Q1.

As a fresh post graduate geologist, what do I need to know to get an entry level job in
oil field?
Ans. Try to get a basic level of understanding on the following topics:
Oil Industry set up
Basics of Oil Exploration
Roles of Geologists in oil well drilling
Different Types of Wells
Different Types of Rigs
Major parts of a rig
Mudlogging Job Responsibilities
Lag Time & Sample Catching Techniques
An understanding of Drilling Parameters
Total Gas and various peaks
Monitoring Drilling Parameters
Formation Evaluation (Oil Shows and gas shows evaluation)
Basic idea of Mudlog
Following Q & A are designed to cover the above topics:
Q1. How do oil and gas form?
Oil and gas are a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and other substances like nitrogen,
sulfur, oxygen etc. They are formed through conversion of organic matter (remains of micro-
organisms, both plants and animals), under critical range of pressure and temperature
conditions, into kerogen and then to oil and gas. This process of oil and gas formation takes
tens of millions of years. The rocks in which oil and gas are formed are called source rocks.
Examples of source rocks are shale and limestone. These then get migrated to a porous and
permeable rock, called reservoir. Example of reservoir rocks are sandstone and limestone,
which form 90% of World reservoirs. Other rocks in the vicinity of source rock if fractured or
porous can also act as reservoirs.
Q2. What do you know about Oil Industry?
Oil industry is a global industry that deals with hydrocarbon exploration, production,
refining and marketing. It is counted as one of the world’s largest and important industry
that plays a vital role in the global economy.
Q3. How will you describe the setup of oil industry worldwide?
The oil industry is typically divided into three main segments:
Upstream: The upstream segment focuses on exploration and production activities. This
includes performing various types of surveys, drilling wells and testing the oil and gas
reservoirs to establish commercial viability and finally producing hydrocarbons.
Midstream: The midstream segment deals with the transportation and storage of crude oil
and natural gas. This includes building and operating pipelines, storage facilities, tankers and
terminals.
Downstream: The downstream segment focuses on the refining and processing of crude oil
and natural gas into usable products, such as petrol, diesel, gasoline, jet fuel, LNG, PNG and
various types of petrochemicals. It also deals with establishing the fuel stations and
marketing the products.
Q4. Who owns oil companies?
Oil companies can be either government-owned or privately owned. Government-owned oil
companies, also known as National Oil Companies (NOCs), are controlled by the
government of the country in which they operate. Examples of NOCs include ONGC (India),
Saudi Aramco (Saudi Arabia), Petrobras (Brazil), and Gazprom (Russia). Private oil
companies, on the other hand, are owned by private investors or shareholders. Examples of
private oil companies include ExxonMobil (USA), Chevron (USA), and Royal Dutch Shell
(Netherlands).
Q5. How do national oil companies differ from private oil companies?
There are several key differences between government-owned and private oil companies.
NOCs typically have a greater focus on national interests and social responsibility, while
private oil companies are primarily driven by profit maximization. NOCs also often have
more access to government resources and support, while private oil companies must
operate on a more competitive basis.

Additional Note:
The operating styles of government-owned and private oil companies can also vary
depending on the specific company and its operating environment. NOCs may be more
bureaucratic and less responsive to market changes, while private oil companies are often
more nimble and adaptable. However, there are also many NOCs that are efficient and well-
run, and many private oil companies that are conservative and avoid taking risk.
Q6. What is difference between an Oil Company and a Service Company?
An Oil company (also called client or operator) have multidisciplinary teams, have lots of funds and an area
on lease to explore and exploit hydrocarbons. Once a decision is taken to drill wells, Oil Company hires
number of service companies who literally do everything from picking up the well location to completing
the well and making it ready for production. But all decisions are made by oil company’s geologists and
engineers.
Additional Note:
Service companies play an important role in the oil industry by providing a wide range of
specialised services to oil and gas operators. As they are deeply involved in research and
development, they bring cutting edge technologies to drill site. This helps them stay ahead
of competition and in their global reach. Client’s representatives on the rig coordinate
seamlessly between these service companies to drill a well safely and economically. Also
services companies offer bigger employment opportunities compare to oil companies for
engineers and geologists. Some of the major companies and their services are described
below:
1. Geophysical Surveys: Imagine an oil rig drilling offshore where you see nothing but water
all around or in desert where you see nothing but sand or in jungle where you see only
foliage. These scenarios can make us wonder, how do they decide where to drill? Selecting a
drill site in a favourable geological territory is done with the help of geophysical surveys.
Geophysical surveys are done using non-invasive techniques to prepare maps of subsurface
geology and structure that can point to most likely areas for oil accumulations. Many
different types of geophysical surveys are performed prior to drilling but seismic surveys
play crucial and decisive role. Other geophysical surveys are Gravity Survey and Magnetic
survey. Shearwater and TGS are among many service companies who perform geophysical
surveys. Sometime geochemical surveys are also conducted on soil, surface sediments and
rocks to enhance our understanding of hydrocarbon potential of the area.
2. Well Engineering Services: Specialized well engineering companies provide technical
expertise in well design, directional drilling, drilling fluid selection, and casing and
cementing programs. Most oil companies however do this type of planning in-house.
3. Rig Contractor: The rig contractor provides the drilling rig on offshore or onshore as the
requirement may be. They also provide the drilling crew, which operates the rig equipment.
Schlumberger, Halliburton and Baker Hughes are logging companies that also own large
fleet of rigs.
4. Mud Engineering: This company provides chemicals used to make drilling fluid (Mud) and
an expert who mixes the chemicals and maintain the properties of drilling mud.
5. Mud Logging: Mud logging companies monitor and analyse the drill cuttings and
hydrocarbon gases as they come to surface from the wellbore. This provides real-time
information about the formations being drilled through and presence or absence of
hydrocarbon in them. Also mudlogging crew closely monitor drilling parameters and alert
the driller and client’s supervisor should any parameter goes into abnormal range, thus
ensuring the safety of drilling operation. Mudlogging companies provide maximum jobs to
geologists.
6. MWD/LWD: MWD (Measurement While Drilling) and LWD (Logging While Drilling)
companies provide tools and engineers to gather formation data in real time (while drilling
is in progress). This data is used for geosteering, formation evaluation, and hydrocarbon
identification.
7. Wireline Logging: This company records many different types electrical, electromagnetic,
sonic and nuclear logs. The company sends a logging unit and crew to do the job. After a
section of hole has been drilled the wireline engineer runs their tools on wireline and
records formation properties such as , formation radiation, resistivity, density and porosity
to name a few.
8. Casing and Cementing: Casing and cementing companies (Two different comapanies)
provide specialized equipment and engineers to run and set casing to the bottom of hole in
each section. Cementing engineer then mix cement slurry and pump it around the
casing. Cemented casing ensures well stability and prevents hole collapse and fluid
migration.
9. Production Testing Company: After drilling a well. If geologists observations and studies
show there is hydrocarbon potential in the well; then production testing company’s services
are hired. The company sends specialised tools and engineers who perforate certain zones
to flow oil and gas to confirm the commercial productivity of the well. So that plans can be
made to put well on completion and production.
10. Completion Engineers: Completion engineers design and implement the completion
strategy, which involves selecting and installing the necessary equipment to allow oil and
gas production from the well.
11. Production Services Companies: Production services companies provide specialized
services, such as artificial lift, well monitoring, and reservoir management, to optimize the
production of oil and gas from the well.
12. Transport Companies: Three different companies are hired to transport crew and
equipment to and from rig. These are: Helicopter company, Shipping company and surface
transport company.
Above are the major service companies. Besides many other companies are hired on need
basis such as directional drilling company, Coring company, Fishing company to name a few.
In short 15 to 20 service companies get together to drill and complete a well.
Throughout the operation, the effective communication and coordination among the client
representatives and various service companies remains a crucial aspect to ensure
successful drilling, testing, and completion of a well.
Q7. How will you explain well logging to a layman?
As we drill an oil well we encounter different formations with change with depth. Logging
means recording formation characteristics and related technical data against depth. Three
different types of logging companies (Mudlogging, MWD/LWD and Wireline logging) are
hired under separate contracts. These collect geotechnical data during the course of drilling
a well.
Q7. How do we explore and exploit hydrocarbons?
Ans. 1. Basics of Oil Hunt:
Finding oil and gas deposits is a complex and expensive process. It involves several stages:
2. Exploration Stage:
Exploration begins with the study of regional geology, specially depositional environments,
sequence stratigraphy, biostratigraphy and structural geology. If the results show that
hydrocarbon generation is possible in these rocks and environments, then seismic surveys
are conducted to gain better understanding of subsurface geology and structures.
After above mentioned studies and encouraging results; oil company acquires licenses and
the block, it wants to explore.
Subsequent to acquiring licenses, oil rig and service companies are hired to drill well and
acquire data. Thus wild cat and exploratory wells are drilled to physically check the
presence or absence of oil. While drilling these wells, large amount of geological,
geophysical and drilling data is collected, which is then studied in greater detail to decide
whether to continue or abandon the exploration activity.
3. Development Stage:
A skilled workforce with expertise in geology, geophysics, engineering, and data analysis
studies the huge amount of data generated during wild cat and exploration drilling. If
commercially viable oil and gas reserves are identified than a strategy is developed to
exploit the hydrocarbons. This is how we move to ‘field development stage’.
In development stage a number of development wells are drilled to efficiently produce oil
and gas. The crude oil and gas thus produced is then supplied to refineries and the products
are sent to market.
Q8. How do we drill and complete an oil well starting from spud time?
We spud and drill, log and case hole in successive stages. After drilling the well to
predetermined TD and logging, we go for production testing and completion if
hydrocarbons have been found..
Q9. What are the objectives of mudlogging?
Mudlogging also called surface logging, performs two major tasks:
1. Evaluates formations, as they are drilled, for hydrocarbon potential
2. Closely monitors drilling, mud and gas parameters for the safety of operations.
Q10. What is difference between MWD and LWD?
Measurement While Drilling and Logging While Drilling tools and sensors are embedded in
drillcollars, positioned just above the bit. So, as we drill MWD tools record and send
directional and drilling data to the surface computer using mud telemetry system. While
LWD tools record natural radiation of formation (GR) and resistivity, density, porosity and
sonic transit time of formation.
Q11. What do you know about wireline logging?
Wireline logs often called electric logs are recorded by lowering a logging tool or a set of
tools on an electric wireline to the bottom of hole and recoding logs while pulling it up to
the surface. These logs are recorded at the each drilling phase prior to running casing.

Electric logs are same as recorded by LWD. Now days LWD logging has developed advantage
over wireline logging as it’s logs quality is similar to wireline, is less expensive than wireline
and it provides logs in real-time to help take quick decisions.
Q12. How has mudlogging technology evolved with time?
Mudlogging started in early 1900 alongside the commercial exploitation of oil. In the
beginning a mudlogger would stand and look at the drilling fluid ( commonly called mud on
oil rigs) coming out of hole, visually analysing cuttings and recording any spot of oil in the
mud stream (hence the name mudlogging). Mudlogging took formal shape of a service
company in mid-1930s when depth recorder and gas detectors were introduced. Since then
constant improvement of sensors and recorders and then introduction of computers have
revolutionized mudlogging industry to the point where a mudlogging unit has become an
integral part of all oil rigs.

Additional Note:
In recent years, the introduction of Gas Mass Spectrometry (GMS), X-Ray Fluorescence
(XRF), and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) has further enhanced mudlogging’s role in oilfield
exploration and development. Additionally, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and
data analysis algorithms has opened up new frontiers in interpretational capabilities of
mudlogging data.
Q13. How does a mudlogging company gets a job?
Once an oil company decides to explore or develop a field. It invites tenders from all service
companies including mudlogging companies. These tenders are evaluated based on
technical specifications and commercial value. Once a mudlogging company gets a contract,
it sends a mudlogging unit along with mudlogging crew. Who upon arriving on the rig sets
up the unit, runs cables and installs sensors. This process is called ‘Rig Up’. When a well has
been drilled, the unit is ‘rigged down’ and taken to next drill site.
Q14. What is the composition of mudlogging crew?
The standard composition of a mudlogging crew is: two sample catchers + two mudloggers
+ two data engineers. However this combination may vary depending upon job requirement
and the contract. Followings are the other possibilities depending upon the complexity of
operations (from complex to simple):
1. One Data Engineer + Two mudloggers + Two sample catchers
2. Two Mudloggers + Two Sample catchers
3. Two mudloggers only
Additional Note:
A common career path for career progression of mudlogging crew is from trainee
Mudlogger (sample catcher) to mudlogger to data engineer. Some data engineers are then
promoted to gas specialist or overpressure specialist or wellsite geologist and then
operations geologist.

To some people oil crew designation may sound strange. However please know that oil
industry has been spearheaded by Americans from its inception. In earlier days uneducated
labours used to run a rig. Hence they devised the terms. Example: The man on the highest
position on the rig from drilling contractor side is called “Tool Pusher”. His office on rig floor
is called doghouse. Once you join the industry you will get used to these terms.
Q15. What are the responsibilities of a Sample Catcher?
1. He must always wear PPE while working on the rig
2. When drilling is going on, for every sample interval, he goes to shale shaker, collects rock
cuttings (called sample), wash them, pack them and label them as per instructions. He also
helps mudlogger in troubleshooting sensors.
3. During non-drilling time he cleans the unit inside out. Helps mudlogger service sensors
and calibrate sensors.
4. He is also a useful hand during rig up and rig down operation.

Note: A sample catcher is usually 10th or 12th pass. Sometimes a graduate or post graduate
geologist after his initial training in the office (as Mudlogger) is sent to the rig for further
practical training, where he also works as sample catcher.
Q16. What are job responsibilities of a mudlogger during drilling?
The main responsibilities of a mudlogger during the course of drilling are:
1. Describe rock cutting and evaluate them for hydrocarbon shows
2. Closely monitor drilling and gas data
3. Keep the alarm closely set on critical parameters such as Mud Rturn (Flow Rate), Total
Gas, Active Pits etc.
4. Prepare mudlog
5. Trouble shoot sensors, clean and service degasser
6. Clean and maintain unit in good condition.
Q17. What are job responsibilities of a mudlogger during trip?
The main responsibility of a mudlogger is to closely monitor hole-fill while pulling out of
hole (POOH) and mud displacement during running in hole (RIH). Ensuring proper mud
displacement and a keeping a record of it is a critical responsibility of a mudlogger. In case
of any suspicion, he must consult data engineer, driller or company man.
Q18. What are job responsibilities of a mudlogger during casing and cementing
operation.
1. He should ensure that all pits are accurately calibrated prior to casing job
2. Maintain a good tally of casing joints being RIH
3. Ensure good mud displacement is taking place for each joint of casing. Maintain a
meticulous record of it. Poor mud displacement could mean loss of mud down hole and
should immediately be reported to company man
4. While cementing ensure that proper amount of mud is being displaced. If not let the
company man know about it.
5. At the end of cement displacement when the plug is bumped, ensure that Stand Pipe
Pressure (SPP) is increasing sharply and is being held their more or less constantly. If it drops
quickly or does not build up then company man must be informed about it
Q19. What other data does a mudlogger collect apart from the data that he records inside
mudlogging unit?
There are many other types of data, that is collected from various sources and is integrated
with mudlogging data to make it more comprehensive. Examples of such data are: deviation
data, mud data, bit data, BHA, Casing tally etc. etc.
Q20. What are Job responsibilities of a mudlogger during wireline logging?
Wireline logging may take one day to as many as 4 or 5 days. During this operation
mudlogger should keep an eye on all pit levels and trip tank. And keep close alarms on these
parameters. This is a quite time for mudloggers, which should be utilized in servicing the
sensors, cleaning degasser, troubleshooting any pending fault. Update and QC mudlog.
Clean and wash unit from outside and outside. Audit spares and consumables and request
town if anything is needed.
Q21. What are Job responsibilities of Data Engineers?
A data engineer is the most experienced mudlogging personnel in mudlogging team and is
regarded as the manager of mudlogging unit. Some of his job roles and responsibilities are
as follows:
1. His first and foremost responsibility is to keep the mudlogging unit functional at all time
2. Provide technical support to mudloggers and sample catchers as well as QC their jobs
3. Ensure all data is being recorded and displayed as per client’s requirement. As well as all
data is being checked for its quality on constant basis.
4. His job includes preparing various reports on daily and weekly basis, including final well
reports. It is his duty to thoroughly cross check all data, all reports and all logs before
submitting these to client.
5. It is his responsibility to make sure unit is kept clean and tidy as well as free from hazards.
6. It is also part of his job to rig up and rig down mudlogging units, trouble shoot sensors
and keep all equipment calibrated.
7. Being the captain of the unit, he has to frequently interact and communicate with various
personnel on the rig such as company man (client’s representative) wellsite geologist
(client’s representative), tool pusher, driller, mud engineer etc. Therefore, it is a requirement
that he should have good communication skills to conduct mudlogging operation smoothly.
8. Last but not least he has to ensure the personnel safety and that all safety rules are being
complied. He should always keep an eye on safety. For example, he must ensure that unit’s
emergency exit is clear of all hurdles from inside and outside, all PPEs are present in the unit
and are being used properly by the personnel, all chemicals are stored safely and MSDS
sheet is pasted nearby. That his team members are participating in all safety meetings and
safety drills. These are but a few points from lists of do and donts.
Additional Note:
Hiring Process for Mudloggers
The oil and gas industry relies on mudloggers to collect and interpret crucial drilling and
geological data. With over two dozen active mudlogging companies in Asia, there’s a
constant demand for qualified mudloggers. In some regions, like the Middle East, many
companies opt to hire mudloggers and data engineers through third-party providers to
streamline operations and reduce costs.

