordinates of every point.
Example: Translating a point (2, 3, 4) by (1, -1, 2) results in the new point (3, 2, 6).

 Rotation: Rotation changes the orientation of an object around a specific axis. The object
maintains its size but changes its orientation relative to the axis of rotation.
Example: Rotating a cube 90 degrees around the x-axis will shift the positions of its vertices
but keep the shape intact.

Q23: An object is initially located at (2, 3, 4) in 3D space. If you translate it by (-1, 2, -3), what are
the new coordinates of the object?

Answer:
To apply the translation, we add the translation values to the original coordinates:
New coordinates = (2−1,3+2,4−3)=(1,5,1)(2 - 1, 3 + 2, 4 - 3) = (1, 5, 1)(2−1,3+2,4−3)=(1,5,1).
Thus, the new coordinates of the object are (1, 5, 1).

Q24: Compare and contrast parallel projection and perspective projection. What are the key
differences between these two projection techniques?

Answer:

 Parallel Projection: In parallel projection, objects are projected onto a 2D plane along
parallel lines. This projection technique preserves the true scale and shape of objects but
does not convey depth, making objects appear the same size regardless of their distance
from the viewer. It is commonly used in technical drawings and architectural designs.

 Perspective Projection: In perspective projection, parallel lines converge to a vanishing point,

simulating the way objects appear smaller as they move farther from the viewer. This creates
a more realistic 3D view and enhances depth perception. The size of objects decreases with
distance from the observer, unlike parallel projection.
The key difference is that perspective projection conveys depth and realism, while parallel
projection maintains accurate proportions but lacks depth perception.

Q25: How can shear transformations be employed to distort an object in 3D graphics? Give a real-
world example where shear transformations are useful.
Answer:
Shear transformations distort objects by shifting the positions of their points along specific axes,
causing a skewing effect. In 3D graphics, shear can change the shape of an object while keeping its
volume constant. For example, shear in the x-direction could make a cube appear like a
parallelepiped.
Real-world example: Shear transformations are useful in architectural modeling, where walls,
windows, or objects need to be skewed to match certain perspectives or visual effects. For example,
creating a 3D visual of a building's structure where parts of the walls need to be skewed to simulate a
view from an unusual angle.

Q26: Apply a shear transformation to a square with vertices at (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), and (0, 1) such
that it shears by a factor of 2 along the x-axis and leaves the y-axis unchanged. What are the new
coordinates of the square's vertices?

Answer:
A shear transformation along the x-axis by a factor of 2 modifies the x-coordinate of each vertex
based on its y-coordinate. The transformation matrix for this shear is:

Applying this to each vertex:

 (0,0)(0, 0)(0,0) becomes (0+2(0),0)=(0,0)(0 + 2(0), 0) = (0, 0)(0+2(0),0)=(0,0)

 (1,0)(1, 0)(1,0) becomes (1+2(0),0)=(1,0)(1 + 2(0), 0) = (1, 0)(1+2(0),0)=(1,0)

 (1,1)(1, 1)(1,1) becomes (1+2(1),1)=(3,1)(1 + 2(1), 1) = (3, 1)(1+2(1),1)=(3,1)

 (0,1)(0, 1)(0,1) becomes (0+2(1),1)=(2,1)(0 + 2(1), 1) = (2, 1)(0+2(1),1)=(2,1)

Thus, the new coordinates of the square's vertices are (0, 0), (1, 0), (3, 1), and (2, 1).

Q27: Explain how the scaling transformation can be used to change the size of an object in 3D
space. Provide a mathematical representation for scaling in homogeneous coordinates.

Answer:
Scaling transformation changes the size of an object by multiplying its coordinates by a scaling factor
along the x, y, and z axes. The scaling transformation in homogeneous coordinates is represented by
a scaling matrix:
where sxs_xsx, sys_ysy, and szs_zsz are the scaling factors along the x, y, and z axes, respectively.
For example, if you scale a point (x,y,z)(x, y, z)(x,y,z) by a factor of 2 in the x-direction and 3 in the y-
direction, the new coordinates are (2x,3y,z)(2x, 3y, z)(2x,3y,z).

Q28: A point (3, 2, 6) is to be projected onto the xy-plane using parallel projection. What are the
coordinates of the projected point?

Answer:
In parallel projection onto the xy-plane, the z-coordinate is discarded, and the point is projected onto
the xy-plane. Thus, the projected coordinates of the point (3,2,6)(3, 2, 6)(3,2,6) are (3, 2, 0).

Q29: Provide an example of a real-world scenario where translation in three-dimensional space is

essential. Explain how translation transformations work.

Answer:
In robotics, translation is essential for moving a robotic arm from one position to another in 3D
space. For example, if the arm needs to move from a position at (2,3,4)(2, 3, 4)(2,3,4) to a target
position at (5,6,8)(5, 6, 8)(5,6,8), the translation would shift the arm by (5−2,6−3,8−4)=(3,3,4)(5 - 2, 6
- 3, 8 - 4) = (3, 3, 4)(5−2,6−3,8−4)=(3,3,4).
Translation is achieved by adding a specific value to each coordinate of an object, shifting its position
without changing its orientation or size.

Q30: If you scale a cube with side length 4 units by a factor of 2 along each axis, what is the new
volume of the cube?

Answer:
The original volume of the cube is given by V=side3=43=64V = \text{side}^3 = 4^3 =
64V=side3=43=64 cubic units.
Scaling by a factor of 2 along each axis multiplies the side length by 2, resulting in a new side length
of 888 units.
The new volume of the cube is V=83=512V = 8^3 = 512V=83=512 cubic units.
Thus, the new volume is 512 cubic units.

Q31: Derive the perspective projection matrix for a given set of camera parameters (focal length,
image plane dimensions) in a 3D graphics system. Describe the transformation involved and how it
affects the position of objects in the scene.

Answer:
The perspective projection matrix maps 3D points onto a 2D plane, simulating the way objects
appear smaller as they move farther from the observer. In a typical 3D graphics system, the
projection matrix can be derived by considering the camera’s position, focal length (f), and the
dimensions of the image plane.

Camera Parameters:

 Focal length (f): This is the distance from the camera to the projection plane (image plane).
  Image plane dimensions: These represent the width and height of the image plane, often
denoted as www and hhh.

