Electronics
Electronics
Electronics
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
a) State the difference between conductor, semiconductors and insulators.
b) Define intrinsic and extrinsic conductors.
c) Explain doping in semi-conductor.
d) Explain the working of a pin junction diode.
e) Sketch current voltage characteristics for a diode.
f) Explain the application of diode rectification.
Introduction
Electronics – study of motion of free electrons in electrical circuits.
Applications – pocket calculators, clocks, musical instruments, radios, TVs,
computers, robots etc.
Classes of Material
Conductors – have free electrons – not tightly bound to the nucleus of the atom
e.g., copper, aluminium.
Insulators – have immobile (fixed) electrons
Semi-conductors – with conducting properties between conductors and
insulators e.g., silicon, germanium.
The Energy Band Theory
When two or more atoms are brought closer to each other, the energy levels split
into smaller energy levels called bands. This is due to the interaction of both electric
and magnetic fields of electrons.
Types of bands
1. Conduction band – electrons are free to move under the influence of an
electric current.
2. Valence band – here electrons are not free to move.
3. Forbidden band/energy band – represents the energy level that cannot be
represented by electrons. The width of the band determines the conductivity of
the material.
Conductors, insulators and semi-conductors in terms of energy
band theory
Conductors: - In conductors, conduction band overlaps with valence band. Electrons
freely move from the partly filled valence band to conduction band. Many electrons
are therefore available for electric conduction. The flow of electric current in
conductors is by movement of electrons
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Resistance increases with rise in temperature. A rise in temperature increases the
vibrations of the atoms and this interferes with the electron flow. Hence the
resistance of a conductor increases with temperature.
INSULATORS
Under normal conditions, there exists a large energy gap between the empty
conduction band and the completely filled valence band.
Insulators have infinitely high resistance to the flow of electric current. An electron
tightly bound in the valence band requires significantly large amount of energy to
dislodge it and make it cross the large forbidden energy gap. Such amount of
energy supplied to an electron will break down crystal lattice of the insulator.
Absence of electrons in the conduction band makes insulators poor conductors of
electricity. Increase in temperature or addition of impurities has no effect on
conductivity of insulators.
Semi-conductors: -
In semiconductors there exists small energy gap between the the empty
conduction band and the completely filled valence band.At absolute zero
temperature (0K) the crystal is an insulator.At room temperature ,some electrons
in the valence band gain energy and jump into conduction band leaving behind
equal number of holes in the valence band.Therefore the material becomes a
conductor.At higher temperatures more electron -hole pairs are
created,increasing the conductivity of the material.
In a pure (intrinsic)semiconductor,holes and electrons are majority charge
carriers.Elecrical resistance reduces with increase in temperature.
Note: semi–conductors
At room temperature:- Has holes in the valence band & free electrons in the
conduction band. At absolute zero temperature (0K) it behaves like an
insulator.
Holes: Holes are created when an electron moves from valence band to
conduction band.
Holes are very important for conduction of electric current in semi-
conductors.
Types of Semi-Conductors
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1.Intrinsic (pure) semi-conductors
They are pure semi-conductors, electrical properties of a pure substance.
Has equal number of electrons and holes.
Conductivity is very low, insulator at low temperatures.
Usually not used in a pure state e.g. silicon
ii)P-Type Semi–Conductor
Formed by adding a trivalent atom (Boron) to a group 4 atom (Silicon), a
fourth electron will be unpaired and a gap will be left called a positive hole.
Pure semi-conductor is doped with impurity of group 3 element; combination
creates a positive hole which accepts an electron.
The doping material creates a positive hole, which can accept an electron –
called an Acceptor.
Majority charge carriers are positive holes; minority charge carriers are
electrons.
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P-N Junction Diode (Junction Diode)
Definition
An electronic device with two electrodes, which allows current to flow in one
direction only.
It is an electrical one-way valve. It is a solid device.
Formation of P-N Junction Diode
It consists of such a p-n junction with the p-side connected to the Anode and the n-
side to the cathode.
Formed by doping a crystal of pure silicon simultaneously by trivalent and
pentavalent atom so that a junction is formed between the p-type and n-type regions.