The standard hiring process for mudloggers typically involves an interview. While experience
is highly valued, even entry-level candidates with a bachelor’s degree in geology can secure
a position. However, postgraduate qualifications in geology are generally preferred.

Beyond academic qualification, mudlogging companies prefer those candidates who have
good communication skills and problem solving skills, who would like to work in rough and
tough environment as a good team player and who show respect to safety protocols.
Q22. What equipment do you need to collect rock cutting samples?
First the sample catcher should be equipped with PPE, then he should have a spatula and a
set of three sieves with different mesh sizes. Further he should have a wooden plank set just
in front of the screens; on to which cuttings of all sizes can accumulate.

Additional Note:
The typical mesh sizes for sieves used to wash rock cutting samples are 8 mesh, 80 mesh,
and 170 mesh. The reason for this is that 8 mesh sieve will help remove shale cavings which
are unusually large shale pieces as well as large size coal pieces both of which are fallen off
from the wall of the hole. The medium sieve will retains the normal cuttings (cuttings
generated by bit action and truly represent the formation), while the bottom sieve will have
clay, silts and fine to very fine grained sand.

Concept of mesh is simple: Mesh numbers represent number of apertures or holes a sieve
has per square inch. 8 mesh mean sieve has 8 holes in one sq. inch area, they would be
naturally large in size compare to if you have 80 apertures in one sq. inch.
Q23. How do you collect cutting samples on the rig?
Samples are collected at the shakers. Shakers are used to separate cuttings from the mud.
The mud drops down into a settling tank and cuttings fall off from the front of the shaker
and a portion of these get accumulated on a wooden plank. These accumulated cuttings
represent the full section of formation drilled between the sample interval. For example,
sample interval in a particular section is decided to be 20 ft by the wellsite geologist.
Therefore a sample collected at 2120 ft is the representative of downhole formation from
2100 ft to 2120 ft.
Q24. What precautions one must take in order to collect a good sample?
A few points should be kept in mind to collect representative samples: 1. Collect samples at
correct lag time 2. Ensure that cuttings being accumulated are falling on wooden plank from
all three shaker screens. After each collection of sample, wipe clean the wooden plank. 3.
Ensure hole is not severely washed out. This can be checked with rice test. 4. When drilling
top section containing soft sticky clay, the sample should be washed very lightly or else clay
will wash away leaving non-representative lithologies.
Q25. What are different types of samples collected on the rig?
There are many types of samples collected and packed on the rig by sample catchers. Client
decides sample interval, types of samples, size of samples and number of sets for each type
of samples:
1. Unwashed samples usually two sets each about 400 gms
2. Washed and wet usually 2 sets each about 300 gms. Washed and wet in steel tray for
mudlogger and geologist about 30 gms
3. Washed and dry in two or three or four sets, about 50 gms each. Packed in paper bags
4. Geochemical sample one set in a tin box about 600 gms. (Not very common)

• Most samples are collected at exploratory wells, very few on development wells.
Q26. What is the use of wet and unwashed samples?
These samples are sent for paleontological and palynological studies in order to estimate
the stratigraphic age, identify formation and understand its paleo-environment.
Q27. What precautions will you take while drying the washed samples?
These samples are mostly collected from 80 mesh sieve. Many companies prefer to air dry
the samples if we are using oil base mud. If using oven, one must ensure that samples are
not burned or over-dry because it can lead to staining which may be confused to oil
staining. Ensure oven is venting fumes to outside the mudlogging unit. Also one should
wear gloves while taking out sample plates to avoid burning the fingers.
Q28. How do we preserve geochemical sample?
We normally preserve geochemical sample (wet and unwashed) in an air-tight tin jar, which
is 60% full of sample, 20% water and 20% air. Also, we put a few drops of bactericide
(Zepharin Chloride) to avoid the growth of fungus. Once sealed, they are stored upside
down.
Q29. What are some of the contaminants that you can identify in the samples?
Some of the contaminants commonly seen in the samples are: shale cavings, barite,
cement, LCM, pipe dope etc.
Q30. Can you name some of the accessory minerals often seen in the cuttings under
microscope? What is significance of accessory minerals?
Siderite, pyrite and glauconite are some accessory minerals formed in-situ at the time of
deposition or post deposition. They indicate depositional environments. For example
presence of siderite (FeCO3) a pale-yellow to brown mineral, indicates oxygen depleted
environment as seen in stagnant lagoons and deep marine settings. Pyrite also indicates
oxygen depleted but sulfur rich environment, associated with decomposition of organic
matter. While glauconite is formed in and indicates a warm, shallow marine environment.
Q31. What is a spot sample? When do we take it?
A spot sample is a small washed and wet sample collected directly from shale shaker either
at the instruction of wellsite geologist or on certain occasions like when we get a big gas
peak, or a drill break or when ROP becomes extremely slow, and if possible, when
circulating out a kick. Also when new formation top is expected or a casing point or coring
point is to be picked. Please bear in mind that spot sample should be collected from all
three shaker screens to collect fine to very fine sand as well.
Q32. How does the technique differ in taking a spot sample from that of regular sample.
Regular sample is representative of entire sample interval while spot sample represents
only the lag depth it was collected. A spot sample is not bagged and kept. While a regular
sample is bagged and labeled.
Q33. How do you label sample bags and sample boxes?
Ans. We write oil company name, well name, depth interval on bags. Same information
goes on boxes with an addition of sample type e.g. wet& unwashed or wet & washed.
Q34. Why don’t we find oil in igneous and metamorphic rocks?
Oil is formed from the organic matter deposited with sediments in a body of water at
relatively low temperatures. Where as igneous and metamorphic rocks are devoid of
organic matter more-over they are formed at extremely high temperatures, where organic
matter or oil cannot exist. However, if the igneous and metamorphic rocks happen to be
porous and permeable and in the vicinity of source rock. The oil may get trapped in them
and can be exploited.
Q35. What are important sedimentary rocks, from the point of view of oil exploitation?
Sandstone and shale in clastic group and limestone and dolomite in carbonate group are
important sedimentary rocks. Shales and limestones are good source rocks and sandstones
and fractured or porous and permeable limestones and dolomites form good reservoir
rocks. More over shales and evaporites are also important rocks as they provide seal in
effective trapping mechanism.
Q36. What is difference between shale oil and oil shale?
Shale oil is a crude oil produced from shale by fracking. Oil shale is a type of shale rich in
kerogen (organic matter) Kerogen can be extracted and processed into oil by
unconventional methods.
Q37. If we encounter halite while drilling with fresh water mud; How will you identify it?
Halite being salt will dissolve in mud, therefore the cuttings volume on shaker will reduce.
At the same time mud salinity and viscosity will increase. A few colorless cuttings of halite
may be seen and some of it may be attached to other rock cuttings. When we see halite, it is
usually colorless and rarely white in color, has cubic cleavages. Halite tastes salty. Also,
halite beds are drilled smoothly at fast ROP.
Q38. How do you differentiate between gypsum and anhydrite?
Gypsum is usually translucent to white in color and frequently fibrous in structure, whereas
anhydrite is fine grained, massive and usually amorphous. Gypsum is soft, its hardness
varies from 1.5 to 2 on Mhos scale. It can be scratched by finger nail. While anhydrite is
comparatively harder, 3.0 to 3.5 on Mohs scale. Density of gypsum is only 2.35 where as
that of anhydrite is about 3 sg. (Also, this may be mentioned here that limestone reacts to
HCl but anhydrite and gypsums do not).
Q39. How will you differentiate between lignite and coal in cuttings?
Lignite gives brown to reddish streak where as coal gives black streak.
Q40. How will you differentiate between limestone and dolomite if you have run out of
hydrochloric acid?
1. If we do not have Hcl, we can differentiate based on density using variable density
solution. The average density of limestone is 2.6 sg and average density of dolomite is
around 2.78 sg.
2. We can perform Alizarin test. Staining the grain with Alizarin turns limestone red or pink,
where as dolomite does not change its colour.
Notes: In order to perform staining test, we need Alizarin solution (1% of Alizarin mixed in
10% of acetic acid). The grain must be thoroughly washed with distilled water (very lightly
with dilute Hcl if available). Put the grain in Alizarin solution for 1 to 2 minutes. After that
wash off the solution with distilled water. Upon washing, if the grain turns red or pink it is
limestone otherwise dolomite.

Q41. There are three important rocks that are required to form commercial hydrocarbon
accumulations; first is the source rock, second is the reservoir rock, name the third one?
The cap rock.
Q41. Describe the different types of hydrocarbon traps?
Ans. Hydrocarbon traps are geological formations that prevent the migration of oil and gas,
allowing them to accumulate and form reservoirs. They are classified into three main types:
Structural traps: Formed by tectonic forces, like folding and faulting (e.g., anticlines, fault
traps, salt domes).
Stratigraphic traps: Result from changes in rock type or properties, often due to variations
in sedimentation or diagenesis (e.g., pinch-outs, porosity changes).
Combination traps: Combine elements of both structural and stratigraphic traps (e.g.,
paleogeomorphic traps).
Understanding the type of trap is crucial for exploration and production as it influences the
location, size, and extraction methods of hydrocarbon reserves.
Q42. There are two types of binding material in sandstone: one is cement and the other is
argillaceous matrix. How is argillaceous matrix formed?
Argillaceous matrix (Authigenic Clay) is formed “in-place” by the degradation of other
minerals, typically feldspars. These often form the matrix around the sand grains, binding
them together into consolidated sandstone.
Q43. Name the rocks which are frequently deposited in deltaic environment.
Thick beds of clay, claystone, shale, siltstone, sand, sandstone, occasional beds of lignite and
minor beds of limestone and dolomite.
Notes: Limestones are mostly deposited in shallow marine environment, where coral reef
and marine organism thrive. Shallow marine lagoons with abundant micro-organisms and
with right conditions of precipitation of calcium carbonate also provide suitable
environment for limestone deposition.
Q44. What are drilling related problems associated with clay, claystone and shale?
Gumbo or clay often blocks flow line, possum belly and shale shaker while drilling shallower
section.
Claystone being very plastic formation creates hole ballooning affect if mud weight is too
high. It can also swell and create tight hole condition
Shale can excessively cave in and can make hole unstable
Q45. What is hole bridge? What causes it? What problems are associated with hole
bridge?
A hole bridge is an obstruction in the open hole section caused by local collapse of hole
against a friable formation like coal or in deviated hole section against highly fissile shale.
Severe hole bridges may result in drill pipe and wireline tool getting held up or even stuck.
Sometime we may have to snap wireline or drill string and go for fishing job. All this causes
delay and cost money.
Q46. What is the significance of study of shale cavings?
Here’s a breakdown of the different types of shale cavings and the information they reveal:
1. Splintered Cavings:
• Shape: Thin, elongated, and roughly rectangular with sharp edges.
• Size: Typically centimetre-long size, but can range from 1mm to 10cm.
• Information: Indicate shear failure, often caused by drilling too fast through low-
permeability shale or underbalanced drilling. They suggest the presence of pre-existing
planes of weakness in the rock.
2. Platy Cavings:
• Shape: Flat and plate-like with smooth, planar surfaces.
• Size: Can vary significantly, from centimeter- long size to large slabs.
• Information: Suggest tensile failure, often due to rapid pressure changes or stress
concentrations around the wellbore. They may indicate the presence of bedding planes or
natural fractures in the shale. Platy Shale Cavings.
3. Blocky Cavings:
• Shape: Irregular, angular chunks with no distinct faces.
• Size: Highly variable, ranging from small fragments to large blocks.
• Information: Indicate mechanical failure, often caused by the direct impact of the drill bit
or poor hole cleaning practices. They suggest the presence of weak or fractured zones in the
shale.
4. Coffee-Ground Cavings:
• Shape: Fine, granular particles resembling coffee grounds.
• Size: Millimeter-sized or smaller.
• Information: Represent the breakdown of larger cavings, typically shale with high water
sensitivity. They indicate ongoing instability and potential drilling fluid contamination.
Extra points:
• Surface texture: Smooth surfaces point towards pre-existing planes of weakness, while
rough surfaces suggest mechanical failure.
• Presence of drilling fluid: Cavings coated in drilling fluid indicate active caving, while dry
cavings may represent past instability events.
Q. What equipment and chemicals do you need to evaluate cuttings?
Ans. Following equipments and chemicals are needed:
Binocular Microscope
Sample Trays
Forceps
Probe (Stainless steel needle)
Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
Concentrated hydrochloric Acid
Phenolphthalein
Alizarine Red
Solvent (Chlorothene / Acetone/Carbon Tetrachloride)
Q47. How do you describe color of a rock grain?
Color of cutting is best described using the ‘Rock Color Chart’ for the purpose of accuracy
and consistency. Same rock type may show Variations in color. This variation is described
starting from most dominant colour to least dominant color.
Q48. What imparts colour to lithologies and what is the significance of colour of rocks?
The color to the sedimentary rock is imparted by three main factors:
1. Oxidation state of iron
2. Amount of carbonaceous matter
Remarks:
Minerals and depositional environments are the major factors that give colors to a
sedimentary rock. Presence of manganese will give black or dark grey color to the rock.
Similarly, carbonaceous matter and organic matter will give dark grey to grey colors to rocks.
Iron minerals may give red or green color depending upon whether it is ferric or ferrous
oxide.
Colours may often tell us the depositional environments for example a red colour may
indicate presence of ferric oxide which originates in oxidising depositional environment.
Reducing environments usually give green colour to iron minerals which in turn give
greenish colour to the rocks. Sometimes, greenish colour imparted to sandstone or shale
could be due to abundant glauconite; which is formed in warm shallow marine waters. 3.
Abundance of colored mineral
Q49. What is difference between hardness and induration?
Hardness of a sedimentary rock indicates its resistance to abrasion or penetration. Whereas
induration is a process whereby sediments are converted into a solid rock. Induration
involves compaction, cementation and recrystallization. More the compaction, more the
cementation and more the recrystallization, harder will be rock and slower will it be drilled.
This is the reason why ROP slows down with depth.
Q50. Can you arrange common sedimentary rocks according to their hardness?
Here are the sedimentary rocks with increasing hardness: Clay & unconsolidated sandstone
followed by coal and claystone followed by shale and sandstone followed by limestone then
dolomite. This is a general arrangement but there may be exceptions specially when it
comes to sandstone.
Q51. How do you classify sand grains based on size? Why do we study and record grain
sizes?
For the purpose cutting description, sand grains are classified as very coarse, coarse,
medium, fine and very fine grained. The size of grains indicates the reservoir potential as
coarse and very coarse-grained sandstones show better porosity and permeability compare
to fine and very fine-grained sandstone. Coarse and very coarse-grained sands indicate high
energy environments such as revers, deltas. Fine and very fine-grained sandstones usually
do not form very potential reservoirs as the porosity and permeability are comparatively
low. They are deposited in low energy environments like lake, deep marine basins.
Q52. How do you classify the grains shapes? What insight does the study of grain
morphology gives us?
Grains’ shape is classified as well rounded, rounded, subrounded, subangular, angular. Like
grain sizes grain shapes also tell us the reservoir potential, depositional energy and to some
extent the source of sediments. Well-rounded and well sorted grains show good reservoir
potential and high energy environment. Conversely dominance of angular and poorly sorted
grains indicate poor reservoir potential, short distance of transport and nearby source of
sediments.
Q53. What is difference between cement and matrix?
Cement develops by the crystallization of calcite or silica around the grain boundaries in
void spaces. It binds sediments into hard compact rock. Cementation is a post depositional
phenomenon. Whereas matrix is formed by deposition of clay and silt size particles (usually
weathering product of feldspar). It does bind sediments but does not give the same
strength to rock as cement. Both cement and matrix reduce porosity and permeability
Notes:
Usually cement whether siliceous or calcareous are of light colour and amorphous in nature
whereas matrix is usually greyish or brownish in colour and is argillaceous in texture.
Usually cement is secondary in nature (formed after deposition of sandstone) while most
argillaceous matrix is primary in nature. Both cement and argillaceous matrix have negative
effect on reservoir quality.

Quartz Cements: At the wellsite, the presence of quartz cement is often inferred from a
negative reaction to 10% HCL. If sandstone grain shows very slow reaction to dilute HCl, that
can be taken as the evedence of calcareous cement.
Q54. What are some of the structures you can identify on a limestone conventional core?
What is their significance?
Some of the important structures that can be visually identified on a limestone conventional
core are: fractures, fissures, joints, vugs, stylolites Evidence of partial infilling in the form of
mineralization and crystal growth may sometime be seen. While these structures usually
enhance permeability to extreme level, they can some time cause hindrance to flow of oil if
the fractures are not interconnected and or are sealed with infills.
Q55. How do you describe the porosity in limestone cuttings?
On the rig we use simplest classification and describe porosity in terms of primary and
secondary. Primary porosity is one that develops in between the grains (intergranular) at
the time of deposition and gets modified during compaction. For description purpose it is
further classified as nil, poor, fair, good and excellent.
Secondary porosity develops post deposition and may be intragranular in nature. Examples
of secondary porosity are vugs, fractures, fissures. This type of porosity though may not be
seen in smaller cuttings yet it may be present in abundance.
Q56. What are the common accessory minerals that you frequently see in the cuttings and
make record of?
Commonly seen accessories are glauconite, pyrite, carbonaceous matter, microfossils, etc
etc.