 Field of view (fov): The angular range that the camera can see, used to define the viewing
frustum.

Perspective Projection Matrix:

The general form of the perspective projection matrix is:

Where f is the focal length, x,y,z are the coordinates, and other parameters depend on the specific
setup.

 The transformation reduces the size of the 3D object and maps the 3D coordinates to a 2D
plane, where the distance from the observer makes the object appear smaller as it moves
away.

Effect on the position of objects:

 Objects farther from the camera become smaller.

 Objects closer to the camera appear larger.

 Parallel lines appear to converge at a vanishing point, simulating depth.

This transformation effectively converts the 3D world coordinates into 2D screen coordinates,
maintaining the perception of depth in the scene.

Q32: Explain the concept of homogeneous coordinates and how transformation matrices are used
to perform various transformations (scaling, translation, rotation, shear, reflection) in three-
dimensional space. Provide examples for each transformation.

Answer:
Homogeneous Coordinates:
Homogeneous coordinates are an extension of Cartesian coordinates used in projective geometry. In
3D graphics, a 3D point (x,y,z) is represented in homogeneous coordinates as (x,y,z,w)The
homogeneous coordinate www allows for efficient representation of transformations such as
translation and perspective projection, which cannot be expressed using Cartesian coordinates
alone.

Transformation Matrices:

1. Scaling:
Scaling changes the size of an object. The scaling matrix for 3D space is:
For example, scaling a point (x,y,z) by a factor of 2 in all axes results in (2x,2y,2z)

2. Translation:
Translation shifts an object’s position in space. The translation matrix is:

For example, translating a point (x,y,z) by (tx,ty,tz) results in (x+tx, y+ty, z+tz).

3. Rotation:
Rotation in 3D space is done around one of the principal axes (x, y, or z). For example, a
rotation around the z-axis by an angle θ\thetaθ is given by:

R_z = \begin{bmatrix} \cos\theta & -\sin\theta & 0 & 0 \\ \sin\theta & \cos\theta & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 &
1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} This rotates the point around the z-axis by \( \theta \).

4. Shear:
Shear in 3D space distorts an object along one or more axes. The shear matrix for shearing
along the x-axis by a factor of kkk is:

H = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & k & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}
Shearing a point \( (x, y, z) \) by \( k \) results in \( (x + ky, y, z) \).

5. Reflection:
Reflection in 3D space flips an object across a plane. The reflection matrix across the xy-plane
is:

M = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & -1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}
Reflecting a point \( (x, y, z) \) across the xy-plane results in \( (x, y, -z) \).

Q33: Given a point R(2,2,4) in 3D space and a perspective projection plane located at z = 3,
calculate the coordinates of the projected point R' on the projection plane using a simple
perspective projection formula.

Answer:
In perspective projection, the formula for projecting a point R(x,y,z) onto a plane located at z=dz is
given by the following equations:
Where (x′,y′) are the coordinates of the projected point, and zzz is the original z-coordinate of the
point.

Given the point R(2,2,4) and the projection plane at z=3z, we can apply the formula:

Thus, the coordinates of the projected point R′ are (1.5, 1.5).

Q34: Apply a shear transformation to a square with vertices (1,1,1), (1,2,1), (2,2,1), and (2,1,1)
such that it is sheared along the x-axis by a factor of 2. Calculate the new coordinates of the
square's vertices.

Answer:
The shear matrix for shearing along the x-axis by a factor of 2 is:

We apply this shear matrix to each vertex of the square.

Thus, the new coordinates of the square's vertices after the shear transformation are (3, 1, 1), (5, 2,
1), (6, 2, 1), and (4, 1, 1).
Q35: Discuss the differences between parallel projection and perspective projection in 3D graphics.
Explain when and why each type of projection is used, and provide practical examples where one
would be preferred over the other.

Answer:

 Parallel Projection: In parallel projection, parallel lines in 3D space remain parallel in the 2D
projection. This projection preserves the shape and size of objects but does not convey
depth or distance. The object appears the same size regardless of its position relative to the
observer.

o Use case: Parallel projection is commonly used in engineering and architectural

drawings, where accurate dimensions and measurements are necessary. For
example, blueprints for buildings or machines are drawn using parallel projection.

 Perspective Projection: Perspective projection simulates the way objects appear smaller as
they move farther from the observer. Parallel lines converge at a vanishing point, creating a
more realistic representation of depth.

o Use case: Perspective projection is used in most 3D graphics applications, such as

video games, simulations, and movies, where realistic depth and visual appeal are
important. It helps create the illusion of distance and volume in a scene.

Practical Example: In a video game, perspective projection is used to make objects appear to scale
correctly with distance, creating a realistic sense of depth. On the other hand, in a CAD application,
parallel projection would be used to maintain accurate proportions and measurements of objects.

Q36: Given a cube with vertices A(1,1,1) and B(2,2,2), apply a uniform scaling transformation with
a scale factor of 2 along all three axes (x, y, and z). Find the coordinates of the transformed cube's
vertices.

Answer:
The scaling transformation matrix with a uniform scale factor of 2 along all axes is:

Thus, the coordinates of the transformed cube's vertices are (2, 2, 2) and (4, 4, 4). Other vertices of
the cube, if calculated similarly, will also follow the same scaling rule.
 UNIT 4

Q1: In a 2D viewing transformation, if a point P(4, 3) is transformed using the scaling factor of 2 in
the x-direction and 3 in the y-direction, what will be the coordinates of the transformed point?

 A) (8, 9)

 B) (6, 9)

 C) (8, 6)

 D) (6, 6)

Answer:
Scaling the point P(4,3)P(4, 3)P(4,3) by a factor of 2 along the x-axis and 3 along the y-axis gives new
coordinates:

(4×2,3×3)=(8,9)(4 \times 2, 3 \times 3) = (8, 9)(4×2,3×3)=(8,9)

Correct answer: A) (8, 9)

Q2: Given a rectangular clipping window with corners (2, 2) and (8, 6), determine whether the point
(5, 4) is inside or outside the clipping window.