Eventually, the free electrons and hole s near the junction diffuse across the junction
such that the electrons enter p-zone as electron enter into n-zone. Recombination of
mobile charge carriers on either side of the carrier’s mobile charge carriers within a
region of about 10-4 to 10-6m. This region is known as depletion layer.
Depletion Layer
The region between the p-type and n-type semiconductor which is depleted mobile
charge carriers. It has fixed ions.
At the junction electrons diffuse from both sides and neutralize each other.
Junction
The place (boundary) between two different types of semi-conductors.
Diagram of unbiased Junction Diode
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Biasing the diode
i) Forward Bias
A diode is forward biased when the cathode (-) is connected to n-side and
anode (+) to the p-side in a circuit.
In forward bias, the depletion layer regains mobile charge carriers and is
narrowed hence resistance is reduced.
It allows holes to flow to n-side and electrons to p-side.
The majority charge carriers cross the junction. It conducts current and the
bulb lights
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CHARECTERISTICS OF A DIODE
Characteristic graph of current, I against reverse bias voltage is obtained as shown
below. The curve is non-ohmic. it is non-linear. The current increases exponentially
with voltage up to a point where a sharp increase in current is noticed. This voltage
is called threshold/cut-in/break point voltage. At this voltage potential the barrier is
overcome by bias and charges easily flow across the junction.
Reverse Biasing
In reverse biasing, resistance is very high, however, the flow of leakage current
results from flow of minority charge carriers. At breakdown voltage or Zener break
down covalent bonds rapture liberating electrons. Those electrons collide with some
atoms causing ionization this is called avalanche breakdown. The two processes
produce excess electrons for heavy conduction. Beyond breakdown voltage a diode is
damaged.
The Zener Diode
Definition
A Zener Diode is a silicon p-n semi-conductor, which is designed to work in reverse
biased connection.
Principle of operation
When the reverse-bias of the diode is increased, a large sudden increase in
current is obtained at one particular reverse voltage.
At the reverse voltage, the p-n junction diode breaks down into a conductor, by
breaking down the barrier layer.
The breakdown of the p-n junction diode is known as Zener break down or
Zener effect.
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The characteristic is almost a vertical line, i.e., the Zener current, which occur
as a result of the Zener voltage.
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rectification
Output wave
If the Y-input terminals of a CRO are connected first across the input, the wave
form on the left will be displayed on the screen. When a CRO is connected
across R, the output wave form is seen to be positive half-wave of the a.c.
Smoothing is done using a capacitor connected across R, to give a much
steadier varying d.c. supply.
The smoothing capacitor provides extra charge so that current flows
continuously even as the phase current changes and the current go to zero.
Input wave
Rectification
Smoothened output
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Input wave
Output wave
OR
Output wave
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During both cycles, current passes through R in the same direction,
giving a p.d. that varies as shown by the CRO.
When a large capacitor is connected across R, the output d.c. is
smoothed as shown.
A
D4
D1
a.c. RL
D D3 B
D2 R
Input wave C
Output wave
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Smoothened output
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Questions
1.Draw the structure of a crystal lattice to show the arrangement of electrons in
following:
Pure silicon.
P-type semiconductors
N-type semiconductors
2. Explain how temperatures rise affects the electrical conductivity or pure
semiconductors.
(a) Draw the symbol of a p-n diagram junction diode.
(b) Use a circuit diagram to distinguish between forward and reserve bias of p-n
junction diode.
3. (a) Use a labelled diagram to explain how a full valve rectification may be achieved
by using a resistor and: (I) Two diodes. (ii) Four diodes.
4. With the aid of a diagram explain how a capacitor can be used to smoothen a
full wave which has been rectified. Show using a sketch how the smoothened wave
will appear on the screen of C.R.O.
5. What is meant by the following terms: semiconductor, intrinsic conduction,
extrinsic conduction, doping, donor atoms, acceptor atoms, n-type semiconductor, p-
type semiconductor, depletion layer, forward bias, hole, reverse bias and Zener
effect?
6. Explain how doping produces a p-type and an n-type semiconductor.
7. Distinguish between electronics and electricity.
8. a) What is rectification?
(b)With diagrams, describe how half-wave and full-wave rectification can be
achieved.
9. Explain why a diode conducts easily on forward bias and not in reverse bias.
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