Comprehensive Shale Description for Mudloggers:

Important Points on Clay, Claystone and Shale:
Shale formations are most commonly encountered during drilling. These present unique
challenges and opportunities during drilling operations. Accurate and detailed shale
descriptions in mud logs are vital for better decision-making, optimizing drilling parameters,
and evaluating hydrocarbon potential. This guide provides a comprehensive overview of key
characteristics to observe and record when encountering shale formations.
1. Color
Shale colour provides valuable insights into its composition and depositional environment.
Mud logs should meticulously record colour variations to aid in lithological correlation and
formation identification.Dark gray to black: Indicates high organic content, suggesting
potential source rock properties. This observation should trigger further investigation into
the shale’s hydrocarbon generation potential.
Greenish-gray: Suggests the presence of minerals like chlorite or glauconite, which can
impact the shale’s mechanical properties and its response to drilling fluids.
Reddish-brown: May indicate oxidation of iron minerals, suggesting deposition in a
continental or shallow marine environment with fluctuating oxygen levels.
2. Texture
Shale texture, typically observed in drill cuttings, provides clues about the depositional
environment and potential drilling challenges.
Smooth and soft: Characteristics indicate clay and claystone. Clay and claystone can pose
challenges related to wellbore stability, requiring careful mud weight management.
Fissililty: Fissility differentiates between claystone and shale. Highly fissile shale under
stress can create downhole problems.
Laminations: Indicate deposition in low-energy environments like deep marine or lacustrine
settings. Laminated shales can be prone to splitting and sloughing, potentially leading to
hole instability.
3. Hardness and Brittleness
Assessing shale hardness and brittleness is crucial for optimizing drilling parameters and
evaluating reservoir potential.
Hardness: Inferred from rate of penetration (ROP) and drill bit wear. Hard shales can slow
down drilling and increase bit wear, requiring adjustments to drilling parameters. On
mudlog hardness is described as very hard, hard, firm, soft.
Brittleness: Brittle shales are more susceptible to fracturing, making them favorable targets
for hydraulic stimulation. Mud logs should note any indications of brittleness observed in
cuttings.
4. Fossil Content
The presence of fossils in shale cuttings provides valuable information about the
depositional age and paleoenvironment.
Microfossils and plant debris: Can be used for biostratigraphic correlation, helping to refine
the geological model and identify potential source rocks. Mud loggers should carefully
document any observed microfossils.
5. Organic Matter Content
Organic matter content is a key indicator of source rock potential. Mud logs should include
observations related to organic content.
Cuttings’ colour and fluorescence: Dark color and fluorescence under UV light suggest high
organic content.
Hydrocarbon indications: The presence of oil stains or gas shows in organic-rich shales
should be carefully recorded.
6. Reactivity with Acid
While shales generally exhibit minimal reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid, any observed
reaction should be noted.
Calcareous shales: These shales contain calcium carbonate and will react with acid,
distinguishing them from other shale types.
Shale-Related Drilling Challenges
Shales can pose significant drilling challenges due to their unique mechanical and chemical
properties. Mud logs play a crucial role in identifying and mitigating these challenges.
Swelling and Hydration: Clay minerals, particularly smectite, can absorb water and swell,
leading to wellbore instability. Mud logs should track any indications of swelling clays, such
as increased cavings or changes in mud properties.
Sloughing Shale: Mechanical failure of shale formations can result in increased cuttings and
potential hole collapse. Mud loggers should be vigilant in observing and reporting any signs
of sloughing shale.
Shale Cavings: High-pressure shales usually produce large amount cavings indicating
presence of overpressure zone.
Shale as a Hydrocarbon Indicator
Shale formations can act as source rocks, seals, or even reservoirs for hydrocarbons. Mud
logs provide critical data for evaluating these roles.
Source Rock Potential: Black, organic-rich shales are evaluated for their total organic carbon
(TOC) content and thermal maturity to assess their potential to generate hydrocarbons.
Seal Rock Properties: Shales with low permeability can effectively trap hydrocarbons,
preventing their migration. Mud logs should note any indications of shale formations acting
as seals.
Reservoir Potential: In unconventional plays, shales themselves can be reservoirs (shale oil,
shale gas). Mud logs should record observations related to gas levels and brittleness to
assess reservoir quality.
Sand and Sandstone Descriptions in Mud Logs: A Guide for Mudlogging Geologists
Sand and sandstone formations are frequently encountered during drilling operations, and
their characteristics can significantly influence drilling decisions and reservoir potential. As a
mudlogging geologist, it’s crucial to ensure detailed and accurate descriptions of these
formations are captured in mud logs. Here’s a breakdown of key features to observe and
document:
1. Grain Size and Sorting
Grain size and sorting are fundamental properties of sand and sandstone.

Grain Size: Use standard grain size scales (e.g., Wentworth scale) to describe grain size
ranging from very fine to very coarse. Note any variations in grain size within the formation,
as this can indicate changes in depositional energy or source material.
2. Composition
Identifying the mineral composition of sand grains provides valuable information about the
source rock and depositional environment.
Quartz: The most common mineral in sandstone due to its durability. Abundance of quartz
suggests a mature sediment that has undergone significant transport and weathering.
Feldspar: Presence of feldspar indicates a less mature sediment, potentially derived from
granitic or volcanic source rocks.
Rock Fragments: Note the presence and types of rock fragments (lithic fragments), as they
can provide clues about the source area and tectonic setting.
3. Roundness and Sphericity: The shape of sand grains reflects the transport history and
depositional environment.
Roundness: Describe the degree of rounding, ranging from angular to well-rounded. Well-
rounded grains suggest prolonged transport, while angular grains indicate minimal
transport or glacial deposition.
Sphericity: Assess how closely the grain shape approaches a sphere. High sphericity often
indicates wind transport, while low sphericity may suggest transport by water or ice.
Sorting: suggests medium of transport (Air, Warer or Ice) as well as distance of
transport. Assess the degree of sorting, ranging from well-sorted (grains of similar size) to
poorly sorted (a wide range of grain sizes).

4. Cementation
Cementation is the process by which minerals bind sand grains together to form
sandstone. It often indicates depth of burial.
Cement Type: Identify the cementing material (e.g., silica, calcite, iron oxide). Silica cement
often indicates deep burial and high temperatures, while calcite cement suggests shallow
burial or groundwater activity.
Cementation Degree: Describe the degree of cementation, ranging from weakly cemented
(friable) to well-cemented (hard). Cementation significantly impacts the porosity and
permeability of the sandstone.
5. Color: Sandstone color can provide clues about its composition and depositional
environment.
White/Light Gray: Often indicates pure quartz sandstone.
Yellow/Brown/Red: Suggests the presence of iron oxide cement.
Green: May indicate the presence of glauconite or chlorite.
6. Sedimentary Structures
Sedimentary structures preserved in sandstone provide insights into the depositional
environment. These structures are seen in conventional cores:
Cross-bedding: Indicates deposition by currents (wind or water) and can reveal flow
direction.
Ripple Marks: Formed by wave action or currents and can indicate water depth and flow
direction.
Bioturbation: Evidence of burrowing organisms, suggesting deposition in a shallow marine
or lacustrine environment.
Sand and Sandstone-Related Drilling Challenges: Sand and sandstone formations can
present specific drilling challenges:
Lost Circulation: Highly permeable formations can lead to minor loss of drilling fluid.
Mudlogger should track any significant increases in mud loss.
Sand Production: Unconsolidated or weakly cemented sand grains can flow into the
wellbore, causing problems with drilling equipment and wellbore stability. Mudlogger
should note any signs of sand production.
Differential Sticking: Permeable sand formations can cause the drill string to become stuck
due to pressure differentials. Mud logs should record any indications of sticking.
Sand and Sandstone as Reservoir Rocks
Sandstone is a common reservoir rock for hydrocarbons. Mudlogs provide essential data for
evaluating reservoir potential.
Porosity and Permeability:
These properties determine the sandstone’s ability to store and transmit fluids. Mud logs
should include any information related to porosity and permeability, such as drill time, ROP,
and cuttings analysis.
Hydrocarbon Shows:
The presence of oil stains or gas shows in sandstone cuttings should be carefully
documented.
Formation Pressure:
Monitoring formation pressure while drilling through sandstone intervals is crucial for well
control and reservoir evaluation.
Limestone Descriptions for Mudlogs and Core Analysis:
Limestone, a carbonate sedimentary rock, is a common encounter in drilling
operations. Accurate descriptions of limestone in mudlog and core analysis are essential for
understanding the geological context, optimizing drilling parameters, and evaluating
reservoir potential. Vuggy or fractured limestones can lead to loss of drilling fluid.
Mud Log Descriptions
1. Texture and Grain Size
Crystalline: Assess the crystal size, ranging from microcrystalline (very fine) to coarsely
crystalline. Note if crystals are visible to the naked eye.
Grain Types: Identify the presence of different grain types:
Skeletal grains: Fragments of marine organisms (e.g., corals, shells, crinoids).
Ooids: Small, spherical grains formed by concentric layers of calcium carbonate.
Peloids: Small, rounded grains of microcrystalline carbonate.
Intraclasts: Fragments of pre-existing limestone.
Texture: Describe the overall texture (e.g., grainstone, packstone, wackestone, mudstone)
based on the relative abundance of grains and mud.
2. Color
White to light gray: Common in pure limestones.
Tan to brown: May indicate the presence of organic matter or iron oxides.
Other colors: Less common but can occur due to various impurities.
3. Hardness and Brittleness
Hardness: Generally softer than many other rock types.
Brittleness: Can vary, with some limestones being more brittle than others.
4. Fossil Content
Macrofossils:
Note the presence and types of larger fossils (e.g., shells, corals).
This can aid in age determination and paleoenvironmental interpretation.
Microfossils:
Require microscopic examination but can provide valuable information about age and
depositional environment.
5. Reaction with Acid
Effervescence: Limestone reacts readily with dilute hydrochloric acid, producing visible
bubbles of carbon dioxide.
Intensity of reaction: Note the intensity of the reaction (e.g., vigorous, moderate, weak) as
it can provide clues about the purity of the limestone.
6. Drilling Considerations
ROP: Generally, limestone allows for relatively fast drilling rates.
Lost Circulation: Vuggy or fractured limestones can lead to loss of drilling fluid.
Bit Selection: Choose appropriate bits for optimal drilling performance in limestone.
Core Description
1. Visual Inspection
Texture and Grain Size: Examine core with a hand lens to identify grain types and textures.
Color: Note color variations and any staining that may indicate hydrocarbon presence.
Sedimentary Structures: Identify bedding features, cross-bedding, or other structures that
provide clues about the depositional environment.
Fractures and Vugs: Note the presence and orientation of fractures and vugs, as these can
influence porosity and permeability.
2. Laboratory Analysis
Thin Section Petrography: Microscopic examination of thin sections to identify mineral
composition, texture, and diagenetic features.
X-ray Diffraction (XRD): Determine the mineralogical composition of the limestone.
Porosity and Permeability Measurements: Assess the reservoir potential of the limestone.
Geochemical Analysis: Determine the presence of organic matter and other geochemical
indicators.
Limestone as a Reservoir Rock
Porosity: Limestone can have various types of porosity (e.g., intergranular, vuggy, fracture)
that influence its ability to store hydrocarbons.
Permeability: The ability of limestone to transmit fluids can vary significantly depending on
the interconnectedness of pores and fractures.
Hydrocarbon Indicators: Oil staining, fluorescence, and gas shows in cores can indicate the
presence of hydrocarbons.
Limestone Descriptions using Dunham’s Classification
Mud Log Descriptions:
Texture and Grain Size:
Grain Type: As before, identify skeletal grains, ooids, peloids, and intraclasts. This is crucial
for Dunham’s classification.
Dunham’s Classification:
Mudstone: Very fine-grained, mostly mud-supported with less than 10% grains. Often feels
smooth and dull.
Wackestone: Mud-supported with more than 10% grains. Grains may be touching but are
not interlocking.
Packstone: Grain-supported with mud present between grains. Grains are in contact.
Grainstone: Grain-supported with little to no mud between grains. Often appears granular.
Boundstone: Original components bound together during deposition (e.g., reef rock). May
require further description of the binding organisms.
Crystalline Carbonate: Recrystallized limestone where original texture is not discernible.
Describe crystal size.
Color, Hardness, Fossil Content, Acid Reaction: These remain important descriptive
elements as outlined in the previous response.
Core Description:
Visual Inspection:
Dunham’s Classification: Apply the classification based on the observed texture in the core.
Pay close attention to grain-to-mud ratios and grain contact.
Depositional Textures: Look for evidence of specific depositional environments (e.g., cross-
bedding in grainstones might indicate a shoal environment).
Laboratory Analysis:
Thin Section Petrography: Essential for confirming Dunham’s classification and observing
diagenetic alterations.
Other Analyses: XRD, porosity/permeability measurements, and geochemical analysis
remain important.
Example Descriptions:
Mud Log: “Light gray to tan Wackestone, abundant skeletal fragments (mainly crinoids),
moderate reaction with HCl.”
Core Description: “Tan Packstone with well-developed cross-bedding, composed of ooids
and peloids. Porosity appears moderate based on visual inspection.”
Why Dunham’s Classification Matters:
Standardized Terminology: Provides a consistent framework for describing limestone
textures, improving communication between geologists.
Depositional Environment: Helps infer the depositional environment (e.g., mudstones in
low-energy, deeper water; grainstones in higher-energy environments).
Reservoir Quality: Texture influences porosity and permeability, which are key for reservoir
potential.
Dolomite cutting and core descriptions for mudlog:
Dolomite, a carbonate rock composed primarily of the mineral dolomite (calcium
magnesium carbonate), presents unique characteristics that require careful observation and
description in both drill cuttings and core samples. Here’s a comprehensive guide for
wellsite geologists:
Mud Log Descriptions
Texture and Grain Size:
Crystalline:
Assess the crystal size, ranging from microcrystalline (very fine) to coarsely crystalline.
Note if crystals are visible to the naked eye. Dolomite often exhibits a sugary texture due to
its crystalline nature.
Grain Types:
Identify the presence of different grain types:
Euhedral Crystals: Well-formed, distinct crystal shapes.
Anhedral Crystals: Irregularly shaped crystals.
Relict Structures: Ghosts of original textures (e.g., fossil fragments, ooids) that have been
replaced by dolomite.
Color: Gray to dark grey: Common in pure dolomites.
Tan to brown: May indicate the presence of iron or other impurities.
Other colors: Less common but can occur due to various factors.
Hardness and Brittleness:
Hardness: Dolomite is generally harder than limestone.
Brittleness: Can vary, but dolomites tend to be more brittle than limestones.
Weak Effervescence: Dolomite reacts slowly with cold dilute hydrochloric acid.
Core Description:
Visual Inspection:
Texture and Grain Size: Examine core with a hand lens to identify crystal size and shape.
Color: Note color variations and any staining that may indicate hydrocarbon presence.
Sedimentary Structures: Identify bedding features, vugs, or other structures that provide
clues about the depositional environment or diagenetic history.
Fractures: Note the presence and orientation of fractures, as these can influence porosity
and permeability.
Porosity and Permeability Measurements: Assess the reservoir potential of the dolomite.
Geochemical Analysis: Determine the origin of dolomitization (e.g., early or late diagenetic)
and assess the potential for associated mineralization.
Dolomite as a Reservoir Rock
Porosity: Dolomite can have various types of porosity (e.g., intercrystalline, vuggy, fracture)
that influence its ability to store hydrocarbons. Dolomitization can sometimes enhance
porosity.
Permeability: The ability of dolomite to transmit fluids can vary significantly depending on
the interconnectedness of pores and fractures.
Hydrocarbon Indicators: Oil staining, fluorescence, and gas shows in cores can indicate the
presence of hydrocarbons.
Important Considerations:
Distinguishing Dolomite from Limestone: The weak acid reaction and (often) sugary texture
can help distinguish dolomite from limestone in cuttings. Core analysis and laboratory tests
provide definitive identification.
Dolomitization: Dolomitization often enhance reservoir porosity and permeability.
Understanding the timing and process of dolomitization is crucial for interpreting reservoir
quality. Look for evidence of replacement textures or preserved primary features.
By carefully documenting these characteristics in mudlog and core descriptions, Mudlogging
geologists contribute valuable information for understanding the geological context,
optimizing drilling operations, and evaluating the hydrocarbon potential of dolomite
formations.
Q57. What are the major steps involved in evaluating oil shows?
Usually, 5 steps are involved to describe oil shows:
1. Odor
2. Visible oil stains
3. Direct fluorescence
4. Cut fluorescence.
5. Residual ring

Additional Notes:
If petroliferous odor is present describe its intensity as faint, moderate or strong. Look at
the sample in natural light and see if oil stains are visible. If you are unable to see the oil on
cuttings in natural light; mention ‘no visible oil stains. However, if oil stains are present
describe the colour and sheen as well as its distribution. Traces, spotty, streaky, patchy or
uniform.
In order to observe the direct oil fluorescence, put the sample tray inside UV Box. Roughly
estimate the percentage of grains showing direct fluorescence (traces, <5% or >5% or >10%
etc.) also mention the distribution (pinpoint, streaky, patchy, uniform). Next, record
intensity of fluorescence eg. Pale, dull, bright.
Cut fluorescence is observed when an oil-bearing grain is emersed in solvent. Solvent
dissolves the oil from inside the pore spaces and make it leach out, which under fluorescent
light is seen as streaming out in various shades of colors from milky white to dark brown in
color. Speed of cut is also noted and recorded apart from the color of residual ring.