 A) Inside

 B) Outside

Answer:
The clipping window has x-coordinates between 2 and 8, and y-coordinates between 2 and 6. Since
555 is within [2,8][2, 8][2,8] and 444 is within [2,6][2, 6][2,6], the point (5,4)(5, 4)(5,4) lies inside the
clipping window.
Correct answer: A) Inside

Q3: In a seed fill algorithm, if you start the fill operation from the seed point (3, 3) and the fill color is
red, what will be the final color of the region enclosed by the seed point?

 A) Red
  B) Blue

 C) Green

 D) White

Answer:
In a seed fill algorithm, the area around the seed point is filled with the chosen color, which in this
case is red.
Correct answer: A) Red

Q4: What is the "Inside-Outside Test" in the context of clipping? How is it used?

Answer:
The "Inside-Outside Test" is used in clipping to determine whether a point, line, or polygon lies inside
or outside a clipping region. The test is typically based on the orientation of the point relative to the
clipping window or region. If the point is inside the window, it is considered valid for rendering; if it is
outside, it is discarded or clipped.
For polygons, algorithms like the "even-odd rule" or the "winding number rule" are used to
determine if a point is inside or outside.

Q5: Which of the following is not a type of 2D clipping?

 a) Point Clipping

 b) Line Clipping

 c) Image Clipping

 d) Polygon Clipping

Answer:
Image clipping is not a type of 2D clipping used for geometric shapes.
Correct answer: c) Image Clipping

Q6: What is the primary goal of Point Clipping?

 a) To remove invisible points

 b) To resize points

 c) To connect points

 d) To color points

Answer:
Point clipping removes points that lie outside the clipping window. It is primarily used to determine
whether a point should be rendered or not based on its position relative to the clipping region.
Correct answer: a) To remove invisible points
Q7: Which algorithm is used to fill the interior of a polygon?

 a) Point Clipping

 b) Seed Fill Algorithm

 c) Line Clipping

 d) Scan-Line Algorithm

Answer:
The Scan-Line Algorithm is commonly used for filling the interior of polygons. It works by processing
the polygon row by row and filling pixels within the edges of the polygon.
Correct answer: d) Scan-Line Algorithm

Q8: Provide an example of a real-world application where clipping and scan-conversion techniques
are crucial in computer graphics.

Answer:
In computer-aided design (CAD) systems, clipping and scan-conversion techniques are essential for
rendering and displaying objects within a viewport or window. They are used to display only the
parts of objects that fall within the visible area of the screen, improving performance and ensuring
that only relevant parts of objects are shown to the user.

Q9: What is the purpose of the Seed Fill Algorithm?

 a) To remove points from a polygon

 b) To determine the winding number of a polygon

 c) To fill the interior of a polygon

 d) To clip lines in a polygon

Answer:
The Seed Fill Algorithm is used to fill the interior of a polygon or area with a specified color, starting
from a seed point inside the region.
Correct answer: c) To fill the interior of a polygon

Q10: Which algorithm is used for scan-converting solid areas?

 a) Line Clipping

 b) Seed Fill Algorithm

 c) Scan-Line Algorithm

 d) Polygon Clipping

Answer:
The Scan-Line Algorithm is used to scan-convert solid areas, filling in the interior of polygons by
processing one scanline at a time.
Correct answer: c) Scan-Line Algorithm

Q11: What does the Winding Number Method determine for a point inside a polygon?

 a) The point's distance from the polygon

 b) The total number of times the polygon's boundary is traversed

 c) The color of the point

 d) The rotation of the point

Answer:
The Winding Number Method determines whether a point is inside or outside a polygon based on
how many times the polygon's boundary winds around the point. If the number is odd, the point is
inside; if even, it is outside.
Correct answer: b) The total number of times the polygon's boundary is traversed

Q12: Differentiate between point clipping and line clipping techniques.

Answer:
Point clipping is the process of determining whether individual points lie inside or outside a clipping
region, and discarding points outside. Line clipping, on the other hand, involves checking the position
of the endpoints of a line segment and, if necessary, modifying the line segment to fit within the
clipping window.

Q13: Explain the concept of clipping in computer graphics and why it is essential.

Answer:
Clipping in computer graphics is the process of removing or modifying parts of objects that lie
outside a specified viewing region or window. It is essential because it improves rendering efficiency
by ensuring that only the visible parts of objects are processed and displayed.

Q14: What is the primary purpose of viewing transformations in two dimensions?

Answer:
The primary purpose of viewing transformations in 2D is to transform the coordinate system such
that objects are displayed within a specific window or viewport, allowing for the efficient
representation of the scene on a screen. It involves scaling, translating, or rotating the scene to
match the user's perspective.

Q15: Describe the "Winding Number Method" and its role in polygon clipping.

Answer:
The Winding Number Method is used to determine if a point lies inside a polygon based on how
many times the polygon’s boundary winds around the point. If the number of winds is odd, the point
is inside; if even, the point is outside. This method is often used in clipping algorithms to decide if a
point should be included in the clipped region.

Q16: Discuss the basic idea behind the Seed Fill Algorithm for polygon filling.

Answer:
The Seed Fill Algorithm starts at a given seed point inside a polygon and fills the interior of the
polygon with a specified color. It works by recursively or iteratively examining neighboring pixels and
filling the interior area until it reaches the boundary.

Q17: Describe the process of line clipping.

Answer:
Line clipping involves checking if the endpoints of a line segment lie inside a clipping window. If the
line is partially outside, the algorithm computes the intersection points of the line with the clipping
window and adjusts the line to fit within the window. Algorithms like the Liang-Barsky or Cohen-
Sutherland are commonly used for line clipping.

Q18: Explain the concept of solid area scan-conversion. How is it different from traditional scan-
conversion techniques?

Answer:
Solid area scan-conversion refers to filling an area enclosed by a boundary, such as a polygon, with a
color or pattern. It differs from traditional scan-conversion techniques, which typically focus on
drawing the edges of objects. Solid area scan-conversion ensures the entire area within the boundary
is filled.

Q19: What is scan-conversion, and why is it important in computer graphics?

Answer:
Scan-conversion is the process of converting geometric shapes (such as lines, circles, and polygons)
from their mathematical representation into pixel-based representations on a raster display. It is
important because it allows for the display of geometric objects on a screen, converting abstract
shapes into visual representations.

Q20: What are the key steps involved in solid area scan-conversion?

