11.

Electronics
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:
a) State the difference between conductor, semiconductors and insulators.
b) Define intrinsic and extrinsic conductors.
c) Explain doping in semi-conductor.
d) Explain the working of a pin junction diode.
e) Sketch current voltage characteristics for a diode.
f) Explain the application of diode rectification.
Introduction
Electronics – study of motion of free electrons in electrical circuits.
Applications – pocket calculators, clocks, musical instruments, radios, TVs,
computers, robots etc.
Classes of Material
 Conductors – have free electrons – not tightly bound to the nucleus of the atom
e.g., copper, aluminium.
 Insulators – have immobile (fixed) electrons
 Semi-conductors – with conducting properties between conductors and
insulators e.g., silicon, germanium.
The Energy Band Theory
When two or more atoms are brought closer to each other, the energy levels split
into smaller energy levels called bands. This is due to the interaction of both electric
and magnetic fields of electrons.
Types of bands
1. Conduction band – electrons are free to move under the influence of an
electric current.
2. Valence band – here electrons are not free to move.
3. Forbidden band/energy band – represents the energy level that cannot be
represented by electrons. The width of the band determines the conductivity of
the material.
Conductors, insulators and semi-conductors in terms of energy
band theory
Conductors: - In conductors, conduction band overlaps with valence band. Electrons
freely move from the partly filled valence band to conduction band. Many electrons
are therefore available for electric conduction. The flow of electric current in
conductors is by movement of electrons

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Resistance increases with rise in temperature. A rise in temperature increases the
vibrations of the atoms and this interferes with the electron flow. Hence the
resistance of a conductor increases with temperature.
INSULATORS
Under normal conditions, there exists a large energy gap between the empty
conduction band and the completely filled valence band.

Insulators have infinitely high resistance to the flow of electric current. An electron
tightly bound in the valence band requires significantly large amount of energy to
dislodge it and make it cross the large forbidden energy gap. Such amount of
energy supplied to an electron will break down crystal lattice of the insulator.
Absence of electrons in the conduction band makes insulators poor conductors of
electricity. Increase in temperature or addition of impurities has no effect on
conductivity of insulators.
Semi-conductors: -
In semiconductors there exists small energy gap between the the empty
conduction band and the completely filled valence band.At absolute zero
temperature (0K) the crystal is an insulator.At room temperature ,some electrons
in the valence band gain energy and jump into conduction band leaving behind
equal number of holes in the valence band.Therefore the material becomes a
conductor.At higher temperatures more electron -hole pairs are
created,increasing the conductivity of the material.
In a pure (intrinsic)semiconductor,holes and electrons are majority charge
carriers.Elecrical resistance reduces with increase in temperature.

Note: semi–conductors
At room temperature:- Has holes in the valence band & free electrons in the
conduction band. At absolute zero temperature (0K) it behaves like an
insulator.
Holes: Holes are created when an electron moves from valence band to
conduction band.
Holes are very important for conduction of electric current in semi-
conductors.

Types of Semi-Conductors
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1.Intrinsic (pure) semi-conductors
 They are pure semi-conductors, electrical properties of a pure substance.
 Has equal number of electrons and holes.
 Conductivity is very low, insulator at low temperatures.
 Usually not used in a pure state e.g. silicon

2.) Extrinsic (impure)semi-conductors

This is a doped semiconductor, impurities have been added to improve its
electrical properties.


All semi-conductors in practical use has added impurities.

Doping: - A process of adding a very small quantity of impurities to a pure


semi-conductor to improve its conductivity.



Process of introducing an impurity atom into the lattice of a pure semi-

conductor.


Two types of extrinsic semi-conductors: -

 N–Type semi-conductor – formed by doping intrinsic semiconductor with a
pentavalent atom (group 5 elements) e.g., phosphorous, antimony
 P–Type semi-conductor – formed by doping intrinsic semiconductor with a
Trivalent atom e.g., boron, aluminium and indium
 Intrinsic semiconductor includes Silicon, germanium
i)N-Type Semi–Conductor
 Formed by adding a Pentavalent atom (Phosphorus) to a group 4 semi-
conductor (Silicon) and an extra electron is left unpaired and is available for
conduction.
 Majority charge carriers are electrons; minority charge carriers are positive
holes.
 Phosphorous is called a donor atom. Silicon has now more electrons

ii)P-Type Semi–Conductor
 Formed by adding a trivalent atom (Boron) to a group 4 atom (Silicon), a
fourth electron will be unpaired and a gap will be left called a positive hole.
 Pure semi-conductor is doped with impurity of group 3 element; combination
creates a positive hole which accepts an electron.
 The doping material creates a positive hole, which can accept an electron –
called an Acceptor.
 Majority charge carriers are positive holes; minority charge carriers are
electrons.