Q58. What is the significance of color of fluorescence?

Observation of color of fluorescence gives a very early idea about the quality of oil. Lighter
colors and brighter intensity are associated with lighter or good quality oil (oil with high API
gravity) and dull and darker colors of fluorescence are associated with heavy oils (Low API
gravity).
Q59. Why do we record color of residual ring?
Color of residual ring is the natural color of oil. A very light brown film indicates good quality
light oil. Conversely a dark brown heavy film indicates heavy oil.
Q60. How do you define the speed of cut fluorescence? What is its significance?
When solvent is applied to the grain in a dimple tray, the oil reacts with solvent and leaches
out of the grain. The speed with which the oil cuts can be described as no cut, slow cut,
moderate cut, fast cut or instant cut. Fast to instant cut is indicative of excellent porosity
and permeability of the reservoir. It also shows oil saturation is good and that oil is not
heavy. While a slow cut will indicate a heavy oil or poor porosity and permeability.
Q61. If you have run out of solvent, how will you evaluate oil shows?
We can still see direct fluorescence. If the grains showing direct fluorescence are not the
minerals known for mineral fluorescence, then it can safely be assumed that the direct
fluorescence is due to presence of oil in the cuttings. Additionally, we can pick those grains
showing direct fluorescence and lightly squeeze between the blotting paper. After sometime
it will leave a greasy mark on the paper. Another technique to see the presence of oil could
be to take mud sample in a watch glass and see it under microscope you may see minute
bubbles of oil popping up on the surface. Under fluoroscope you may see oil film on the
surface showing direct fluorescence. Bear in mind these techniques will have limited
efficacy if OBM is in use.
Q62. If you have solvent but the fluoroscope is broken i.e., no fluorescent light tube is
available on the rig? How will you evaluate oil show in this situation?
If fluoroscope is broken, we may try putting the cuttings in hot water. Hot water to a great
extent helps oil come out of grain and float on the surface where a sheen of oil can be seen.
Holding the suspected grains in blotting paper may also leave greasy mark further
confirming the presence of oil. However, these techniques will not work if we are using oil
base mud.
Q63. What are the pitfalls that a mudlogger should be aware of during evaluating oil
shows?
There are many pitfalls that a mudlogger should be aware of. Some of them are:
1. Use of OBM may give false indication of fluorescence to an inexperienced mudlogger.
Also, the background fluorescence of the sample due to OBM may cause to miss the low
intensity shows of the same color.
2. Certain contaminations in the mud like pipe dop, minerals like calcium carbonate, barite
etc. may give false indication of positive fluorescence.
3. Very large size cuttings and hot cuttings may show low intensity, weaker fluorescence.
4. Improper selection of UV light tube and poor quality of solvent may also adversely affect
the fluorescence description.
Note: Please ensure the quality of solvent is good. Contaminated or expired solvent show
light milky colour under fluorescent light. A good quality solvent remain colourless and
transparent under fluorescent light.
Q64. How is hydrocarbon gas detected while drilling an oil well?
While drilling an oil well, gas is detected in mudlogging unit by first extracting it from drilling
fluid that is coming out of hole. For this purpose, a gas trap is installed in a small ditch called
possum belly. The gas is then transported to mudlogging unit through a plastic tubing;
where it is analyzed by two different machines. One called Total Gas Detector that tells you
the total amount of hydrocarbon gases in the air gas mixture, being sucked from gas trap.
The other called Chromatograph separates the individual hydrocarbon gases like methane,
ethane…pentane and analyzes to tell us the amount of individual gases present.

Q65. What is difference between Total Gas Detector and Chromatograph?

Total gas detector analyse the mixture of all hydrocarbon gases and tells us total amount of
hydrocarbon gases put together. Total gas levels and various peaks indicate the down hole
condition specially the balance between hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure.
Which help in taking corrective measure for the safety of drilling operation. Whereas, a
chromatograph analyse each hydrocarbon gas component and shows the quantity of each
gas type. This information tells us the hydrocarbon potential of various beds and
formations. This helps a geologist in identifying a possible hydrocarbon reservoir at an early
stage. In a nut shell it can be said that Total Gas Detector acts as a safety device that helps
us in identifying down hole problems, whereas Chromatograph helps us in identifying
hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Q66. What in your opinion is a better unit to record total gas? Percentage or unit?
Unit system in my opinion is a better option. Percentage gives an erroneous perception to
many engineers on the rig. 20% gas to some on the rig may mean that there is 20% gas and
80% mud in the annulus. Which is wrong. It actually means that the air gas mixture that we
are sucking from the gas trap contains 20% gas and rest 80% is air.
Q67. If we are drilling target reservoir but our gas machines are not showing any
significant increase in gas level. What will you do to check your gas system?
We can check the followings in priority order:
1. Check degasser: level and mud coming out of it is OK. No water or mud in the alti glass tube
2. Check gas line: to make sure line is not blocked with mud or water. If line is clean check for hole or cut in
the line. To do this ask sample catcher to take the gas line off the degasser and close it with the thumb. If
the ball on the suction meter on total gas detector falls to zero; line is good. If the ball does not fall to zero
that means the line has got a small hole or a cut somewhere. Change the line and see the results. If the gas
readings remain low
3. Give an injection of gas mixture directly into the gas line from degasser end. If you see the readings of all
gasses your system is working.
4. Next, check the calibration of total gas detector and chromatograph. If calibration is good. Your gas
machines are good. Absence of gas may be due to geological reasons, such as a fault, or intersecting the
reservoir at structurally lower level.
Q68. What are the parameters that can affect the total gas readings?
There are many parameters that can affect the gas readings. Some of them are:
1. Gas saturation in the formation: more the saturation more the readings
2. Porosity and permeability: as porosity and permeability of rock increase so do the gas.
3. Rate of Penetration: Gas readings increase with increasing ROP
4. Mud Density: As MW increases (with formation pressure staying normal) gas goes down
5. Flow Rate: With increasing FR total gas level increases
6. Formation Pressure: An increasing formation pressure will show up higher background
gas and gas peaks.
7. Degasser inefficiency and fluctuations in mud level will reduce gas readings
Q69. What are different types of gas traps (degassers) you are aware of?
Basically, there are two types of gas traps: 1. Pneumatic motor gas traps and 2. Electric
motor gas traps. Further electric motor gas traps are of two types: 1. Conventional (non-
volumetric) Gas Traps and 2. Volumetric Gas Traps.
Nonvolumetric gas traps degas large amount of mud for a very short period of time as a
result they do not efficiently extract heavier hydrocarbon gases like C3, iC4, nC4, iC5 and
nC5. Therefore, chromatographic analysis does not truly represent the gas composition in
the reservoir; hence it is generally not used for gas ratio analysis.
On the other hand, volumetric degasser takes a small amount of mud and degas it for
sufficient amount of time to be able to extract all heavier components of gas from mud. As
the chromatographic analysis with volumetric degasser gives quite reliable results it is used
with caution to perform gas ratio analysis for predicting nature of reservoir fluid.

Q70. What gas detection principles are usually used by total gas detectors and
chromatographs for mudlogging purpose?
Usually, two types of detection principles are used to analyze hydrocarbon gases: 1. FID or
Flame Ionization Detection and 2. TCD or Thermal Conductivity Detection (old method not
used now). TCD chromatographs perform nondestructive analysis, meaning that they do not
burn the gases in order to analyze them. Therefore, subsequent to analysis, these gases
should be provided safe exit out of machine and out of unit to avoid build up of
hydrocarbon gases inside the mudlogging unit to the point where an explosion may take
place.
FID chromatographs perform destructive gas analysis, meaning, hydrocarbon gases get
burned during the processes of analysis.
FID based chromatographs have now replaced almost all other types of chromatographs
because they provide base-line stability and maintain calibration for a longer period of time.
Also, the analysis is more accurate and efficient. These chromatographs have very high
sensitivity to organic (hydrocarbon) gases and zero sensitivity to inorganic gases like
nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.
Q71. Explain the detection principle of FID Chromatographs.
The FID detection chamber has an electrode and a flame. The burning flame is maintained
by hydrogen and air supply. When a gas sample from gas column enters the detection cell it
gets burned. As the organic compounds (hydrocarbon gases) burn they produce cations
(When carbon atoms in a molecule subjected to combustion, they loose electrons and
release positively charged ions called cat ions). These cations are attracted and deposited on
to electrode. The deposition of cations on electrode generates current. The more the
hydrocarbon gas mor will be the carbon atoms, more cations will be deposited on electrode
and more current will be generated that current or voltage is converted to amount of gas by
the computer according to calibration.
Q72. Explain the detection principle of TCD Chromatographs.
Inside the chromatograph, there is a TCD detection cell, that contains tungsten filaments at
constant current and temperature. When a gas sample passes over the heated tungsten
filament it has a cooling effect on filament and that changes its voltage. More the gas more
will be effect on the temperature of filament, that will create a high voltage difference. This
voltage difference is converted to amount of gas by the computer software according to
calibration.
Q73. Why FID technology has replaced TCD technology in present day chromatographs?
FID is more accurate even at traces level, baseline is more stable and so is calibration over a
long period of time. More over FID provides destructive gas analysis where as TCD performs
non-destructive analysis. If TCD chromatograph is in use, one has to ensure that the used
hydrocarbon gases are released outside the unit. For any reason if gases start building up
inside the unit, they may reach to a saturation point where an explosion may take place
inside the unit. Many mudlogging units have experienced this accident in and around
eighties.
Q74. What is difference between True Zero Gas and Background Zero Gas?
These are not commonly used terms; nevertheless, some companies use these terms. True
zero gas level is achieved by passing air through the gas detector. True gas zero is ensured
prior to performing calibration at the beginning of drilling. Background zero gas is observed
when we circulate off-bottom in a clean and balanced hole. This is the gas released either
from the contaminations in the mud and or from recycling of gas. This level is considered as
the baseline for the background gas.
Q75. What is background gas?
It is a consistent level of gas recorded while drilling a thick formation. In clastic formation it
is the gas that is recorded against a thick shale section, while in carbonate area it could be
the consistent low level of gas from limestone. Any significant positive deviation from the
background may be considered as gas show.
Q76. How will you define a gas show?
A gas show is any significant positive deviation of total gas from background level but not all
gas peaks can be taken as gas show. However, on chromatograph a gas show can be
confidently recognised by significant increase in gas levels and appearance of heavier gases.
Q77. What is a connection gas? What is its significance?
A connection gas peak is produced in the bottom of hole at the time of connection when we
have near-balanced or slightly underbalanced condition in the hole. While drilling
abnormally high-pressure zone, if formation pressure increases near to or equal to
hydrostatic pressure, then drop of ECD to static MW (caused by stopping circulation) and
swabbing action of bit during connection produce connection gas peak. (Both ECD
becoming equal to static MW and swabbing action tend to reduce hydrostatic pressure).
Connection gas peak appears on the screen after one lag time from connection. Consistent
appearance of connection gas peaks on two or more connections is an indication of
underbalanced condition (overpressure zone) in the hole.
Pump off gas has a similar origin and significance.
Q78. What is trip gas?
A trip gas peak shows up when circulation resumes after a trip. Its origin is not very clearly
understood. A general perception is that while POOH some minor swabbing takes place that
reduces the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom and allow gas to percolate into the bottom
of hole. (Bottom part, probably being freshly drilled is not sealed with mud cake) Trip gas
peak appears one lag time after the start of circulation on the bottom. Unusually high trip
gas may also indicate presence of a gas zone or under-balanced condition (overpressure
zone).
Wiper trip gas or short trip gas has same origin and significance.

Notes:
There are many different mechanisms by which formation gas can enter into borehole. Knowing these
mechanisms are important for a mudloggers in order to correctly interpret gas shows and critical down
hole conditions. Many terms are assigned to gas peaks and are widely used on oil rigs, like, trip gas,
connection gas, pump-off gas, SIT or LCT, recycled gas etc. etc. A clear understanding of these is crucial for
all mudloggers.
Gas released by the action of bit, in other words by crushing the rock during drilling is called Liberated
Gas. This is the formation gas that tells us hydrocarbon shows. All other gas peaks are Produced Gas, for
example trip gas and connection gas. These gasses usually enter from the wall of open hole, although some
amount may be contributed from the bottom as well. The size and presence or absence of these peaks
depend upon differential pressure (difference between hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure).
A recycled gas peak on the other hand has nothing to do with formation potential or pressure differential. It
is produced when mud properties are less than optimum, specially, when the viscosity of mud is very high.
So, some of the gas in mud is retained and is not separated on surface. It can easily be identified as it
appears only after one complete cycle of circulation (lag time +surface to bottom time).
Q79. What are the two important functions that a gas chromatograph performs?
Two main functions of a chromatograph are:
1. Separating individual hydrocarbon gases from the gas mixture
2. Quantitatively analysing individual hydrocarbon gases
Q80. Where does the separation of individual gases from gas mixture take place inside
chromatograph?
The separation of individual gases takes place inside the spring shaped, aluminum/steel
tubes called gas columns.
Q81. What is the use of solenoid valve in chromatograph?
Solenoid valve in a chromatograph plays crucial roles:
1. It controls the flow of carrier gas (nitrogen or helium). Carrier gas pushes the sample gas
in the gas column tube. The valve also back flushes the column to get rid of the leftover
heavier gases.
2. A dedicated solenoid valve controls the injection of sample into the gas column. Precise
timings and size of sample is necessary for consistency of results.
Q82. What do you understand by gas normalization? Why do we do it?
Gas readings may fluctuate due to variations in certain drilling parameters such as MW, ROP,
hole diameter, Flow rate etc. The effect of these parameters on gas, can mathematically be
removed to a great extent. This process is called gas normalization. It improves the accuracy
in gas quantification and in correlating gas data across the wells.
Q83. Can you explain the basic concept of gas ratio analyses?
Gas ratio analysis deals with study of amount of various gases in relation to one another (C1
to C5). Gas ratio analysis gives us the first approximate idea whether the reservoir is dry or
gas bearing or oil bearing. The basic premise is that the potential of hydrocarbon increases
with the appearance of increasingly heavier gases in the chromatogram. Roughly speaking
presence of C1 alone may indicate a dry gas of biogenic origin and that reservoir is
uncommercial. Presence of abundant C1 along with some C2 and C3 gases may indicate a
possible gas reservoir. While presence of all gases including C4 and C5 in certain ratios may
indicate presence of oil in reservoir. Many studies have produced many types of gas ratio
analyses. One needs to identify which type of ratio plot works better in one’s
field. Sometimes we may have to slightly modify the ratio to get better results in a particular
field.
Q84. What are some potential sources of error in gas detection?
There are many things that can affect the accuracy of gas data, like
1. Calibration: Calibration can sometime get contaminated or the baseline gets drifted
without any warning. Therefore, it should be checked occasionally and specially prior to
drilling reservoirs.
2. Degasser (gas trap) in the possum belly should be at optimum level. Any starvation or
flooding of degasser will give erroneous gas readings.
3. Water or vapor in gas line may affect gas readings. Hence line should be physically
inspected frequently and flushed out if needed. Also ensure gas passes through clean and
dry calcium chloride (drying agent). It should be changed if it becomes wet or watery.

Sometime gas line may develop a hole or get cut, thereby lowering the gas level and
diluting the gas-shows.