Answer:
The key steps in solid area scan-conversion include:

1. Identifying the boundary of the shape.

2. Determining the interior pixels or areas inside the boundary.

3. Filling the interior with a specified color or pattern.

 4. Rendering the filled area on the screen.

Q21: Create a 10x10 grid where each cell is either black or white. Starting from a seed point (5, 5),
use the seed fill algorithm to fill all contiguous white cells with a different color.

Answer:
To simulate the Seed Fill Algorithm:

1. Initialize a 10x10 grid, where each cell is either black or white. Let’s assume the grid has a
mix of black and white cells.

2. Set the seed point at (5, 5).

3. The algorithm will then fill all contiguous white cells starting from the seed point (5, 5). This
includes checking neighboring cells and filling them recursively or iteratively.

4. The fill will continue until there are no more adjacent white cells to fill. The filled cells will be
changed to a different color (e.g., red).

A simple pseudocode of the Seed Fill Algorithm would be:

scss

SeedFill(x, y):

if (x, y) is within grid bounds and cell (x, y) is white:

set cell (x, y) to new color (e.g., red)

SeedFill(x + 1, y)

SeedFill(x - 1, y)

SeedFill(x, y + 1)

SeedFill(x, y - 1)

Q22: Discuss the Weiler-Atherton polygon clipping algorithm. What are the key steps in this
algorithm, and how does it handle complex polygons?

Answer:
The Weiler-Atherton algorithm is a polygon clipping algorithm used to clip a polygon against a
clipping region (typically another polygon or rectangle). The key steps are:

1. Identify Intersection Points: Find all intersection points between the clipping window and
the polygon edges.

2. Segment Division: Divide the polygon's edges into segments at the intersection points.

3. Traverse Edges: Traverse the edges of the polygon while ensuring that the boundary of the
clipped polygon is formed by connecting the intersection points and polygon vertices.
 4. Handle Complexities: The algorithm can handle complex polygons with holes and concave
shapes by considering both interior and exterior boundaries.

This algorithm is efficient and works with complex polygons because it divides the polygon into
smaller parts, making the clipping more manageable.

Q23: Explain the Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm. Provide the steps involved and discuss its
advantages and limitations.

Answer:
The Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm is used to clip a line segment against a rectangular
clipping window. It uses the concept of region codes for each endpoint to determine if the line
segment lies inside or outside the clipping window.

Steps involved:

1. Assign Region Codes: For each endpoint of the line, assign a region code based on its
position relative to the clipping window. The codes are formed using 4 bits (top, bottom, left,
right).

2. Check Trivial Cases: If both endpoints have region codes of 0000 (inside the window), the
line is completely inside, and no clipping is needed.

3. Clip the Line: If the line’s endpoints have region codes indicating they are outside the
window, perform intersection tests with the clipping window edges to find the clipped line
segment.

4. Repeat: Continue the process until a clipped line is found or the line is discarded.

Advantages:

 Simple and efficient for clipping lines against rectangular windows.

 Works in real-time applications with easy computation.

Limitations:

 Inefficient for non-rectangular clipping windows.

 Can lead to poor performance with lines that require many intersection calculations.

Q24: Given a circle with center at (0, 0) and radius 3 units, determine if the point (2, 2) is inside or
outside the circle using the inside-outside test.

Answer:
To determine if the point (2,2) is inside or outside the circle with center at (0,0) and radius 3, we use
the equation for a circle:
 .

Q25: Describe the scan-line algorithm for polygon filling. How does it work, and what are its
advantages compared to other filling algorithms?

Answer:
The Scan-Line Algorithm for polygon filling works by processing one scanline (horizontal line) at a
time, determining the intersections of the polygon edges with the scanline, and then filling the
region between the intersections.

Steps:

1. Sort Edges: Sort the polygon’s edges by their y-coordinates.

2. Determine Intersections: For each scanline, find the intersection points with the edges of
the polygon.

3. Fill the Area: Once the intersections are found, fill the pixels between the intersections.

Advantages:

 It works efficiently for polygons with horizontal edges and regular shapes.

 It is computationally less expensive than other algorithms like flood-fill for large polygons.

Disadvantages:

 It can be less efficient for polygons with many edges and irregular shapes, requiring more
intersection calculations.

Q26: Given a rectangular clipping window with corners at (1, 1) and (5, 4), determine if the point (3,
2) is inside or outside the window.

Answer:

Q27: Given a line segment from (2, 1) to (6, 5) and a rectangular clipping window with corners at (3,
2) and (5, 4), perform Cohen-Sutherland line clipping to find the clipped line segment.
Answer:
For the given line segment from (2,1) to (6,5) and the clipping window with corners at (3,2) and (5,4)
the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm involves:

1. Assign Region Codes: Assign region codes to both endpoints:

o For point (2,1) The region code is 1001 (below and left).

o For point (6,5): The region code is 0110 (right and above).

2. Check for Trivial Acceptance/Reject: Since the region codes are non-zero, they are outside
the clipping window.

3. Clip the Line: Calculate the intersection of the line with the clipping window edges. After
performing intersection calculations, the clipped line will be from (3,2.5)to (5,4) (based on
where the line intersects the window).

Q28: Describe the concept of point clipping. How does it differ from other types of clipping
algorithms?

Answer:
Point clipping is a technique used to determine whether a point lies within a specified clipping
region. If the point lies inside the region, it is kept; if it lies outside, it is discarded.

Differences from other clipping algorithms:

 Line Clipping: Point clipping only checks individual points, whereas line clipping handles
entire line segments.

 Polygon Clipping: Point clipping does not handle shapes with more than one point, while
polygon clipping deals with entire polygonal shapes.

Q29: Explain the purpose of the viewing transformation in two-dimensional graphics. Provide an
example of a situation where it is used.

Answer:
The purpose of the viewing transformation is to map a 2D scene from world coordinates to view
coordinates, adjusting the scene to fit within the viewport (the area of the screen where it will be
displayed). This transformation typically involves scaling, translation, and sometimes rotation.

Example:
In a CAD system, when designing a building, the user might want to zoom in on a section of the
blueprint. The viewing transformation allows the user to move and scale the scene to fit within the
viewport.

