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Hormones

The document provides an overview of the pineal gland, thymus, parathyroid glands, and calcitonin, detailing their locations, structures, functions, and hormonal secretions. The pineal gland regulates sexual activities and secretes melatonin, while the thymus is crucial for immunity and produces thymosin and thymin. Parathyroid glands secrete parathormone, which maintains blood calcium levels, and calcitonin counteracts this by lowering blood calcium levels.

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9 views3 pages

Hormones

The document provides an overview of the pineal gland, thymus, parathyroid glands, and calcitonin, detailing their locations, structures, functions, and hormonal secretions. The pineal gland regulates sexual activities and secretes melatonin, while the thymus is crucial for immunity and produces thymosin and thymin. Parathyroid glands secrete parathormone, which maintains blood calcium levels, and calcitonin counteracts this by lowering blood calcium levels.

Uploaded by

bjob15544
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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PINEAL GLAND

Pineal gland or epiphysis is located in the diencephalic area of brain above the hypothalamus. It is a small cone-shaped, with
a length of about 10 mm. Pineal gland has two types of cells:
1. Large epithelial cells
2. Neuroglial cells
In adults, the pineal gland is calcifed. But, the epithelial cells exist and secrete the hormonal substance.

FUNCTIONS
Pineal gland has two functions:
1. It controls the sexual activities in animals by regulating the seasonal fertility. However, the pineal gland plays little
role in regulating the sexual functions in human being.
2. It secretes the hormonal substance called melatonin.

Melatonin
Melatonin is secreted by the parenchymal cells of pineal gland. Melatonin is an indole.
Actions of melatonin
Melatonin acts mainly on gonads. Its action differs from species to species. In some animals, it stimulates the gonads while
in other animals, it inhibits the gonads. In humans, it inhibits the onset of puberty by inhibiting the gonads. Melatonin
secretion is more in darkness than in daylight.

THYMUS
Thymus is situated in front of trachea, below the thyroid gland. Thymus is small in newborn infants and gradually enlarges
till puberty and then decreases in size.

„ FUNCTIONS
Thymus has lymphoid function and endocrine function. It plays an important role in development of immunity in the
body.
Thymus has two functions:
1. Production of T lymphocytes play important role in immunity
2. Endocrine function
Thymus secretes two hormones:
i. Thymosin
ii. Thymin.
Thymosin: Thymosin is a peptide. It accelerates lymphopoiesis and proliferation of T lymphocytes.
Thymin: Thymin is also called thymopoietin. It suppresses the neuromuscular activity by inhibiting acetylcholine release.
Hyperactivity of thymus causes myasthenia gravis.
„ Human beings have four parathyroid glands, which are situated on the posterior surface of thyroid gland. Parathyroid
glands are very small in size, measuring about 6 mm long, 3 mm wide and 2 mm thick, with dark brown color.
Each parathyroid gland is made up of chief cells and oxyphil cells. Chief cells secrete parathormone. Oxyphil cells are the
degenerated chief cells and their function is known. However, these cells may secrete parathormone during pathological condition
called parathyroid adenoma.

Synthesis
Parathormone is synthesized from the precursor called prepro-PTH, which further converted into a prohormone called
pro-PTH, converted into PTH.

ACTIONS OF PARATHORMONE
PTH plays an important role in maintaining blood calcium level. It also controls blood phosphate level.

ACTIONS OF PARATHORMONE ON BLOOD CALCIUM LEVEL


Primary action of PTH is to maintain the blood calcium level within the critical range of 9 to 11 mg/dL. The blood calcium
level has to be maintained critically because, it is very important for many of the activities in the body. PTH maintains
blood calcium level by acting on:
1. Bones
2. Kidney
3. Gastrointestinal tract.

1. On Bone
Parathormone enhances the resorption of calcium from the bones (osteoclastic activity) by acting on osteoblasts and
osteoclasts of the bone.
Resorption of calcium from bones occurs in two phases:
i. Rapid phase
ii. Slow phase.
Rapid phase
PTH after release binds with receptor on the cell membrane of osteoblasts and osteocytes, which increases the permeability
of cells for calcium ions. so that calcium ions move out of these bone cells and enter the blood at a faster rate.
Slow phase
Slow phase of calcium resorption from bone is due to the activation of osteoclasts by PTH. When osteoclasts are activated,
some substances such as proteolytic enzymes, citric acid and lactic acid are released from lysosomes of these cells. All
these substances digest or dissolve the organic matrix of the bone, releasing the calcium ions. The calcium ions slowly enter
the blood.