Air-inlet and gas outlet on degasser (gas trap) may sometime get blocked with mud,
thereby blocking the gas readings. Same may happen when mud or water gets accumulated
in alti-glass tube.
Q85. What are the latest technologies and innovations being introduced to gas
chromatography?
Continued research and development in the field of gas chromatography are leading to
incorporation of many innovations, such as:
o High resolution chromatograms. With reduced analysis time, we can pick thinly bedded
reservoirs
o Now technology is available to provide on-site analysis of stable isotopes. Isotopic ratios
can, among many things, establish connectivity between the reservoirs. Understanding
compartmentalization of reservoirs may help design a better production strategy
o Machine learning algorithms are being trained to interpret wholistic data, potentially
identifying formation changes and gas shows even before traditional gas analyses are
complete.
Q86. Can you name the tracks on mudlog from left to right?
Ans. Ans. The tracks on mudlog are organized from left to right are: 1 ROP Track 2 Depth
Track. 3 Lithology Track 4 Total Gas Track, Chromatographic Analyses Track. 5 Interpretation
lithology and Oil Show track. 6. Remarks / Lithology Description Track
Q86. What is the significance of mudlog?
Mudlog, also called masterlog is one of the most important documents of well record. It is a
record of many parameters against depth such as ROP, lithology, gas, hydrocarbon
evaluation, and technical observations made during the course of drilling the well. It plays
an important role in evaluating the current well and planning and drilling future wells safely.
Under certain circumstances, where electric logs could not be recorded, major decisions like
whether to test or plug and abandon were taken based on mudlog data
Q87. If you are asked to QC a mudlog, how will you proceed?
In order to QC a mudlog, I will pay more attention to the followings:
1. Correctness of information on heading
2. Correctness of all scales
3. Consistency between ROP, Total Gas and lithology interpretation.
4. Technical comments, including mud data, deviation data, bit data etc.
Q88. What does MW on an offset mudlog tells you?
It gives a very crucial information about formation pressure encountered in the well. For
example, if the maximum MW in offset well used was 15 ppg (1.8 sg) it means the area
probably has an overpressure zone of about 14.7ppg (1.76 sg). However, if a well was
successfully drilled using 9 to 10 ppg / (1.1 to 1.2 sg) mud it simply means the formation
pressure in that well is either normal or close to normal.
Q89. What is missing in the following comment on a mudlog: “Increased Mud weight from
11.2 ppg to 11.7 ppg at 9810’MD / 8220’TVD”?
Why the MW was increased is not mentioned. It is a crucial information as MW was
increased in a significant amount. There has to be a significant reason for this substantial
increase. Was it increased to control a kick or to control poor hole condition or because the
hole was showing signs of collapse. Comments sometime need to have context. Complete
comments are very helpful during planning and drilling future wells. (I have used mudlogs as
old as 30 years in order to plan and drill new wells as operations geologist.)
Q90. What is the importance of technical comments on mud log?
Good technical comments not only help understanding lack of drilling progress but also play
a crucial role in handling problems in future offset wells. Knowing the problems
encountered will help us in planning the future wells in a way that will avoid or mitigate the
problems.
Comments on gumbo problem, mudlosses, presence of very hard dolomite or chert streak,
that might damage the bit, positive flow, kicks, poor hole condition and stuck pipe are very
helpful information and must be recorded in comments.
Notes:
Increase MW. Why? Give reason. Over pressure / high gas readings, Connection gas etc./
Poor hole condition
Document any geology related problem eg. Gumbo, dolomite/chert streaks, lost circulation
zones.
Depleted reservoirs (depleted reservoirs may cause DP or wireline tool to get
differentiallstuck)
Overpressured indicators such as connection gas, SIT/LCT results, cavings
Down hole related problems such as tight hole, Cavings, Pipe stuck,
Kick: SHIDPP, SICPP, Mud gain. Current MW , Kill MW
Any Unusual Observations: like key seat, stuck pipe, hole bridge
In case Oil seen on shaker. Try to collect a sample (If possible) and document your
observations.
Presence of H2S, CO2, etc.
Q91. How do we install a mudlogging unit on a rig?
In a nutshell, we place the unit at an optimum and agreed-upon location, arrange power
supply, install sensors, run cables and calibrate the sensors.
Q92. What are, the mudlogging related problems that a Mudlogger may encounter on the
rig?
A Mudlogger may occasionally face different types of problems such as, related to sensors
(sensor failure or dislocation/damage or calibration contamination), Equipment related
problems inside the unit such as flame not burning inside chromatograph, pressurization of
unit not functioning or run out of some of the consumables or spares. Occasionally one
encounters interpersonal issues as well
Q93. Apart from gas, what in your opinion are the two most important sensors that you
would want to keep in the unit as spares?
Depth and SPM sensors. Reason being all other parameters are recorded against depth.
SPM help us in calculating mud flow rate and in turns lagtime and lag depth. Cuttings and
gas data are recorded against lag depth.
Q94. There are about two dozen parameters recorded in a mudlogging unit, which single
parameter in your opinion is most important and why?
Depth is the most important parameter, since all other parameters are recorded against
depth. Without depth, no parameter including gas and cutting description will make any
sense. (Next is SPM as strokes are converted to mud flow and flow rate is converted to lag
time and lag depth…Gas and lithologies are recorded against lag depth).
Q95. What is the name of depth sensor? How does it work?
Depth sensor, currently in use is called Drawworks sensor. It is a disk-shaped sensor fitted on
the shaft of drawworks. Simply speaking this sensor has a fixed source of light and opposite
to it a light sensor is fitted. Now in between the light source and sensor a metal disk is fitted
that rotates on ball bearing with the shaft of drawworks. This disk has holes or small
windows cut around it at the same level at which the light source and sensors are fitted. So
that when the disk rotes and the light source, window and light sensor are aligned a pulse
or a signal is generated.
The principle of drawworks operation is this: As the drum and the axis of drawworks rotate,
it in turn rotates the disk inside the depth sensor, which generates the pulses or signals.
These signals are then converted into vertical movement and speed of the travelling block
and drill string) by computer in accordance to calibration.
Q96. What are the Causes of depth discrepancy? What are its effects? How to pick and
resolve a depth discrepancy issue?
Depth is probably the most important parameter we record as all other parameters and
data are recorded against it. If it is not correct there will be inaccurate correlation with
offset logs and chances of missing the reservoirs (in highly deviated and horizontal wells).
This may cause inaccuracies to creep into planning of upcoming wells as well as in targeting
the objectives. Mudloggers and MWD Engineers normally follow the driller’s depth. Depth
inaccuracy may come either from a typo in driller’s pipe tally or due to wrong measurement
of BHA or missing out a part of BHA or LWD tool. Although these errors are rather rare but
when they are observed they are usually observed at the beginning of new drilling phase.
On rare occasions these mistakes are picked at very advanced stage of drilling phase. Say
400 to 500m have been drilled. In that case applying corrections becomes a nightmare for
mudloggers and MWD engineers. Therefore one should remain alert to this possibility and
pick the pipe discrepancy as soon as it happens
Q97. What is the significance of monitoring of ROP?
Monitoring rate of penetration gives us valuable information about the formation,
formation change as well as an idea about formation pressure. Drill breaks (sudden fast
ROP) sometime gives us a critical warning about a kick and frequently shows a change in
formation. Conversely a slow ROP tells us that the bit is either drilling a hard formation or
has worn out.
Q98. What are surface controlled drilling parameters that can affect ROP?
There are many drilling parameters that can affect rate of penetration: Bit type, bit size, bit
nozzles, WOB, Flow Rate, RPM, MW,
Q99. What is lag depth?
Lag depth is the depth of formation at which it has been drilled and released the gas and
cuttings. These cuttings and gas come to surface after one lag time.
Q100. What is Lag Time?
Lag time is the time taken by gas and cuttings to move from bottom of the hole to the
surface of hole.
Q101. What are the factors that you take into consideration to calculate lag time?
Main factors are: 1. Hole geometry. 2. String OD and ID. 3. Flow rate. 4. Depth
Q102. What are the sources of errors in collecting lagged data and cutting samples?
There may be several reasons for lag samples not being representative. But most of these
inadvertent errors can be checked and corrected. Some of the reasons could be as follows:

1. Wrong lag time due to mistake in calculation or wrong data input

2. A lazy sample catcher not collecting samples at proper time
3. Change in lag time due to severe hole wash-out, especially if the open hole section is log.
Q103. A lag time was checked by rice test. It showed 6 minutes more than the calculated
lag time. How will you explain the difference?
This increase in lag time happens due to wash out in the open hole section and needs to be
adjusted in lag time calculations.
Q104. Looking at mudlog, how will you know if there is a mismatch between lag depth
and measured depth?
By looking at thin streaks of dolomite or coal or even looking at top of sand we can find out
if drill break, lithology and gas peak are in alignment or not. If the three parameters are not
supporting each other at the same level, it will be said that there is a mismatch between the
measured depth and lag depth.
Q105. What do you understand by calibration?
Ans. Calibration is a process whereby we check and adjust the accuracy of a measuring
equipment against a known quantity. For example if we inject 1% gas into total gas detector
and it reads 1%, the machine’s accuracy is said to be good and no adjustment would be
required. On the other hand if it reads 1.1% or 0.9% then the machine needs to be
calibrated (adjusted) to read the injection as 1%.
Q105. What are commonly used digital sensors in mudlogging operations?
SPM, RPM and drawworks sensors may be cited as examples of digital signals.
Q106. Where is hook-load sensor installed?
Hook-load sensor is installed at dead end of drill line on rig floor.
Q107. Why do we monitor and record hook load?
Hook-load is a crucial parameter. Some of the important information it gives is:

1. Tells us total weight of drill string

2. Hook-Load off-bottom – Hook-Load on bottom = Wait on Bit (WOB does not have a
designated sensor but is calculated from Hook-Load)
3. Thresholds set on hook-load tells the machine whether drill string is off-slip or on-slip.
This status decides whether to ignore hook movement or count the movement to show bit
depth and ROP. This is why if Hook Load sensor breaks down we cannot record ROP or bit
depth. More over without looking at hook load driller cannot apply WOB to drill formation.
4. Hook-load tells us if the hole is normal or tight or if there is an accumulation of cuttings at
the bottom (hole fill) or somewhere in between casing shoe and bottom of hole (hole
bridge).
5. If the string gets stuck hook-load will increase by 50% or more without any significant
upward or downward movement of the drill string.
5. If the hook load is suddenly reduced by half or so it could mean that string has parted.
Q108. What is working principle of Hook-Load sensor?
A hook-load sensor is a strain gauge type transducer. When hydraulic pressure is applied on
strain gauge it causes change in electrical resistance proportional to the applied pressure.
This resistance in terms of voltage is calibrated to read pressure in pounds /sq inch or load
in Kilo pounds or in tones
Q109. What are the drilling parameters that we will not be able to record if Hook-Load
sensor breaks down?
We will not be able to record hook load itself, WOB, ROP, Depth and lag Depth.
Q110. How is weight on bit applied on the formation to drill?
Knowing the type and compactness of formation in the area, a range of WOB as well as bits
are suggested in the drilling plan. Softer formations are drilled with lower WOB but as
hardness and compactness of formation increase with depth more and more WOB is to
applied to drill hole efficiently. Only a fraction of weight of BHA is applied on the formation
through the bit. An optimum weight is usually decided by the driller based on his
experience. WOB is equal to the WOH off bottom minus the WOH on-bottom. Applying
WOB mor than required may damage or worn out the bit prematurely. Conversely applying
less than optimum WOB will slow down the progress.
Q111. What do you understand by RPM? What is the name of the force that is required
to rotate the bit
Rotation per minute (RPM) indicates the revolution of bit per minute. It is a crucial
parameter in drilling a hole. So much so, that we cannot drill hole if we cannot rotate the
bit. The force required to rotate the drill string and the bit is called Torque.
Optimum RPM is chosen according to bit type and formation hardness. In general, higher
RPM helps increase ROP in softer formation but in harder formation a moderate RPM is
required to avoid premature bit wearing and to avoid vibrations on drill string which can
damage expensive MWD/LWD tools.
Q112. What are proximity sensors? What is their working principle?
Proximity switches of inductive type are commonly used to count strokes (SPM) and bit
revolution (RPM) in mudlogging units. These sensors have a coil which generates a magnetic
field around the sensor. When a metal objects comes close to the sensor it disturbs the
magnetic field and induces a current in sensor’s coil, which in turn generates a signal.
Mudlogging software then manages the signal count in the form of SPM or RPM as well as
total counts.
Q113. What do you understand by torque? What is its significance in mudlogging?
Torque is a rotational force or twisting force that rotates drill string and bit. It is measured in
Nm (Newton – Meter) or ft-lbs. (foot pounds). Newton is a force required to move one
Kilogram to a distance of one meter in one second. However, in mudlogging unit we
normally record torque in terms of ampere.
Torque is an important parameter that gives critical information about bit condition, hole
condition and nature of formation.
Q114. How does erratic torque look on the chart? What are the possible down hole
conditions it indicates?
An erratic torque shows sharp fluctuations (up and down spikes) on the chart. it is unusually
accompanied with high vibrations on drill string. Erratic torque could be due to anyone or
more of the following causes:
1. Alternate soft and hard thin beds
2. Broken or undergauge bit
3. Stabilizers hitting or reaming the hole wall
4. Drilling on metal junk or on casing of nearby wells.
Q115. What is you interpretation if the torque is occasionally or continuously
increasing?
1. Hard formation
2. Unnecessarily high WOB
3. Unnecessarily high RPM
4. A sharp build or drop in inclination
Q116. Why do we count the strokes of mud pump?
Strokes per minute (SPM) is an important parameter that tells us the amount of mud being
pumped into the hole. The flow rate or circulation rate is a critical component in calculating
lag time and thus assigning lag depths to cuttings and gases.
Q117. What is the significance of monitoring and recording Stand Pipe Pressure (SPP )?
Standpipe pressure indicates the force required to pump mud in and out of the hole. SPP is
primarily affected by the mud density, hole depth and hole geometry including the pipe IDs
and ODs, bit nozzle sizes and cuttings accumulation in the annulus.
Recording and monitoring SPP is important as it can give crucial information about
downhole condition. For example: a slow and continuous drop in SPP could mean a leak in
the pipe, if not on surface then it could be in drill string. If the wash out in drill-string is not
detected in time, it may cause parting of drill pipe. Parting of drill pipe is indicated by a
sudden drop in hook load and standpipe pressure.
A sudden drop in stand pipe alone by 20% to 30% could mean a nozzle has been washed
out. Conversely a sudden increase in SPP by 20% to 30% could mean that one nozzle has
been blocked.
If standpipe pressure is slowly increasing beyond the normal; it could mean that hole
cleaning is not efficient and that there is build up f cuttings in the annulus. This situation
also leads to increase in ECD.
In case SPP quickly shoots up while trying to establish circulation it could mean either drill
pipe got stuck or all three nozzles got blocked. In case hook-load remains normal, all nozzles
are choked. If hook load drastically increases while trying to pull up the pipe then the pipe is
stuck.
Q118. What is working principle of Standpipe Pressure sensor?
A SPP sensor same as hook-load sensor is a strain gauge type transducer. When pressure is
applied on strain gauge it causes change in electrical resistance proportional to the applied
pressure. This resistance in terms of voltage is calibrated to read in pressure in pounds /sq
inch or kilogram per square centimeter Kg/cm2
Q119. Name various types of mud tanks and their uses.
ACTIVE MUD TANKS: are used to circulate during drilling and are closely monitored for mud
loss and gain. It may be a single tank or two or more interconnected tanks.
NON-ACTIVE TANKS: are the spare tanks not connected to active tanks. They are used for
keeping the extra mud in spare to meet out any emergency.
MIXING TANK: in this tank chemicals are mixed to prepare mud.
SUCCION TANK: This tank is connected to the mud pump. It feeds mud to the pump that
forces it into the well and out of it.
SETELLING TANK: This tank is located underneath the shakers or adjacent to them, the
heavier rock particles (called solids) are settled at the bottom of the tank while clean mud
flows from the upper section of the tank.
TRIP TANK: is usually a smaller tank, it is used to fill hole while POOH and take mud returns
while RIH. A smaller size of the tank makes it easy to detect minor changes in the mud
volume (gains or losses)
Q120. How do mud-level sensors work?
Currently ultrasonic sensors are in use. These sensors produce high frequency (ultra sound)
waves which hit the mud and are reflected back to receiver. The travel time is then
converted to distance and then to mud volume.
Q121. Why do we record temperature in and temperature out data? How and for what
purpose do we interpret temperature plot?
Temperature in & out gradients help in identifying over pressure zone.