Q30: Discuss the concept of polygon filling in computer graphics. What are some common algorithms
used for this purpose?
Answer:
Polygon filling is the process of filling the interior of a polygon with a color or pattern. Common
algorithms include:

1. Scan-Line Algorithm: Fills the polygon by processing one scanline at a time and determining
the intersections with the polygon’s edges.

2. Seed Fill Algorithm: Fills the interior starting from a seed point and propagates outward,
filling all contiguous interior cells.

3. Flood Fill Algorithm: Similar to seed fill, but it may work with both interior and exterior
areas.

Each algorithm has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice depends on the polygon's
complexity and the required efficiency.

Q31: Calculate the new coordinates (x', y') after applying a translation transformation to point (2, 3)
by (-1, 4).

Answer:
The translation transformation is performed by adding the translation vector components to the
original coordinates. The translation vector in this case is (-1, 4), so the new coordinates are
calculated as follows:

So, the new coordinates after applying the translation are (1, 7).

Q32: Apply the Scan-Line Algorithm to fill a polygon defined by vertices (2, 2), (5, 2), (4, 4), and (3, 6)
with a color gradient. Specify the colors for each scanline.

Answer:
The Scan-Line Algorithm for polygon filling works by processing one horizontal scanline at a time,
finding the intersections of the polygon edges with the scanline, and filling between these
intersections.

1. Vertices: (2, 2), (5, 2), (4, 4), (3, 6)

2. Sort by Y-coordinate:
Sorted vertices by Y-coordinate: (2, 2), (5, 2), (4, 4), (3, 6)

3. Scanline filling:

o Scanline at y = 2:
Intersection points are (2, 2) and (5, 2), forming a horizontal line from (2, 2) to (5, 2).
The color for this scanline could be the starting color in the gradient (e.g., #FF0000).
 o Scanline at y = 3:
The polygon edges intersect at (3, 3) and (4, 3). These points represent the
intersection points at y = 3, so the scanline from (3, 3) to (4, 3) is filled. The color for
this scanline could be the next color in the gradient (e.g., #FF4000).

o Scanline at y = 4:
The intersection points for y = 4 are (4, 4). This is a single point, so no filling happens
on this scanline.

o Scanline at y = 5:
The polygon edges intersect at (3, 5) and (4, 5), with the fill color transitioning along
the gradient (e.g., #FF8000).

o Scanline at y = 6:
The intersection points are (3, 6) and (5, 6), and the final fill color might be
something like #FFFF00.

Each scanline's color gradually changes based on the gradient defined for the polygon. The gradient
colors can be determined based on specific properties of the polygon, such as its area or height.

Q33: Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of the seed fill algorithm and the
scan-line algorithm for polygon filling.

Answer:
Seed Fill Algorithm:

 Advantages:

o Simple to implement, especially for polygons with irregular shapes.

o Works well for closed shapes with well-defined interiors.

o Ideal for areas with uneven shapes and complex boundaries.

 Disadvantages:

o Can be slow for large polygons, especially if the region to fill is very large.

o Can result in inefficiency when dealing with large empty regions within a shape.

o May have problems with filling areas when there are small gaps or holes in the
polygon.

Scan-Line Algorithm:

 Advantages:

o Efficient for polygons with horizontal edges or polygons where the filling can be
broken into scanlines.

o Suitable for real-time applications, such as computer graphics rendering.

o Can handle both concave and convex polygons easily.

 Disadvantages:
 o Can be complex to implement, especially for polygons with curves or non-horizontal
edges.

o Less efficient for irregular polygons compared to the seed fill algorithm, especially
when dealing with complex boundary shapes.

o Handling of intersections and edge cases may require more computational effort.

Comparison:

 Seed Fill is better for irregular shapes and is often simpler to implement. However, it is less
efficient when the filling area is large or sparse.

 Scan-Line is more efficient for polygons with many horizontal edges and well-defined
boundaries, but it requires more complex handling of intersections and edge cases.

Q34: Discuss the importance of clipping in computer graphics. Explain the challenges and techniques
involved in two-dimensional clipping.

Answer:
Clipping is important in computer graphics because it helps to limit the rendering of objects or
portions of objects that lie outside the visible area or the viewing window. Without clipping,
rendering unnecessary portions would waste computational resources, leading to inefficiency and
reduced performance.

Challenges:

 Handling of different shapes: Clipping algorithms need to work with a variety of geometric
shapes, such as points, lines, and polygons.

 Precision issues: In floating-point arithmetic, there can be errors in clipping calculations,

leading to incorrect or missed clipping.

 Complexity of algorithms: Implementing algorithms like the Weiler-Atherton for polygon

clipping or Cohen-Sutherland for line clipping can be complex and require handling edge
cases.

Techniques:

 Point Clipping: Involves determining if a point is inside or outside the clipping region.

 Line Clipping: Techniques such as Cohen-Sutherland or Liang-Barsky are used to clip lines
against a clipping window.

 Polygon Clipping: Algorithms like Sutherland-Hodgman or Weiler-Atherton are used for

clipping polygons.

 Clipping against non-rectangular windows: For general polygon clipping, more complex
algorithms like the Weiler-Atherton are used.

Q35: Elaborate on the concept of line clipping. Compare and contrast Cohen-Sutherland and Liang-
Barsky line clipping algorithms.
Answer:
Line clipping involves determining which portions of a line segment lie inside a clipping window. This
is essential to ensure that only the visible parts of objects are rendered.

Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm:

 Method: The Cohen-Sutherland algorithm uses region codes to categorize the position of the
endpoints of a line segment relative to the clipping window. Based on the region codes, the
algorithm decides if a line should be discarded, trivially accepted, or clipped.

 Advantages: Easy to implement, suitable for rectangular clipping regions.

 Disadvantages: Less efficient for non-rectangular clipping windows, especially when handling
complex intersections.

Liang-Barsky Algorithm:

 Method: The Liang-Barsky algorithm uses parametric line equations and evaluates them
against the clipping window. The algorithm calculates where the line intersects the clipping
window boundaries and clips the line accordingly.

 Advantages: More efficient than Cohen-Sutherland for certain types of clipping because it
avoids testing regions that don’t intersect the window.

 Disadvantages: More complex to implement than Cohen-Sutherland, and may require more
computation for lines with many intersection points.