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P-N Junction Diode (Junction Diode)
Definition
An electronic device with two electrodes, which allows current to flow in one
direction only.
It is an electrical one-way valve. It is a solid device.
Formation of P-N Junction Diode
It consists of such a p-n junction with the p-side connected to the Anode and the n-
side to the cathode.
Formed by doping a crystal of pure silicon simultaneously by trivalent and
pentavalent atom so that a junction is formed between the p-type and n-type regions.

Eventually, the free electrons and hole s near the junction diffuse across the junction
such that the electrons enter p-zone as electron enter into n-zone. Recombination of
mobile charge carriers on either side of the carrier’s mobile charge carriers within a
region of about 10-4 to 10-6m. This region is known as depletion layer.
Depletion Layer
The region between the p-type and n-type semiconductor which is depleted mobile
charge carriers. It has fixed ions.
At the junction electrons diffuse from both sides and neutralize each other.
Junction
The place (boundary) between two different types of semi-conductors.
Diagram of unbiased Junction Diode

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Biasing the diode
i) Forward Bias
 A diode is forward biased when the cathode (-) is connected to n-side and
anode (+) to the p-side in a circuit.
 In forward bias, the depletion layer regains mobile charge carriers and is
narrowed hence resistance is reduced.
 It allows holes to flow to n-side and electrons to p-side.
 The majority charge carriers cross the junction. It conducts current and the
bulb lights

ii) Reverse Bias

A diode is reverse biased when the cathode (-) is connected to p-side and anode (+)
to the n-side in a circuit. The current through the diode is virtually zero. It hardly
conducts, the bulb does not light. Electrons and holes are pulled away from the
depletion layer, making it wider.
The electrons and holes are attracted to opposite ends of the diode away from the
junction. The wider the depletion layer, the higher the resistance of the junction.
However, a small current due to minority charge carriers flow (leakage current)
flows,

FORWARD AND REVERSE BIASING A DIODE

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CHARECTERISTICS OF A DIODE
Characteristic graph of current, I against reverse bias voltage is obtained as shown
below. The curve is non-ohmic. it is non-linear. The current increases exponentially
with voltage up to a point where a sharp increase in current is noticed. This voltage
is called threshold/cut-in/break point voltage. At this voltage potential the barrier is
overcome by bias and charges easily flow across the junction.

Reverse Biasing
In reverse biasing, resistance is very high, however, the flow of leakage current
results from flow of minority charge carriers. At breakdown voltage or Zener break
down covalent bonds rapture liberating electrons. Those electrons collide with some
atoms causing ionization this is called avalanche breakdown. The two processes
produce excess electrons for heavy conduction. Beyond breakdown voltage a diode is
damaged.
The Zener Diode
Definition
A Zener Diode is a silicon p-n semi-conductor, which is designed to work in reverse
biased connection.
Principle of operation
 When the reverse-bias of the diode is increased, a large sudden increase in
current is obtained at one particular reverse voltage.
 At the reverse voltage, the p-n junction diode breaks down into a conductor, by
breaking down the barrier layer.
 The breakdown of the p-n junction diode is known as Zener break down or
Zener effect.
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  The characteristic is almost a vertical line, i.e., the Zener current, which occur
as a result of the Zener voltage.

Application of Zener Diodes

Used in industry as voltage regulators or stabilizers, by providing a constant voltage
to a load.
Voltage remains constant as current increases.

Application of p-n Junction Diodes

a) To protect equipment, circuits or devices by a reverse power supply.
b) To rectify ac to dc
c) Enable the Audio Frequency energy carrier by modulated radio waves to be
detected.

Rectification and Smoothing

A) Definition
Rectification is the process of converting a.c current to d.c current.
A Rectifier is a device that changes a.c to d.c.
b) Reasons for rectification
The conversion of a.c. to d.c.is often necessary for all electric equipment, such as
radios, T.V. sets, computers, musical instruments etc., which use steady d.c.
Types of rectification
There are two types of rectification, namely: -
 Half-wave rectification
 Full-wave rectification.