Notes:
In theory, temperature data is plotted to detect any abnormality in geothermal gradient.
Normally geothermal gradient increases at a constant rate with depth. However, if an over
pressure zone is encountered, the gradient gets disturbed, first it reduces and then
increases at fast rate indicating abnormal formation pressure zone. The higher-than-normal
temperature gradient in overpressure zone is recorded due to the fact that overpressure
zones are undercompacted (porous & permeable); therefore, they contain lots of water in
them. Water is poor conductor of heat compare to solid rocks. Its reduces the transmission
of heat to shallower depths. This trapped heat in pore water increases thermal gradient in
overpressure zone. As water is poor conductor of heat, it does not transmit heat to
shallower depths; that is why we record less than normal thermal gradient above the
overpressure zone (called zone of starvation).
Bear in mind that temperature data by itself, is not a reliable indicator of overpressure zone
as its accuracy is affected by number of factors, such as mixing new mud, adding water to
the circulating mud or breaks in circulation during trip etc. may seriously disturb the trend.
Remarks:
In mudlogging, thermocouple type temperature sensors are generally used. Here is how
thermocouple sensor works:
Construction: A thermocouple consists of two wires made from different metals, joined at
one end to form the measuring point or “hot junction.” The other ends of the wires remain
separate and form the “cold junction.”
Seebeck Effect: When the hot junction experiences a temperature change, it generates a
voltage. This voltage is proportional to the temperature difference between the hot and
cold junctions.
Voltage Measurement: The voltage generated by the thermocouple is measured using a
special instrument called a potentiometer or a voltmeter.
Temperature Conversion: The measured voltage is then converted to a temperature value
using a pre-calibrated table or equation specific to the type of thermocouple used.
Q122. Why do mudloggers record and monitor conductivity or resistivity of mud in and
mud out
A comparison of conductivity in and out plots help us understand the nature of formation
water and sometime formation itself:
If we drill through halite formation, the conductivity of mud will suddenly increase to very
high level
In case of a water kick we can know whether the influx is of saline water or fresh water by
looking at conductivity data.
If we are drilling with sea water-based mud. A slow decrease in conductivity may indicate
that we are drilling through fresh water formation and vice versa.
Conductivity and resistivity are inversely proportional to each other. If one increases the
other decreases. Unit of resistivity is ohm – m and that of conductivity is S/m.
Q123. What type of conductivity sensor is usual used by mudlogging companies?
There are many types of conductivity and resistivity sensors but the one we use for
mudlogging purpose is Elecromagnetic Induction type. These sensors have a sealed
magnetic coil that induces current in the mud. The strength of induced current is
proportional to mud’s conductivity which is then measured in voltages and converted to a
readout.
Q124. What types of flow out sensors usually used in mudlogging?
Usually, two types of flow out sensors are used in mudlogging:
1. Pedal type with a potentiometer 2. Electromagnetic.
Pedal sensors are most commonly used type. Easy to install and maintain as well as cost
effective. It has pedal immersed in mud that gets lifted up by the force of flowing mud.
Pedal is connected with a potentiometer through a rubber belt. As the pedal moves up and
down it rotates potentiometer-shaft and produce a voltage that according to calibration
gets converted to mud level in the flow-line.
Magnetic sensors on the other hand employ electromagnetic impulses to gauge the volume
of mud flowing through the flow-line. This sensor though accurate and volumetric, is also
very expensive and complicated to install.
Q125. Why do we have to monitor mud flow out very closely?
Among various indicators of a kick and mud losses, flow out is the most important, most
reliable and most immediate indicator of a kicks and mud-losses.
Q126. Apart from gas, what in your opinion are the two most important sensors that you
would always keep in the unit as spares?
Depth and SPM sensors. Depth because all other parameters are recorded against depth.
SPM or rate of mud flow is crucial to calculate lag depth. Without knowing lag time we
cannot make sense of gas and lithologies.
Q127. What are important parameters on which you will set alarm more closely than the
others?
1.ROP. 2. Mud Flow out. 3 Active pits. 4. total gas.
Q128. What are the uses of drilling fluid (Mud)?
Drilling fluid or mud plays multiple roles in oil well drilling:
1. It brings the cuttings and gas to the surface, the study of which gives us crucial
information about the hydrocarbon reservoirs in the well
2. It keeps the cutting in suspension even if the mud is not in circulation; thereby avoids
settling of cuttings around the bit, thus avoids pipe getting stuck
3. It keeps the bit and BHA cool and provides lubrication, thus avoiding premature failure of
bit and BHA
I4. t provides sufficient hydrostatic pressure to balance formation pressure thus avoiding
kicks and blow outs.
5. Mud also seals formations by forming mud-cake against pores and fractures thus
preventing communication of fluids between borehole and formation
6. The hydrostatic pressure exerted by mud also helps prevent hole from collapsing specially
against fractured, friable and soft formations.
Additional Notes on Mud (𝗗𝗿𝗶𝗹𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗙𝗹𝘂𝗶𝗱𝘀):
1. Definition and Purpose of Drilling Fluids
Drilling fluids are engineered liquids, gases, or mixtures used during the drilling of
boreholes. Their primary functions include:
Removing cuttings from the wellbore.
Controlling formation pressures.
Maintaining wellbore stability.
Cooling and lubricating the drill bit and drill string.
Forming a filter cake to prevent fluid loss into formations.
2. Types of Drilling Fluids
Drilling fluids can be classified into three main categories:
a. Water-Based Mud (WBM):
Composed of water as the primary fluid phase, mixed with clays, polymers, and other
additives.
Advantages: Cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and suitable for many formations.
Limitations: Less effective in high-temperature, high-pressure (HTHP) environments.
b. Oil-Based Mud (OBM):
Uses oil or synthetic base fluids as the primary phase, mixed with emulsifiers, barite, and
other additives.
Advantages: Superior thermal stability, lubrication, and inhibition of reactive formations.
Limitations: Higher costs and environmental concerns.
c. Gas-Based Drilling Fluids:
Includes air, mist, foam, or aerated fluids.
Used in underbalanced drilling to minimize formation damage.
3. Composition of Drilling Fluids
Drilling fluid systems are complex mixtures tailored to meet the requirements of specific
well conditions. Key components include:
a. Base Fluid:
Water, oil, or gas forms the primary carrier phase.
b. Weighting Agents:
Materials like barite or hematite increase fluid density to control formation pressures.
c. Viscosifiers:
Polymers like xanthan gum or bentonite clay enhance viscosity for better cuttings
suspension.
d. Fluid Loss Additives:
Substances like starch or synthetic polymers minimize filtration into formations.
e. Lubricants:
Reduce friction between the drill string and wellbore.
f. pH Control Agents:
Lime or caustic soda adjusts pH levels to stabilize fluid properties.
4. Functions of Drilling Fluids
a. Wellbore Cleaning:
Drilling fluids transport rock cuttings to the surface, preventing blockages and ensuring
smooth drilling.
b. Formation Pressure Control:
The fluid’s density creates hydrostatic pressure to counteract formation pressures and
prevent blowouts.
c. Lubrication and Cooling:
Drilling mud reduces friction and heat generated during drilling, prolonging the life of
equipment.
d. Wellbore Stability:
Drilling fluids stabilize the wellbore by preventing collapse or swelling of formations.
e. Formation Integrity Protection:
The filter cake formed by drilling fluids minimizes fluid invasion and potential damage to
productive zones.
Q129. Explain the units of drilling fluid (Mud).
In oil industry, density of drilling fluid (Mud Weight) is measured either in pounds per gallon
(ppg) or Specific gravity (Sg)
Pounds per Gallon (Lb/gal or ppg): is the most commonly used unit by American and
Canadian Oil companies. It simply means the weight of a fluid of one gallon in pounds. For
example, fresh water has a density of 8.345 ppg, which means that a gallon of fresh water
weighs 8.345 pounds. Similarly, 15.0 ppg MW means that one gallon of mud weighs 15
pounds.
The other unit of density that is usually used on oil rigs is Specific Gravity (Sg). It is a
dimensionless unit, meaning it is a ratio of mud density to water density at 4 deg C.
Therefore, for fresh water SG is taken as 1.0. 1.5 sg MW means that mud density is 50%
more than the density of water.
Q130 A. What do you understand by ECD?
Ans. Equivalent Circulating Density is the effective MW (mud density) at the bottom of hole
during circulation. ECD is always higher than the MW. The reason for this is the pressure
applied on the mud (to circulate) compresses the mud. This compression increases the
density of mud and hydrostatic pressure. This slightly increased MW is called ECD. The
moment circulation is stopped ECD becomes equal to MW.
Q 131. Where do you read ECD?
ECD is not directly read in mudlogging unit, it is calculated using vertical depth, MW, hole
geometry and pressure losses in Annulus. However, this is theoretical ECD. This may not be
the actual ECD. To find out actual ECD we should also take into account the amount of
cuttings in the annulus. There is no way to know that. However, MWD tool has a pressure
sensor very close to bit which directly reads the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom during
circulation and non-circulation time. From this pressure ECD is calculated and displayed
regularly on the screen. If ECD becomes too high it means cuttings are building up in the
annulus and that we must clean the hole properly.
Q132. What are different types of muds that you are aware of?
Simply speaking there are three types of mud systems:
Water Based (Fresh water and sea water based)
Oil Based (oil based and synthetic oil based)
Pneumatic Drilling Fluid (Air, Mist, Foam, Gas)

Which fluid system is to be used depends upon:

1. Its technical Performance

2. Cost considerations
3. Environmental considerations
Q134. What are the operations that happen on an oil rig during no-drilling period?
There are many non-drilling operations that are conducted on the rig:
1. Tripping
2. Casing
3. Cementation
4. Wire-line logging
5. Conventional coring
6. Production testing
Q135. What are two types of coring operations performed on the rig?
The two types of coring operations are:
1. Conventional core: cut and retrieved using drill pipe, coring BHA and diamond core bit.
2. Sidewall core: taken on wire line using coring gun.
Q136. What are some of the objectives of coring?
The main objectives are:
1. To perform quantitative analysis of porosity, permeability and fluid saturations
2. Identify sedimentary structures and fossils
3. Obtain uncontaminated samples for further analysis
Q137. As a mudlogger, how will you prepare for an upcoming conventional coring job?
As conventional coring is not an everyday operation and it involves logistics, it is critical to
start preparing for this operation at an early stage. Mudloggers should pay special attention
to the following consumable items:

1. Ensure we have large number of rags to clean core when it is on surface

2. Ensure we have enough core boxes (length of core in ft /3 + 20%)
3. Permanent markers Red/Blue/Black (one box of each)
4. Wooden pallets as per the number of core boxes
5. Measuring tapes (Two)
6. Seal peal, wax bath and wax

During drilling, mudlogger is required to help geologist in picking up coring point by closely
monitoring drilling breaks, Gas, and collecting spot samples as often as required.
Q138. What are some key steps involved in the conventional coring process?
Some of the key steps involved in conventional coring process are:
Cleaning and conditioning the hole
dropping the coring ball
optimizing coring parameters and start cutting core
monitoring parameters closely
and breaking the core before retrieval
Q139. Why is it important to closely monitor drilling parameters during coring?
To detect problems, optimize recovery, and identify lithologic variations from minor drill
rate changes.
Q140. How is core retrieved and handled at surface?
As the core comes out, it is broken into lengths, cleaned, depth marked, wrapped, and
packed into labeled core boxes

Notes:
A lot depends on coring plan and type of core barrel. If we have aplastic or aluminum sleeve
inside the barrel then the whole core in the sleeve is taken on a core cradle from rig floor
and brought to core processing area where it is cleaned cut along with the sleeve into meter
long pieces. Thereafter each piece is marked for depth and top and bottom and placed in
the box after putting caps on either end.
If the core barrel does not have a sleeve, then core is usually cut into pieces on rig floor
itself. Driller and coring engineer perform this job. Mudlogger and data engineer are there
to help geologist collect the core. Important point to bear in mind is not to disturb the
orientation of core. The bottom part of the core should go to the bottom side of pre-labeled
core box using the correct box number. These core boxes are promptly transferred to core
processing area. A core processing area is a designated area on the rig marked by company
man and tool pusher to process the core. In core processing area, core is cleaned and
marked for depth and top/bottom. After which the cores are placed in boxes and boxes are
labeled. On core boxes we indicate well name, Core number, box number (eg. 1of 15, 2 of
15..etc) depth from – to and top and bottom.

If the core is in sleeve, we only collect small core pieces from each end and describe them in
detail. However, if the core is not in sleeve, then apart from lithology and hydrocarbon
show, we should also describe sedimentary structures, fractures, macrofossils etc.

If engineering data like fluid saturation is required then entire core or part of the core is
sealed using wax. For this purpose mudlogging company should arrange in advance wax,
wax bath and thin film (seal peal).
Q141. How do you select a location for placing mudlogging unit on an onshore rig?
The location is selected in consultation with company man and drilling supervisor. The unit
should neither be placed too close to rig structure nor too far away from rig structure. In the
first case, there will be risk of concentration of poisonous and explosive gases. Also there is
too much of movement of heavy equipment and pipes near the rig floor. In the second case
sample catching which is a constant process during drilling will become difficult. Also long
cables will have to be used with the risk of physical damage.
There should be sufficient empty space around the unit to place sample boxes, core boxes
and a small container of spare parts.
Q142. What challenges do you face while rigging up mudlogging unit on a new rig?
We are often called on a short notice. Time allotted to complete rig up is usually limited.
Needed help in the form of welder and electrician is often delayed because they are also
very busy with their rig jobs.
Q143. How do we install a mudlogging unit on a rig?
In a nutshell, we place the unit at an optimum location, arrange power supply, install
sensors, run cables and calibrate the sensors.
Q144. What are, the mudlogging related problems that a Mudlogger may encounter on
the rig?
A Mudlogger may occasionally face different types of problems such as, related to sensors
(sensor failure or dislocation or calibration contamination), Equipment related problems
inside the unit such as flame not burning inside chromatograph, pressurization of unit not
functioning or run out of some of the consumables or spares.
Q145. What are some of the drilling related problems that you have faced on the rigs?
I have encountered partial to total mudlosses, kicks and washouts in drill string. These have
enriched my experience as a mudlogger.
Q146. How do you pick mudloss?
A drop in mud level in active pit coupled with reduced level of mud flow out when there is
no change in SPM is a sure indication of mud loss
Q147. What causes mudloss?
Mudloss (partial or total) happens when we encounter weak and fractured formation or
highly porous and permeable formation with depleted formation pressure. The other factor
that often contribute to mud loss is serious imbalance between hydrostatic pressure and
formation pressure. Sometime poor cement job leading to channel development behind the
casing may also cause mudloss.
Q148. If mud pressure gradient is 0.9 psi/ft and fracture pressure gradient is 0.8 psi/ft;
Will we get kick in this situation or not?
No. We will not get kick. Instead, we will get severe mudlosses in this situation; because
MW is higher than formation strength.
Q149. What are the implications of mudloss?
Apart from delaying drilling progress and loss of expensive drilling fluid, total mudloss may
also lead to a well control situation and collapse or caving-in of bore hole and long-term
damage to reservoir.
Q150. What is blind drilling? Under what situation blind drilling should not be carried
out?
Blind drilling is sometime conducted when we are facing total mudloss. When we do not get
returns, we sometime continue drilling with water, trying to keep the annulus as full as
possible. Once the returns are established, we switch back to mud system. We cannot do
blind drilling if the formations are even slightly overpressured.
Q151. Looking at offset mud logs and drilling program you become aware that soon you
will be entering a lost circulation zone. As a mudlogger how will you prepare to handle
the situation?
Will do the followings to handle the challenge:
1. Ensure the volume of mud in both active pits and reserve pits is being indicated correctly.
This can be ascertained by physically measuring the volume in each pit. Calibrate any pit
that shows discrepancy.
2. Note down all the pit volumes and share with company man and mud engineer to avoid
confusion in lost volume calculations at later stage.
3. Clean the mud flow out sensor to make sure it is functioning freely.
4. Set close alarms on flow out and on active pits.
Q152. What is a kick? What causes it? How do we control a kick?
A kick happens when formation fluid (water, oil or gas) enters into the borehole. This
situation arises when hydrostatic pressure becomes less than formation pressure. In order
to control a kick, we need to increase the hydrostatic pressure to slightly more than
formation pressure.

Notes:
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by drilling fluid (mud) in the hole. Hydrostatic
pressure at any given point depends upon two things 1. Vertical depth and 2. Density of
drilling fluid. Knowing these two factors we can calculate hydrostatic pressure using the
formula: MWx0.52xTVD
Where, MW in ppg and depth in ft. This will give you hydrostatic pressure in psi. To increase
or decrease hydrostatic pressure all we have to do is increase or decrease MW.

The only way to avoid a kick is to always keep the hydrostatic pressure slightly above the
formation pressure. To do this we need to know exact hydrostatic pressure and exact
formation pressure at any given depth during the course of drilling.

It is easy to find out accurate hydrostatic pressure at any given depth. However, it is
extremely difficult to calculate exact formation pressure. Certain algorithms like d’exponent
or sigma log or using sonic log, resistivity log or density log, are commonly used during
drilling to find out formation pressure but all these give a very rough estimate. This is why
we cannot always avoid kicks.

Actually, there are two operations that give us the exact formation pressure 1. Wireline
pressure tests and 2. Production testing. Unfortunately, both these tests are performed
after the drilling is over. So, there is no way to find out exact formation pressure at the time
of drilling. Controlling kick is the third operation that tells us the exact formation pressure.
Unfortunately, this knowledge of exact formation pressure comes to us after the kick has
taken place. Anyway, knowing exact formation pressure even after kick is still very important
as it helps us to calculate the MW required to control the kick. Also it help us to calibrate
our logs that predict formation pressure.

How do we find out formation pressure from a kick? Well, as soon as the driller realizes that
a kick is taking place; first thing he does is shuts in the well, using the BOP. When the well is
shut in we record two pressures called SIDPP (shut in drill pipe pressure) and SICPP (shut in
casing pipe pressure. SIDPP is actually the pressure exerted by formation pressure on the
mud which is inside drill pipe. Also please note SIDPP is the amount of pressure by which
the formation pressure exceeds hydrostatic pressure. Again, SICPP is the pressure exerted
by formation pressure on the mud inside the annulus. However, we use only SIDPP to
calculate formation pressure not SICPP. The reason is that annulus apart from mud also
contains gases and cuttings which affects the hydrostatic pressure by an unknown amount.
Whereas, inside drill pipe the mud is clean (not contaminated with gases and cuttings),
therefore its hydrostatic pressure is accurately known. After the kick, we estimate formation
pressure accurately by adding SIDPP to hydrostatic pressure at the bottom.