Q36: Discuss the process of polygon filling in computer graphics. Explain the seed fill algorithm and
its advantages and limitations.

Answer:
Polygon filling refers to the process of filling the interior of a polygon with a color or pattern. This is a
critical step in rendering 2D objects in computer graphics.

Seed Fill Algorithm:

 Process: The seed fill algorithm starts from a seed point inside the polygon and propagates
outward, filling contiguous areas of the polygon's interior. It works by checking neighboring
pixels and filling them with the desired color until all connected empty regions are filled.

 Advantages:

o Simple and easy to implement, especially for irregular and complex shapes.

o Ideal for filling polygons where the interior region can be easily defined.

 Limitations:

o Can be slow for large or sparse regions.

o May result in inefficiency if the polygon has holes or large empty spaces inside, as
the algorithm might have to process many pixels.

o Not ideal for polygons with complex boundaries (e.g., concave polygons with many
twists and turns).
Other algorithms for polygon filling, like the scan-line algorithm, might be more efficient for polygons
with well-defined boundaries, especially when dealing with polygons that have horizontal edges or a
consistent filling area.

UNIT 5

Q1: What is the process of smoothly transitioning between two images or shapes called in
animation?
Answer:
b) Morphing

Q2: In 3D computer graphics, what does "back face culling" refer to?
Answer:
b) Removing surfaces that are facing away from the camera

Q3: Differentiate between conic curves and parametric curves, providing examples of each.
Answer:

 Conic curves are curves defined by second-degree equations like ellipses, parabolas, and
hyperbolas (e.g., ax2+by2+cxy+dx+ey+f=0ax^2 + by^2 + cxy + dx + ey + f =
0ax2+by2+cxy+dx+ey+f=0).

 Parametric curves are defined by one or more parameters, like Bézier curves, where both
xxx and yyy are expressed as functions of a parameter (e.g., x(t)=2tx(t) = 2tx(t)=2t, y(t)=3ty(t)
= 3ty(t)=3t).

Q4: What is the key difference between Key-Frame Animation and Procedural Animation?
Answer:
d) Key-Frame Animation does not involve interpolation, whereas Procedural Animation does.
Q5: Explain the concept of coherence as it relates to visibility algorithms.
Answer:
Coherence in visibility algorithms refers to the property where spatially nearby elements are more
likely to be visible together. This concept is used to optimize algorithms by processing related
elements at once, improving performance in rendering and visibility determination.

Q6: Which algorithm is used to determine the depth order of objects in a 3D scene and is commonly
used in real-time rendering?
Answer:
d) Z-Buffer Algorithm

Q7: No Question Provided

Q8: Which algorithm is used to eliminate the faces of 3D objects that are not visible to the viewer?
Answer:
a) Back Face Culling

Q9: Which type of continuity ensures that a curve has no sudden jumps in its derivatives?
Answer:
b) C1 continuity

Q10: Fractals find applications in various fields. Which one of the following is NOT a typical
application of fractals?
Answer:
c) Weather forecasting

Q11: Describe the steps involved in constructing an animation sequence.

Answer:
The key steps in constructing an animation sequence are:

1. Conceptualization: Defining the animation's purpose and flow.

2. Storyboard/Key Frames: Creating key frames to represent the critical points of the
animation.

3. In-betweening: Generating intermediate frames to create smooth transitions.

4. Rendering: Rendering the animation frames with appropriate effects.

5. Post-production: Adding sound, color correction, and final adjustments.

Q12: In animation, what is the term for a key frame that defines the starting or ending point of an
animation sequence?
Answer:
d) Key frame

Q13: Explain the fundamental principles of Bezier curves and provide an example of their application.
Answer:
Bezier curves are parametric curves defined by control points, often used in graphics for drawing
smooth curves. The simplest Bezier curve is a quadratic Bezier curve, defined by three control points,
where the curve is interpolated between these points. An example application is in graphic design
software to create smooth paths.

Q14: Describe the significance of visible and hidden surfaces in 3D graphics rendering.
Answer:
In 3D graphics rendering, visible surfaces are those that are seen by the camera, while hidden
surfaces are blocked from view by other objects. Properly handling visible and hidden surfaces
ensures accurate rendering, as hidden surfaces are not rendered, improving performance and visual
correctness.

Q15: Procedural animation is often used for which type of animations?

Answer:
a) Character animations

Q16: Which algorithm is used for hidden surface removal by sorting polygons based on their distance
from the viewer?
Answer:
b) Painter's Algorithm

Q17: What is back face culling, and how does it help in improving rendering efficiency?
Answer:
Back face culling is a technique used in 3D graphics where surfaces of objects that are facing away
from the camera are not rendered. This improves rendering efficiency by eliminating unnecessary
computation for parts of objects that are not visible to the viewer.

Q18: Briefly outline the Painter's Algorithm and its limitations in handling complex scenes.
Answer:
The Painter's Algorithm sorts objects in a 3D scene by their depth and renders them from farthest to
nearest, like a painter layering paint. Its limitation is that it fails in handling cases where objects
intersect or overlap in complex ways, causing incorrect rendering.
Q19: Explain the Z-Buffer Algorithm and its advantages over other depth sorting methods.
Answer:
The Z-Buffer Algorithm stores depth information for each pixel to determine whether an object is in
front of or behind another. It ensures that only the closest object to the camera is visible, offering an
efficient method for handling visibility and hidden surfaces in 3D rendering.

Q20: Define key-frame animation and discuss its role in creating smooth animations.
Answer:
Key-frame animation is a technique where the animator defines the key frames (important positions)
in an animation sequence, and the intermediate frames are generated using interpolation. This helps
in creating smooth and continuous transitions between key frames, reducing the manual effort
required in animation creation.

Q21: Explain the Painter's Algorithm for hidden surface removal. What are its advantages and
limitations in comparison to other algorithms?
Answer:
The Painter's Algorithm is a technique used to remove hidden surfaces in 3D graphics by sorting all
objects in a scene based on their depth from the camera and then rendering them from the farthest
to the nearest. This algorithm works like a painter layering paint: it paints the objects that are
farthest away first and then covers them with closer objects.

 Advantages: Simple to implement and easy to understand.