Half-wave rectification and smoothing

One diode is used which removes the negative half-wave cycle of the applied a.c.
It gives a varying but one-way direct current across the load R. R is a piece of
electronic equipment requiring a d.c. supply.

Input wave a.c

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 rectification

Output wave

 If the Y-input terminals of a CRO are connected first across the input, the wave
form on the left will be displayed on the screen. When a CRO is connected
across R, the output wave form is seen to be positive half-wave of the a.c.
 Smoothing is done using a capacitor connected across R, to give a much
steadier varying d.c. supply.
 The smoothing capacitor provides extra charge so that current flows
continuously even as the phase current changes and the current go to zero.

Input wave

Rectification

Smoothened output

 The larger the capacitor, the better the smoothing.

 On the positive half-cycle of the a.c. input the diode conducts, current passes
through R and also into the capacitor C to charge it up.
 On the negative half- cycle, the diode is reversing biased and cannot conduct,
but C partly discharges through R.
 The charge-storing action of the capacitor, C thus maintains current in R and a
steadier p.d across it when the diode is not conducting.
Note: -A single diode only allows half of the a.c. to flow through the load R, so far half
of the power supply is cutoff.
Full-wave Rectification and smoothing rectification and smoothing
There are two methods for obtaining a full-wave rectification namely: -
 Using two diodes – Full-wave center-tap transformer.
 Using four diodes – Full-wave bridge rectifier

Using Centre-Tap Transformer

In a full-wave rectifier, both halves of the a.c. cycles are transmitted but, in the
direction, i.e., same side.

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 Input wave

Two diode rectification

Output wave

OR

Two diode rectification

Input wave

Output wave

Using the bridge Rectifier – four diodes

 In the 1st half-cycle, diode D2 andD4 conducts.
 In the 2nd half-cycle, diode D3 and D1conducts.

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  During both cycles, current passes through R in the same direction,
giving a p.d. that varies as shown by the CRO.
 When a large capacitor is connected across R, the output d.c. is
smoothed as shown.

A
D4
D1
a.c. RL
D D3 B
D2 R
Input wave C

Four diode rectification

Output wave

Using the bridge Rectifier – four diodes (smoothened output)

During the first half cycle, point A is positive with respect to C, diode D1 and D3 are
forward biased while diodeD2 and D4 are reverse biased. Current therefore flows
through ABDCA. During the second half cycle, point A becomes negative with respect
to point C. diodes D2 andD4 become forward biased while D1 and D3 are reverse
biased. Conventional current therefore flows through CBDAC.
If a capacitor is connected across the resistor, the rectified output is smoothened.
A
D4
D1
a.c. RL
D D3 B
D2 R C
C
Input wave

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 Smoothened output

Advantages of bridge rectifier

 A smaller transformer can be used because there is no need for center-
tapping.
 It is used for high voltage regulation.

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Questions
1.Draw the structure of a crystal lattice to show the arrangement of electrons in
following:
 Pure silicon.
 P-type semiconductors
 N-type semiconductors
2. Explain how temperatures rise affects the electrical conductivity or pure
semiconductors.
(a) Draw the symbol of a p-n diagram junction diode.
(b) Use a circuit diagram to distinguish between forward and reserve bias of p-n
junction diode.
3. (a) Use a labelled diagram to explain how a full valve rectification may be achieved
by using a resistor and: (I) Two diodes. (ii) Four diodes.
4. With the aid of a diagram explain how a capacitor can be used to smoothen a
full wave which has been rectified. Show using a sketch how the smoothened wave
will appear on the screen of C.R.O.
5. What is meant by the following terms: semiconductor, intrinsic conduction,
extrinsic conduction, doping, donor atoms, acceptor atoms, n-type semiconductor, p-
type semiconductor, depletion layer, forward bias, hole, reverse bias and Zener
effect?
6. Explain how doping produces a p-type and an n-type semiconductor.
7. Distinguish between electronics and electricity.
8. a) What is rectification?
(b)With diagrams, describe how half-wave and full-wave rectification can be
achieved.
9. Explain why a diode conducts easily on forward bias and not in reverse bias.

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