Now let’s understand this with an example: Suppose we got a kick at 2000’MD / 1800’TVD
while drilling hole with 10ppg MW. SIDPP recorded is 300 psi while SCPP is 280 psi. (We
ignore SCPP in our calculations for the reason mentioned above)

Let’s find out the hydrostatic pressure at bottom: 10ppgx 0.052×1800’TVD =. 936 psi
(Hydrostatic pressure)
Formation pressure = SIDPP + Hydrostatic pressure
300 + 936 = 1236 psi

To find kill mud weight = formation pressure / 0.52/ Depth in TVD

1236 / 0.052 / 1800 = 13.2 ppg

In order to kill the kick, we need to increase MW from 10 ppg to 13.2 ppg.
Drilling supervisors normally increase by another .2 or .3 ppg. Or even more. This is called
safety margin. Safety margin take care of swabbing effect during connection or POOH. So
final kill MW would be around 13.5 ppg.
Q153. Can we get a kick even if the formation pressure is normal?
All kicks happen when formation pressure exceeds hydrostatic pressure. This situation can
also be created when the formations are normally pressured.
Here are the scenarios:

1. Formation pressure is normal. We are POOH very fast, creating swabbing in the hole and
not taking out time to fill the hole properly. This may lead to situation where hydrostatic
pressure becomes less than formation pressure and invite the influx into the bore hole.
2. Formation pressure is normal. We RIH nozzles get blocked and mud displacement
becomes many time more than it should be. Nobody notices this and no correction to
situation is applied. This will create an underbalance condition in the hole and invite a kick.
3. Formation pressure is normal. We start losing mud totally and rapidly without realizing it.
This will also reduce the hydrostatic head and allow the influx to take place.
Q154. Can there be a situation where we have formation pressure more than hydrostatic
pressure and not get kick?
Yes. If we are drilling a thick section of shale, in which formation pressure starts increasing
and becomes more than hydrostatic pressure. We will not get any influx because shale is
impervious. Nothing can quickly flow out of it. In an underbalanced situation, shale will not
cause a kick but it will respond by producing large amount of splintery cavings. Bear in mind
in this situation as soon as we encounter a sand bed, we will get the kick.
Q155. Can you identify water kick from gas kick after the well is shut in?
When we get water kick and well is shut in, we record mild pit gain and mild shut-in
pressure, where as gas kicks are violent, they show high shut in drill pipe pressure and large
pit gains in short time. (This statement is based on empirical observation).
Q156. What do you understand by poor hole condition? How to identify it? What are the
factors that cause it? What are the implications of poor hole condition?
Poor hole condition means instability in open hole section. Poor hole condition can be
identified by excessive amount of cavings on shaker, high torque, overpull etc. This hole
instability may happen due to any or combination of the following factors:
1. Presence of fractured and friable formations in the open hole section
2. Improper mud selection, hydraulics and hole cleaning
3. High angle deviation (>60 deg.)
4. Insufficient hydrostatic pressure
5. High formation pressure (creating large amount of cavings and rock chunks)
6. Excessive drilling speed and rotary speed.

Poor hole condition may delay the drilling progress and in worst condition may lead to pipe getting stuck
and sidetracking the well. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the problem as early as possible and bring it
to the attention of company man, mud engineer and driller.
Q157. How can you identify a wash out in drill pipe? What will happen if wash out is not
picked up?
A wash out in drill pipe can be identified by slow and continuous drop in stand pipe pressure
provided there is no leak on surface and mud is not being diluted. Also ensure the SPP
sensor is not having oil leak or any functional problem. If we miss picking up wash out, it
may soon cause drill pipe to part away. Most of the time we are successful in fishing out the
dropped pipe but some time we are not and may have to leave expensive BHA, LWD and
MWD tools down hole followed by plugging and abandoning the hole and the performing a
side track or drilling a new well.
Q158. What are two ways in which pipe may get stuck.
Two main types of pipe sticking are:
Mechanical sticking and
Differential sticking
Notes:
There are multiple reasons for mechanical stuck pipe:
1. Packoff due to poor hole cleaning
2. Shale/claystone swelling
3. Bridging and wellbore collapse due to fractured or friable formation
4. Plastic-flowing formation (i.e., salt)
5. Keyseating
The key indicators of mechanical stuck up are:
1. Unable to establish circulation
2. Unable to rotate pipe
3. No or little reciprocation
Indications prior to mechanical stuck up:
1. Lot of cuttings and cavings on shakers
2. Occasional tight spots, overpulls and high torque
3. Occasional spikes on stand pipe pressure
4. Unusually high ECD
Differential stuck up is caused when:
Hydrostatic pressure significantly exceeds formation pressure
Formation is porous, permeable and depleted in pressure
Drill string is stationary.
Please note, differential pressure also happens when formation pressure exceeds
hydrostatic pressure but this does not cause sticking instead it causes a kick.
Drilling development wells in old field where reservoirs have become depleted, could be
regarded as potential site for differential sticking.
Differential sticking can be differentiated from mechanical sticking by the fact that when we
are stuck mechanically we cannot circulate, where as if pipe stuck is due to differential
pressure, we can still circulate at normal SPP. However if the pipe is stuck in a key seat, we
will be able to circulate, rotate and partially reciprocate drill string.
Q159. What do you understand by ‘dog leg?
Any sharp turn either in inclination or azimuth or both in a hole, is called dog leg. It is often
unintentional and undesirable. Some of its implication could be:
Increased wear and tear on drill string
Difficult to run casing through the key seat area. This may sometime get casing pipe stuck.
Dog leg may cause poor cement job, creating channels and patches of no cement behind
the casing.
Dog leg may lead to development of key seat thus enhancing chances of pipe getting stuck.
Q160. What is gumbo in oil well drilling? What are its implications?
Gumbo is a soft and sticky clay, often encountered at shallower depth. Due its highly sticky
nature it blocks annulus, flow line and possum belly. When encountered it slows down the
drilling progress as we have to remove it manually from flowline and possum belly. Gumbo
is the main reason behind bit balling, that further slows down ROP.
Q161. What are hydrates? where do we encounter them? What are their implications?
Hydrates are complex mixture of methane and water formed in very cold environment
specially when drilling deep water wells. They look like ice crystals and are formed under
specific temperature and pressure. Drilling hydrates slow down drilling and give high torque.
When large amount of hydrates move up in the annulus, they may release significant
amount of gas and water and may some time give false impression of a kick.
Q162. Why do we fill up casing with mud during RIH? What will happen if we do not fill
up casing while RIH?
It is extremely important to fill casing with drilling fluid at regular intervals. If we do not do
it, the casing may collapse and get stuck in hole. We will have to plug and abandon and
move away, thus losing the hole.
Q163. What are the problems that we may encounter while running the casing pipe?
1. Casing may get stuck if hole is highly deviated and the formation is fractured or very
fissile.
2. If we run casing in poor hole condition then we may encounter hole bridge due to hole
collapse, stopping the casing to go any further.
3. If casing is not properly filled it may collapse and get stuck.
4. Presence of a severe dog leg in hole will create resistance to casing running.
Q164. What problems have you observed while cementing the casing?
I have observed several problems associated with cement jobs:

1. No or partial return of mud during displacement. So, most cement would go to formation
rather than behind casing. This will create channels and patches behind casing. This poor
cement does not does not allow casing to provide intended protection to the well.
2. Unable to displace cement full or in part from inside the casing due to failure of pumps.
Ultimately drilling out cement from inside the casing.
3. Sometime top plug drops before we start displacement. This, apart from mixing the mud
with cement, does not allow cement displacement from casing to annulus. Thus, cement
gets hardened inside the casing. That takes days to drill out.
Q165. What is well prognosis? What information are provided in it?
A well prognosis is a well plan given to service companies by oil company. It tells us size and
depth of various hole sections, casing sizes and shoe depths, mud type and mud weight to
be used in each section, Formation to be expected, sample program for each phase, logging
program etc. etc.
Q166. What are the roles of casing shoe and float collar in a casing string?
Casing shoes is placed at the bottom of casing string. It has a non-return-valve (NRV) that
allows mud and cement to pass out from casing to annulus but not from annulus to casing.
The other job of casing shoe is to guide casing form tight hole and minor dog legs. Float
collar (placed 1 – 3 joints above the shoe) basically provides landing platform for bottom
and top wiper plugs. Sometime float collar is also equipped with an NRV as a backup.
Q167. What is difference between casing and liner?
A casing is run from bottom of hole section to bottom of conductor pipe and is always
cemented while a liner is usually run in the bottom part of hole. Like casings it does not go
all the way to conductor but is attached to the bottom part of last casing using casing
hanger.
Q 168. There are different types of bits used to drill oil well. Can you name a few types?
Different types of bits are used according to formation hardness in oil well drilling. Some of
well known types are: 1. Mild tooth bit. 2. Insert Bit (button bit). 3. PDC bit (Polycrystalline
Dimond Compact)
Q169. What is difference between LOT and FIT? Why do we perform these just below the
shoe?
Both leak off test and formation integrity tests are performed after drilling out the shoe and
10 ft (3m) of formation. LOT is performed to find out the strength of formation to know
what is the maximum MW (or hydrostatic pressure or annular pressure) that will fracture
the formation therefore should be avoided not to cause mud-loss.
To perform LOT, pressure is applied until formation gets fractured and pressure starts
leaking off. LOT is commonly performed on exploratory or semi-exploratory wells and in
overpressure wells.
In fields where the formation pressure is known to be normal, FIT is performed instead of
LOT. In FIT a formation and casing shoe is tested up to a predetermined pressure not to the
point where it leaks, to avoid unnecessary damage to formation and cement around shoe.
Why do we perform LOT and FIT just after drilling few feet of formation? In each open hole
section, the formation is weakest just below the shoe. This is the area where, if a kick is not
handled properly may cause underground blow out.
Q170. What is the use of calcimetry in mudlogging?
Calcimeter is a valuable tool as its analysis is used for multiple purposes:
The analysis helps in finding the percentage of limestone, dolomite and marl
If calcimetry is performed consistently for each well, then the calcimetry data can be used
to correlate various carbonate beds along with sonic and density logs.
High carbonate content is often associated with good secondary porosity, therefore,
calcimetry data can help identify potential reservoir section in carbonate rocks.
Q171. How do we do shale density in mudlogging unit?
There are two different type of kits that are usually used by mudloggers to determine shale
density. One is weighing the shale grain in water and in air then calculating out density. The
other is using the graded density liquids, where in, we drop a shale grain and read the
density from the graded tube where the grain stop falling.
Both these methods have challenges in maintaining the kits in good condition and picking
the uncontaminated shale grains.
Q172. What is the use of shale density determined by mudloggers?
This real-time shale density data is plotted to pick overpressure zone.

Notes: Shale density increases with depth due to increasing overburden pressure and
increasing compaction. Overpressure zones on the other hand are under-compacted and
therefore, less dense. So, any deviation from compacting trend is considered due to
overpressure
Q173. What is Shale Factor? Why do we perform it in mudlogging unit?
Shale Factor is a titration method performed to find out cation exchange capacity (CEC) of
shales. CEC of shale decreases with depth as the montmorillonite mineral gets converted
into illite. Shale factor is used to identify overpressure zone. In a normally pressured
environment, shale factor will decrease with depth. Increase in shale factor, therefore is
taken as an indication of overpressure zone.

Notes:
Shales are composed of a number of minerals, important among them are illite and
montmorillonite. Montmorillonite is abundantly found in clay and claystone. However, with
increasing depth (increasing pressure and temperature) montmorillonite gets converted
into illite (and claystone becomes shale).

Shale factor is determined by a simple chemical titration method using methylene blue dye
and dry powder of shale cuttings. Shale factor also called CEC, is a measure of shale’s ability
to adsorb positively charged ions (cations) from the surrounding liquid. Montmorillonite
has high CEC value (>25 meq/100gm) because it has more negatively charged surfaces than
illite (CEC value <25 milliequivalents per 100 grams of dry rock)

Metodology:
Crushed and dried shale cuttings are added to a solution containing methylene blue dye.
The solution is agitated, and the dye molecules adsorb onto the negatively charged clay
particles, changing the solution’s color.
The amount of dye needed to reach a specific endpoint (color change) is proportional to the
CEC of the shale.
Interpretation:
High CEC values (typically >25 meq/100g) indicate the presence of highly reactive clays like
montmorillonite, which is associated with potential drilling hazards (swelling, hydration) and
overpressure zones.
Lower CEC values indicate less reactive clays and potentially normal pressure conditions.
Q174. How will you handle sensor problems?
Depends on how sensor is behaving.
If the sensor readings are consistently low or high: consider recalibration. Sometime
extreme temperatures can affect the readings.
If the sensor readings are erratic: before suspecting sensor and replacing it, one should
check if the sensor is damaged or displaced. Also need to check out connections. They are
clean (no moisture) and tight. Further check if the cable has not been damaged. If possible,
swap the cables and see the readings.
If no readings at all: suspect sensor is dead or cable got cut or the electronic channel has
developed a fault. Isolate the fault by first replacing the sensor, then cable, then electronics.
Q175. How do you select a location for placing mudlogging unit on an onshore rig?
The location is selected in consultation with company man and drilling supervisor. The unit
should neither be placed to close to rig structure nor too far away from rig it. In the first
case, there will be risk of concentration of poisonous and explosive gases. Also there is too
much of movement of heavy equipment and pipes near the rig floor. In the second case
sample catching which is a constant process during drilling will become difficult. Also long
cables will be exposed to physical damage. Also, there should be sufficient empty space
around the unit to place sample boxes, core boxes and a small container of spare parts.
Q176. What challenges do you face while rigging up mudlogging unit on a new rig?
We are often called on a short notice. Time allotted to complete rig up is usually limited.
Needed help in the form of welder and electrician is often delayed because they are also
very busy with their rig jobs. Sometime we find a few spares missing and have to get them
from town on urgent basis.
Q177. What safety trainings have you completed?
Name whatever trainings that you have completed e.g. :
Fire Fighting
H2S Training
Helicopter Underwater and Escape Training (HUET) or its equivalent
Q178. What is Work Permit? When do mudloggers need it on the rig?
A work permit is a formal authorization to carry out a potentially risky job on the rig. The
permit is obtained from company man or tool pusher. It mentions the scope of work, safety
procedures, possible hazards and personnel involved. For example a work permit is needed
before entering a confined space like tank or pit or any rig area with limited ventilation.
Q179. What is hot permit? When is it required?
Hot permit is a formal authorization, that is to be taken before conducting any job that
generates heat, flame or sparks in an area that contains hazards of fire and explosion.
Common activities that make hot permit mandatory are: welding, grinding, cutting etc.
Q180. Fire has been classified into various categories like class A, class B, class C etc.
What is the basis of this classification?
The basis of classification is burning material. Accordingly different types of extinguishing material is used
to put out the fire:
Class A Fire: It involves burning of wood, paper, cloth, rubber and plastic. For Class A fire we use water as
fire extinguisher.
Class B Fire: It involves burning of oil, alcohol and grease. For this class of fire, we use foam, CO2 or Dry
Chemical Powder (DCP)
Class C Fire: It involves electrical equipment. For class C fire, we use Dry Chemical Powder.
It is advisable to identify the type of fire before attempting to extinguish it. Wrong selection of extinguisher
may be ineffective or even dangerous. Also bear in mind, these extinguishers are designed to put out small
fires.
Notes:
Types of Fire Extinguishers:
Water:
Material: Pressurized water.
Suitable for: Class A fires (ordinary combustibles like wood, paper, and cloth).
Not suitable for: Class B (flammable liquids), Class C (electrical), Water conducts electricity
and can spread flammable liquids.
Foam:
Material: A mixture of water, surfactants, and air that forms a blanket to smother the fire.
Suitable for: Class A and B fires (including flammable liquids like gasoline and oil).
Not suitable for: Class C (electrical) or Class D (combustible metals) fires.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
Material: Carbon dioxide gas displaces oxygen, suffocating the fire.
Suitable for: Class B and C fires (flammable liquids and electrical equipment).
Not suitable for: Class A (ordinary combustibles). CO2 doesn’t cool the fuel, so reignition is
possible.
Dry Chemical:
Material: Powdered chemicals like sodium bicarbonate or potassium chloride that smother
the fire and absorb heat.
Suitable for: Class A, B, and C fires (ordinary combustibles, flammable liquids, and electrical
equipment). Some types are also rated for Class D (combustible metals) fires.
Not ideal for: Enclosed spaces due to dust creation. Can leave residue that damages
electronics.
Choosing the Right Extinguisher:
Identify the type of fire: Look for the fire class rating on the extinguisher label.
Match the extinguisher to the fire class: Use the right type for the specific fire you’re
facing.
Consider the surroundings: Be aware of potential hazards like electrical equipment or flammable liquids.
Know your limitations: Extinguishers are for small fires. Evacuate if the fire is large or spreading.
Q181. Where do you install H2S sensors on the rig?
Normally H2S sensors are installed at or near possum belly, pit room, rig floor and on gas-
line inside mudlogging unit
Q182. If you are walking towards shale shaker and smell rotten egg smell and minor
irritation in your eyes; what will you do?
Rotten egg smell is a sign of H2S which is a deadly poisonous gas. One should immediately
move to upwind direction. Use PPE if available nearby and raise H2S alarm.
Q183. What is the lowest concentration of H2S that is harmful for human health?
10 ppm is the lowest concentration that is considered harmful to human health.