 Limitations:

o It fails in handling intersecting or overlapping objects properly, as the sorting may

not always work in complex scenes.

o Performance degrades with a large number of objects because it requires sorting,

which can be computationally expensive.

Q22: Discuss the Z-buffer algorithm for hidden surface removal. How does it work, and what are its
computational requirements?
Answer:
The Z-buffer algorithm is a depth-buffering technique used in 3D graphics for hidden surface
removal. It works by storing the depth value (z-coordinate) of each pixel in a "Z-buffer." During
rendering, for each pixel, the algorithm compares the depth of the current fragment (or pixel) with
the value in the Z-buffer:

 If the fragment is closer to the camera, it replaces the previous pixel value.

 If the fragment is farther, it is discarded.

 Computational Requirements: It requires storing a depth value for every pixel in the image,
which can be memory-intensive. The algorithm runs in real-time and is very efficient for most
3D scenes, but its memory usage scales with the resolution of the image.
Q23: Compare and contrast Bezier curves and B-spline curves in terms of their mathematical
representation and practical applications.
Answer:

 Bezier Curves:

o Mathematical Representation: Defined by a set of control points, usually 2 or 3

points, with the curve interpolating between these points. A commonly used form is
the quadratic or cubic Bézier curve.

o Applications: Widely used in graphic design and computer animation, such as for
defining paths, shapes, and motion.

o Limitation: With more than two control points, it can become difficult to control the
shape of the curve.

 B-spline Curves:

o Mathematical Representation: B-splines (Basis splines) are defined by a set of

control points and a knot vector. They provide more flexibility and continuity options
compared to Bézier curves.

o Applications: Used in CAD software, surface modeling, and when more control over
the shape of a curve is needed.

o Advantage: B-splines offer smoothness and allow for piecewise control with better
handling of complex curves.

Q24: Describe the concept of back face culling in computer graphics. How does it help in reducing
unnecessary rendering computations?
Answer:
Back face culling is a technique used in 3D rendering to remove faces of objects that are not visible
to the camera. In most cases, surfaces facing away from the camera (the "back faces") are not visible
and therefore do not need to be rendered.

 How it Helps: By identifying and discarding back faces before rendering, the algorithm
reduces the number of polygons processed, improving rendering performance.

 Process: Each polygon's normal vector is compared with the camera's viewing direction. If
the dot product is negative (indicating the face is facing away from the camera), it is culled
(removed from the rendering pipeline).

Q25: Compare and contrast key-frame animation and procedural animation. In what scenarios is one
approach preferred over the other, and why?
Answer:

 Key-Frame Animation:
 o Defined by keyframes that mark critical points in an animation (e.g., the start and
end positions of an object). Interpolation is used to generate intermediate frames.

o Preferred When: High-level control over motion is needed, such as for character
animation and detailed movement.

o Limitations: Requires manual creation of keyframes for every action.

 Procedural Animation:

o Animation is generated based on mathematical formulas and parameters, often in

real-time.

o Preferred When: Complex behaviors, like natural movements (wind, water flow),
need to be simulated dynamically without predefined frames.

o Limitations: Less control over specific actions or expressions, and can be

computationally expensive in complex scenarios.

Q26: Discuss the importance of extents and bounding volumes in the context of hidden surface
removal. Provide examples of bounding volume types and their applications.
Answer:
Extents and bounding volumes are used in computer graphics to simplify the process of hidden
surface removal by creating simplified shapes (volumes) around objects. This allows for quick tests to
determine if two objects might intersect or if an object is visible in the camera view, thus reducing
the number of calculations required.

 Bounding Volume Types:

o Axis-Aligned Bounding Boxes (AABB): Simple, rectangular boxes aligned with the
coordinate axes. Often used for simple intersection tests.

o Bounding Spheres: Spheres surrounding objects, used to quickly detect if objects

might intersect.

o Bounding Capsules: Used for more complex objects like character models.

 Applications: These volumes are used in collision detection, level-of-detail rendering, and
visibility testing.

Q27: Describe the characteristics and applications of conic curves in computer graphics. Provide
examples of conic curves commonly used in design.
Answer:
Conic curves are curves defined by second-degree equations, such as ellipses, parabolas, and
hyperbolas. These curves are essential in geometry and graphics due to their smooth properties and
mathematical simplicity.

 Applications:

o Ellipses: Used in design for shapes like ovals and orbits in simulations.

o Parabolas: Often seen in trajectory calculations, such as the path of projectiles.

 o Hyperbolas: Commonly used in radar and antenna design.

 Characteristics: These curves have well-defined properties that make them easy to
manipulate in various design and graphical contexts.

Q28: Explain the concept of Bezier curves. How are they defined, and what are their key properties in
curve design?
Answer:
Bézier curves are parametric curves that are defined by a set of control points. The simplest Bézier
curve is quadratic (3 points), and the most common is cubic (4 points).

 How They Are Defined: A Bézier curve is mathematically defined using Bernstein
polynomials, with the curve interpolating between the control points. The curve's shape is
influenced by the position of the control points.

 Key Properties:

o The curve always passes through the first and last control points.

o The shape of the curve is controlled by the middle control points.

o They are easy to compute and can be scaled, rotated, and translated efficiently.

Q29: Introduce the concept of morphing in animation. How does three-dimensional morphing differ
from two-dimensional morphing, and what are the challenges associated with it?
Answer:
Morphing is a technique used in animation to smoothly transition from one image or shape to
another, creating the appearance of transformation.

 2D Morphing: Involves the smooth transformation of two-dimensional shapes or images by

interpolating between them. It is relatively easier because both images exist in the same
plane.

 3D Morphing: Involves transitioning between 3D models or objects. This is more complex

because it requires interpolating between not just the shape but also the 3D coordinates,
texture maps, and lighting.

 Challenges: Handling different mesh topologies, maintaining consistency in geometry and

texture, and computational complexity are key challenges in 3D morphing.

Q30: Explain the concept of motion control methods in animation. How do they contribute to the
realism of animated movements?
Answer:
Motion control methods refer to the techniques used to simulate realistic movement in animation,
such as key-frame interpolation, procedural motion, and physics-based simulations.

 These methods help achieve smooth, fluid movements and ensure that the motion looks
natural.
  Key-Frame Interpolation ensures that intermediate frames between key frames create
realistic transitions.