2. On Kidney
PTH increases the reabsorption of calcium from the renal tubules along with magnesium ions and hydrogen ions. It increases
calcium reabsorption mainly from distal convoluted tubule and proximal part of collecting duct.
PTH also increases the formation of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (activated form of vitamin D) from 25-
hydroxycholecalciferol in kidneys.

3. On Gastrointestinal Tract
PTH increases the absorption of calcium ions from the GI tract indirectly. It increases the formation of 1,25-
dihydroxycholecalciferol in the kidneys. This vitamin, in turn increases the absorption of calcium from GI tract.

Thus, the activated vitamin D is very essential for the absorption of calcium from the GI tract. And PTH is essential for the
formation of activated vitamin D.

MODE OF ACTION OF PARATHORMONE


Parathormone Receptors
Parathormone receptors (PTH receptors) are of three types, PTHR1, PTHR2 and PTHR3, which are G protein-coupled
receptors.
On the target cells, PTH binds with PTHR1 which is coupled to G protein and forms hormone-receptor complex.
Hormone-receptor complex causes formation of cAMP, which acts as a second messenger for the hormone.

„ REGULATION OF PARATHORMONE SECRETION


Blood level of calcium is the main factor regulating the secretion of PTH. Blood phosphate level also regulates PTH secretion.

DISORDERS OF PARATHYROID GLANDS


Disorders of parathyroid glands are of two types: I. Hypoparathyroidism II. Hyperparathyroidism.

■ HYPOPARATHYROIDISM - HYPOCALCEMIA
Hyposecretion of PTH is called hypoparathyroidism. It leads to hypocalcemia (decrease in blood calcium level).

Causes for Hypoparathyroidism


1. Surgical removal of parathyroid glands (parathyroidectomy)
2. Removal of parathyroid glands during surgical removal of thyroid gland (thyroidectomy)
3. Autoimmune disease
4. Defciency of receptors for PTH in the target cells.
HYPERPARATHYROIDISM - HYPERCALCEMIA
Hypersecretion of PTH is called hyperparathyroidism. It results in hypercalcemia. Hyperparathyroidism is of three types:
1. Primary hyperparathyroidism: Primary hyperparathyroidism is due to the development of tumor in one or more parathyroid
glands.
2. Secondary hyperparathyroidism: Secondary hyperparathyroidism is due to the physiological compensatory
hypertrophy of parathyroid glands, in response to hypocalcemia.
3. Tertiary hyperparathyroidism: Tertiary hyperparathyroidism is due to hyperplasia (abnormal increase in the number of
cells) of all the parathyroid glands that develops due to chronic secondary hyperparathyroidism.

CALCITONIN
Calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular cells or clear cells (C cells), in thyroid gland. It is synthesized from procalcitonin.

ACTIONS OF CALCITONIN
1. On Blood Calcium Level
Calcitonin plays an important role in controlling the blood calcium level. It decreases the blood calcium level and thereby
counteracts parathormone.
Calcitonin reduces the blood calcium level by acting on bones, kidneys and intestine.
i. On bones
Calcitonin stimulates osteoblastic activity and facilitates the deposition of calcium on bones. At the same time, it suppresses
the activity of osteoclasts and inhibits the resorption of calcium from bones.
ii. On kidney
Calcitonin increases excretion of calcium through urine, by inhibiting the reabsorption from the renal tubules.
iii. On intestine
Calcitonin prevents the absorption of calcium from intestine into the blood.

2. On Blood Phosphate Level


It decreases the blood level of phosphate by acting on bones and kidneys.
i. On bones
Calcitonin inhibits the resorption of phosphate from bone and stimulates the deposition of phosphate on bones.
ii. On kidney
Calcitonin increases the excretion of phosphate through urine, by inhibiting the reabsorption from renal tubules.

REGULATION OF CALCITONIN SECRETION


High calcium content in plasma stimulates the calcitonin secretion through a calcium receptor in parafollicular cells. Gastrin
also is known to stimulate the release of calcitonin.

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