 Physics-Based Simulations model forces like gravity and inertia to generate lifelike
movement (e.g., in character animation).

 These methods contribute to realism by ensuring motions are consistent with physical laws
or real-world behaviors.

Q31: Differentiate between key-frame animation and procedural animation. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each approach? Provide an example of an animation scenario
where one method would be more suitable than the other.
Answer:
Key-Frame Animation:

 Definition: In key-frame animation, the animator defines specific keyframes at key points in
the animation timeline (e.g., start and end points), and the intermediate frames are
generated automatically through interpolation.

 Advantages:

o Provides precise control over the animation.

o Easy to create for simple movements.

o Good for animations where the start and end points are clearly defined (e.g.,
character walking).

 Disadvantages:

o Requires manual definition of keyframes, which can be time-consuming.

o May not be suited for complex or dynamic movements.

o Can be rigid if more natural, unpredictable movements are needed.

Procedural Animation:

 Definition: Procedural animation uses algorithms or mathematical functions to generate

movements or changes over time, typically in real-time.

 Advantages:

o Generates dynamic and natural movements (e.g., fluid simulation, crowd behavior).

o Less manual intervention required.

o Ideal for generating real-time animations like weather effects or physics-based

movement.

 Disadvantages:

o Less control over specific outcomes compared to key-frame animation.

o May be computationally expensive or difficult to implement for complex scenarios.

Example:

 Key-Frame Animation is more suitable for character animation, where precise control over
movement is required (e.g., a character’s facial expression).

 Procedural Animation is ideal for real-time applications like generating realistic water
simulation or particle effects in games.

Q32: Compare and contrast conic curves with parametric curves. Provide examples of real-world
applications for both types of curves.
Answer:

 Conic Curves:

o Definition: Conic curves are curves defined by second-degree equations, including

circles, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas.

o Mathematical Representation: Conic curves are described by equations like

Ax2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0Ax^2 + Bxy + Cy^2 + Dx + Ey + F =
0Ax2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0.

o Examples:

 Circle: Used in wheel designs, orbits, and camera lenses.

 Parabola: Used for projectile motion and satellite dish design.

 Hyperbola: Used in hyperbolic navigation systems.

o Applications: Conic curves are widely used in design (such as architecture and
vehicle design), physics (trajectory calculations), and engineering (optics and radio
waves).

 Parametric Curves:

o Definition: Parametric curves are defined by a set of equations that describe the x
and y coordinates as functions of a parameter ttt (e.g., x(t),y(t)x(t), y(t)x(t),y(t)).

o Mathematical Representation: Example: a circle can be parametrized as

x(t)=rcos⁡(t)x(t) = r \cos(t)x(t)=rcos(t) and y(t)=rsin⁡(t)y(t) = r \sin(t)y(t)=rsin(t).

o Examples:

 Bezier Curves: Used in vector graphic design and animations.

 B-spline Curves: Common in CAD software for designing smooth and flexible
shapes.

o Applications: Parametric curves are used in animation, 3D modeling, CAD software,

and motion graphics, where smooth transitions and flexible shapes are needed.

Q33: Given four control points for a cubic Bezier curve: P0(1, 1), P1(2, 3), P2(4, 6), P3(7, 8), calculate
the position of the curve at t = 0.5 using the Bezier curve formula.
Answer:
The cubic Bézier curve formula is

Q34: Explain how animation can be employed in data visualization. What are the considerations
when animating data to convey complex information?
Answer:
Animation in Data Visualization:

 Animation can be used to represent changes in data over time, allowing viewers to observe
trends, fluctuations, or comparisons dynamically. It enhances the understanding of complex
data sets by adding a temporal dimension, helping to visualize patterns and relationships
that may not be apparent in static charts.

 Considerations:

o Clarity: The animation should enhance understanding without overwhelming or

distracting the viewer. The speed and smoothness of transitions are crucial.

o Purpose: The animation should have a clear purpose, such as showing trends over
time or highlighting significant events.

o Legibility: Labels, axes, and data points should remain visible and clear during the
animation.

o Avoiding Overload: Too much information in an animation can confuse the viewer,
so it's important to focus on key aspects of the data.

o Interactivity: Providing users with the ability to pause, slow down, or interact with
the animation can make the data exploration process more engaging and
informative.

Q35: You are creating a morphing animation between two 3D models, Model A and Model B. Model
A has 1000 vertices, and Model B has 1200 vertices. If it takes 5 milliseconds to compute the position
of each vertex during morphing for both models, how long will the entire morphing animation take to
compute in seconds?
Answer:
To compute the time required for the morphing animation, we need to calculate the total number of
vertices involved in the morphing process and the time per vertex.

 Total vertices: Since the morphing involves both Model A and Model B, we take the greater
number of vertices, which is 1200.

 Time per vertex: 5 milliseconds.

So, the entire morphing animation will take 6 seconds to compute.

Q36: Compare and contrast the Painter's Algorithm with the Z-Buffer Algorithm for hidden surface
removal. Highlight their strengths and weaknesses in different scenarios.
Answer:

 Painter's Algorithm:

o How It Works: This algorithm sorts all polygons by their depth (from farthest to
nearest) and then renders them in this order, ensuring that the farthest polygons are
drawn first, effectively "painting" the scene.

o Strengths:

 Simple to implement.

 Can handle scenes with few intersecting objects efficiently.

o Weaknesses:

 Fails in complex scenes where polygons overlap or intersect in non-trivial

ways.

 Sorting of polygons can be computationally expensive.

 Inaccurate when polygons are not planar or have complex geometries.

 Z-Buffer Algorithm:

o How It Works: The Z-buffer algorithm uses a depth buffer to keep track of the depth
of every pixel in the frame. During rendering, the depth of a fragment (or pixel) is
compared with the current depth at that position, and only the closest fragment is
kept.
o Strengths:

 Handles complex scenes and arbitrary polygon intersections.

 Provides a more robust solution than the Painter’s Algorithm, especially for
non-planar surfaces.

o Weaknesses:

 Requires additional memory for the depth buffer.

 Can be computationally intensive, especially for high-resolution images.

 Depth buffer resolution can lead to precision errors (z-fighting) in certain

cases.