Notes:
The severity of H2S affect depends upon the concentration and duration of exposure.
Here’s a breakdown of the different levels and their potential impacts:

Below 10: Odour threshold (rotten egg smell), may not cause noticeable symptoms in
healthy adults for short durations.
10-50: Eye, nose, and throat irritation, coughing, headaches, dizziness, nausea. 50-
100: Difficulty breathing, chest tightness, confusion, loss of coordination, fatigue.
100-200: Severe respiratory distress, pulmonary edema (fluid in lungs), vomiting,
unconsciousness.
200-500: Rapid collapse, coma, potential death.
Above 500: Near-instantaneous unconsciousness, respiratory paralysis, and death within
minutes.
Important to remember:
Even low concentrations of H2S can be dangerous for people with respiratory problems or
compromised health.
The sense of smell can be dulled by prolonged exposure to H2S, making it unreliable for
detection.
Exposure limits are set by occupational health and safety organizations like OSHA
(Occupational Safety and Health Administration) and ACGIH (American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists). For H2S, the OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL) is
10 ppm, and the ACGIH threshold limit value (TLV) is 1 ppm.
Do not attempt to rescue others without proper training and PPE.
Q193. What are major component of a BOP?
The major components of BOP are:
1. Annular BOP
2. Pipe Ram
3. Blind Ram
4. Shear Ram
Q194. What is the role of Blind Ram?
Blind ram is used to close well in a kick situation, when drill string is out of hole.
Q195. What is gas-cut-mud? What are its implications?
When a large amount of gas enters into hole and get mixed with mud it cuts down the mud
density. Gas-cut-mud should not be circulated as this may invite influx into hole. When we
record large amount of total gas, we should inform mud engineer to check mud density. If
gas cut is observed, the mud should be passed through rig degasser to get rid of gas.
Q196. How do you QC a mudlog?
Ans. Look at accuracy of information on log heading, accuracy of scales. Consistency
between lithology, ROP and Gas peaks. And completeness of comments in remark coulmn
Q197. In your opinion what qualities a good mudlogger should have?
Ans. To be a good mudlogger one must possess good mudlogging knowledge and skills.
Good observation skills and good communication skills.
Q198. What are three important rock types that are required to form commercial
hydrocarbon accumulations?
A. The source rock. The reservoir rock. The cap rock.
Q199. In your opinion what are three most critical parameters that you record in
mudlogging unit?
Ans. 1. Depth. 2. Gas 3. SPM. (Without SPM we cannot estimate flow rate and lag depth)
Q200. How do cavings originate?
Ans. Cavings are not generated by the cutting action of bit. But they fall off from shale beds
when formation pressure approaches hydrostatic pressure and or when hole condition
becomes bad due to poor mud properties.
Q. Why does the driller pump “slug” prior to coming out of hole?
Ans. A slug is a heavy mud pill (a small volume of high-density drilling fluid). Drillers usually
pump it before POOH to avoid mud spilling on rig floor at the time of breaking the stands.
Q. What do you understand by wet pull and dry pull while making a trip?
Ans. A wet pull is performed if all nozzles of bit are blocked or when we need to circulate
while POOH due to poor hole condition. This causes mud spilling out on rig floor. Dry pull is
a normal trip without circulation where a slug is pumped prior to POOH that keeps lowering
the mud level inside drill pipe and thus avoids spilling the mud on rigfloor.
Q. What information concerning directional surveys is required for
the mudlog?
Ans. 1. MD 2. TVD 3. Azimuth 4. DeviationAns.
Q. How will you classify wells according to the well objectives?
Ans. According to well objectives; wells can be classified as 1. Wildcat Wells. 2. Exploration
Wells. 3. Development Wells. 4. Appraisal wells
Q. How will you classify the wells according to their shapes?
Ans. 1. Vertical Wells. 2. Deviated Wells. 3 Horizontal Wells. 4. Multilateral Wells
Q. Name various parts of a circulatory system through which mud passes?
Ans. During circulation drilling fluid (mud) passes through various parts, namely:
Mud Tanks
Mud Pumps
Surface Lines
Drill String
Annulus
Flow Line
Shakers
Q. Oil Companies look for oil both offshore and on shore. How do they decide where to
drill?

Ans. Oil companies hire the services of geophysical survey companies. Different companies
perform different type of surveys like seismic, gravity and magnetic surveys to prepare
maps of subsurface geology and structures. Knowing regional geology and subsurface
structures, wildcat wells are drilled at the highest structural positions.
Q. What are drilling related problems that you have encountered with clay, claystone and
shale?
Ans. Gumbo blocking flow line, possum belly and shale shaker
Claystone being very plastic formation creates hole ballooning affect if mud weight is high. It
can also swell and create tight hole condition. In case of overpressure or poor hole
condition, shale may create lots of cavings. All these problems tend halt or slow down
drilling progress.
Q. What are the surface-controlled drilling parameters that effect ROP?
Ans. Many parameters such as WOB, RPM, Flow Rate, mud hydraulics, MW and Bit Size do
effect rate of penetration.
Q. What are drilling related factors that may influence gas readings?
Ans. 1. ROP 2. Hole Size 3. Flow Rate 4. Degasser Efficiency 5. Differential pressure 6.
Surface losses. Increasing first four parameters will tend to increase gas readings; while
increasing the last two parameters will tend to decrease gas readings.
How does temperature data help us in detecting over pressure zone?
Ans. As heat flows from center of the earth to surface of the earth, the geothermal gradient
increases with depth almost at constant rate but if an overpressure zone is encountered the
geothermal gradient increase at a faster rate than in normal pressure zone. The reason for
that is that overpressure zones are under-compacted (more porous), therefore they contain
more water. As water is bad conductor of heat it mostly retains the heat instead of passing
all of it upward. This is why, the temperature gradient increases at a faster rate inside over-
pressure zone. This is also the reason why we encounter a lower than normal temperature
gradient (zone of heat starvation) just above the overpressure zone. This layer sometime
called seal, is usually compact and hard with negligible porosities and permeabilities.
More over please note, the mud temperature-out-data as recorded by mudlogging unit is
affected by a number of factors, therefore it is advisable to be extra careful in tracing
geothermal gradient. Perhaps plotting temperature data from MWD tools may yield better
results.
Q. How does chromatograph separate C1, C2, C3 etc. from the gas mixture that is coming
from degasser?
Ans. A chromatograph contains usually two spring shaped aluminum tubes called columns,
which are usually filled with micro-beads of silica. These silica beads are tightly packed in
such a way that a low permeability or a tortuous path is created for the gases to pass
through. Therefore, lighter gases like C1, C2 move ahead followed by heavier gases like C3,
C4 and C5. Thus, the gas mixture is broken down into its components.
Q10. How do you evaluate formation for hydrocarbons using mudlogging data?
Ans. By checking lithology characteristics, evaluating oil shows and looking at
chromatographic analyses. We may also do gas ratio plots to have an idea about nature of
reservoir fluid. Gas ratio plots are more reliable if we are using constant volume degasser.
Q . What is hole ballooning? What causes it? How can it mislead us into wrong MW
strategy?Ans. Formation ballooning happens in weak rocks (plastic formations) during
drilling. Two mechanisms are cited for this to happen:
Drilling fluid escapes into microfractures in the rock when the pumps are on, then flows
back when they’re off.
The hole section against plastic formation gets enlarged due to high hydrostatic pressure
when the pumps are on. When pumps are off the hole section gets back to normal size and
extra mud is expelled out.
This can be mistaken for a positive flow or well kick, increasing MW only worsen the
situation, leading to wasted time. Monitoring fluid levels and keeping ECD low can help
prevent hole ballooning.
Notes:
Formation Ballooning in Oil Well Drilling
Formation ballooning, also known as wellbore breathing or micro-fracturing, is a
phenomenon that occurs during drilling in weak formations, especially those with pre-
existing microfractures. It’s characterized by the wellbore temporarily losing drilling fluid
while the pumps are on and then regaining the fluid when the pumps are shut off.
Here’s a breakdown of the process:
ECD Exceeds Formation Strength: When drilling fluid is circulated (pumps on), the
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) increases. If the ECD exceeds the pressure required to
open the formation’s microfractures, some drilling fluid escapes into these fractures.
Fluid Loss and Misinterpretation: This fluid loss can be misinterpreted as a kick (influx of
formation fluids like oil or gas) from the wellbore. However, in ballooning, the influx is just
the return of the previously lost drilling fluid.
Pumps Off, Fluid Returns: When the pumps are turned off, the ECD drops because there’s no
longer additional pressure from circulation. This decrease in pressure allows the
microfractures to close, forcing the trapped drilling fluid back into the wellbore.
Implications of Formation Ballooning
Ballooning can lead to several issues if not properly identified and managed:
Misdiagnosis as a positive flow/Kick: Mistaking ballooning for a kick can lead to
unnecessary well control procedures, wasting time and resources.
Exacerbating the Problem: Standard well control procedures for a kick often involve
increasing mud weight. In ballooning, this can actually worsen the situation by further
opening the microfractures and causing more significant fluid loss.
Delayed Drilling Progress: Fluid loss and regaining control can significantly slow down
drilling operations.
Formation Damage: Excessive ballooning can damage the formation by enlarging the
microfractures, potentially impacting reservoir quality.
Dealing with Formation Ballooning
Here are some strategies to address ballooning:
Close Monitoring: Carefully monitor drilling fluid volumes and pressures during circulation
and connection breaks (when pumps are off) to identify ballooning patterns.
ECD Management: Maintain the ECD below the formation’s fracture pressure to avoid
creating new fractures and minimise fluid loss.
Drilling Fluid Selection: Utilize drilling fluids designed for weak formations, which may help
to minimize fluid loss into the microfractures.
By understanding formation ballooning and implementing proper mitigation strategies,
drillers can avoid unnecessary well control procedures, maintain wellbore stability, and
ensure efficient drilling progress.
Q. It is said that there is an inverse relationship between RPM and formation
compressive strength. What do you understand by this statement?
Ans. It simply means that in soft formation faster the RPM faster will be ROP but in hard
formation slower RPM favours faster ROP. Lower RPM and WOB in very hard formation
avoids premature bit worn out.
Q. How can we find out mud pump efficiency?
If permitted, run a carbide test when drilling out casing shoe. At this time the entire mud
circulation is within the casing the diameter of which is known precisely. The difference
between the calculated and actual lag time can be attributed to pump efficiency alone. This
pump efficiency (as factor or percentage) will then always be applied for the forthcoming
open hole section. It is unlikely to change unless the drillers change the liner of the pump
and/or its pistons.
Note that this pump efficiency was calculated for one of the two pumps or both pumps
running together. The pump efficiency needs to be established again if any of the relevant
parameters (number of pumps running, liner size, etc.) is changed.
In practise, cutings will always be late relative to the nominal lag time and gas can be early.
The difference between the calculated lag time depends on cuttings size and density, the
mud density and the annular velocity and type of flow (laminar or turbulent).

Q. Sometimes we drill very high quality sand reservoirs full of oil, yet we do not see oil
fluorescence in the cutting. What could be a logical explanation for that?
Ans. If the oil reservoir is made up of coarse sandstone, which is poorly consolidated, then
the sand gains become loose during their transportation in the annulus and gets thoroughly
washed specially if the mud is oil based. Hence we do not see oil fluorescence.
Q. What are three important rock types that are required to form commercial
hydrocarbon accumulations?
A. The source rock. The reservoir rock. The cap rock.
Q. What is normal formation pressure? How does it originate?
Ans. A formation pressure is said to be normal if it is equal to hydrostatic pressure at any
given depth. Only one condition is required for its origin, that is all the pore spaces (hence
the fluid in them) should remain vertically inter-connected all the way to surface.

When sediments are deposited in a water body, the pore spaces are large and filled with
water. With continued deposition of sediments and increasing weight of overlying
sediments, the sediments at the bottom part keep getting compacted with reducing effect
on porosity. As porosity reduces, extra water gets expelled only if the pores are inter-
connected to surface. In this normal situation, since the pores and water in them are
interconnected to surface, the water at any depth bears the weight of the overlying water
only therefore, the pressure on the fluid in the pore spaces remains hydrostatic. In terms of
equivalent MW, 8.33 ppg to 9ppg depending on the salinity of water.
Q What is abnormal formation pressure? How does it originate?
Ans. Any formation pressure that is either less than normal formation pressure or more
than normal formation pressure is called abnormal formation pressure. When the formation
pressure is less than normal formation pressure it is called subnormal or depleted formation
pressure. This type of pressure is often encountered in hydrocarbon reservoirs of old oil and
gas fields, which have been under production for many years. Due to over-production
sometimes the pore pressure or the reservoir pressure gets depleted down to 2.5 ppg. You
should exercise utmost caution, If you are going to drill a new development well in an old
field that has been under active production for many years. While drilling, depleted porous
and permeable reservoirs create significant differential pressure that can cause differential
sticking of drill pipe or wireline.

Formation pressure that is more than normal formation pressure (>9ppg Eq.MW) is called
overpressure. Overpressure is not a random occurrence; it’s a consequence of various
geological processes. Here are some key mechanisms that lead to overpressure generation:
Compaction Disequilibrium: In basins of rapid sedimentation such as in deltaic regions,
sometimes layers of clay/claystone /shales get quickly deposited. Being impervious rocks
these beds block the vertical connection and movement of formation fluid. Formation fluid
thus trapped had to bear not only the weight of overlying fluid but also the vertical stress,
that is the weight of overlying solid rock grains called matrix. (The two downward acting
pressures are collectively called overburden pressure). This application of extra pressure on
normally pressured formation fluid creates overpressure or abnormally high formation
pressure.
Faults and Aquifer Compartmentalization: Imagine a sandstone reservoir at 4500ft TVD
with normal formation pressure (2000 psi / 8.56 ppgEMW). Later due to reverse faulting the
sandstone with its formation pressure of 2000 psi moves up to 3500 ft TVD. Due to sealing
nature of fault plane and sand bed’s juxtaposition against shale, the pore pressure in the
sandstone of hanging wall side would remain at 2000 psi (10.99 ppgEMW). In other words if
you are drilling at 4500 ft tvd. on footwall side you will require approximately 9.0 ppg MW
but if you are drilling on hanging wall side you will need to have 11.5 ppg MW at 3500’tvd to
drill through the sandstone safely.
Tectonic Activity: Mountain building and other tectonic forces can compress formations,
squeezing pore fluids and elevating pore pressure.
Diagenetic Processes: Chemical reactions within formations can release fluids that
contribute to overpressure, particularly during the conversion of organic matter to kerogen.
Another example of diagenetic process is the conversion of montmorillonite to illite with
increasing depth. This process also releases water that has to be squeezed in the limited
pore space available, which further increases formation pressure.
Hydrocarbon Generation: The very process of hydrocarbon generation, especially the
creation of methane gas, which tend occupies larger volume in pore spaces can significantly
increase pore pressure.
Understanding these mechanisms allows geologists to carefully select pressure predicting
tools and avoid pitfalls.
Notes: Formation pressure remain normal as long as the fluid in the pore spaces remains
under the hydrostatic pressure of overlying fluid in the interconnected pore space. However,
nature sometimes applies extra pressure from various sources to increase normal pressure
to abnormally high pressure. This extra pressure may come in the form of overburden
pressure due to compaction in equilibrium or in the form of horizontal stress from regional
tectonic activity or due to due to diagenetic process which create extra fluid that has to be
accommodated within the existing pore volume.
Q. Can you briefly summarize the conclusions of current research papers on origin of
overpressure? OR, What is recent thinking on the origin of overpressure?
Ans. A casual look at recent research papers on the subject of overpressure origin seems to
suggest the followings:
1. Multi-causation nature of overpressure: Overpressure is a result of a combination of geological
processes rather than a single cause. The dominant mechanisms contributing to overpressure generation
include Compaction Disequilibrium, Faults and Aquifer Compartmentalization, diagenetic processes,
regional tectonic activity, hydrocarbon generation.
2. Basin level study: Current researches tend to cover entire basin rather than a small area or a field. This
allows the study of multiple causes at play to generate overpressure.
3. Current researches are making use of analytical modelling techniques, sophisticated algorithms and AI to
get better understanding and make more accurate overpressure prediction.
Q. What drilling problems are caused by excessively high hydrostatic pressure ( excessive
overbalance) in the hole?
Ans. If we use very high MW without any reason, following problems will occur:
1. Slow drilling progress
2. Seepage to total mud loss may occur
3. Damage to formation, that may result in poor quality electric logs and pressure tests
4. High differential pressure may lead to differential sticking of drill pipe and wireline.
Q20. What drilling problems are caused if hydrostatic pressure becomes less than
formation pressure?
Ans. If underbalanced situation is created in the hole, it may result in the following drilling
related problems:
1. Kick that may lead to blow out
2. Instable hole condition generating large amount of cavings and total gas
3. Less than required hydrostatic pressure may lead to hole collapse that may cause
mechanical stuck up.
Q. What is overburden pressure? Why do we need to calculate it?
Ans. Overburden pressure or overburden stress is a pressure exerted by the overlying rocks
(matrix + fluid). Knowledge of distribution overburden stress is important to estimate
formation pressure and formation fracture pressure. In tectonically inactive areas the least
principal stress + Formation pressure = Fracture pressure
Overburden Stress gradient is also used to calculate Formation pressure and formation
fracture pressure. However it should be noted that use of overburden stress values require
complex calculations and complex models to get meaningful results.
Q. Can you explain the concept of overburden stress distribution in subsurface rocks?
Ans. Sedimentary rocks are always subjected to very complex set of forces, we may call
them stress fields. These forces or stresses are generated due to overlying rocks
(Overburden), regional tectonics and gravity.

Knowing the distribution and orientation of stresses on a given sedimentary rock that is
buried in the earths crust is extremely difficult. Therefore for oil field related calculations we
use a simple model of stress distribution. This simplified model assumes that at any given
point on sedimentary rock in a wellbore, the forces act from thee different directions; one
vertical (principal stress vertically acting from top to bottom, this is called Principal Vertical
Axis, which shows the maximum value of stress) and two horizontal axes (one may be
assumed from right to left and the other from front to back. Of these axes one is
intermediate in value and the other is least in value ). It is extremely difficult to calculate the
values of stress in X,Y or Z directions by a data engineer. Therefore based on various studies
and calculation it is agreed that least principal stress axis is 1/3 of vertical stress axis
(maximum stress). 1/3rd is actually a ballpark number. It may vary from area to area from ½
to ¼ of vertical stress. Poisson’s ratio provide more accurate number to calculate least
principal stress.
The importance of knowing least stress axis and its value is that it is needed in calculating
fracture pressure:
Fracture pressure = Least stress value + FP

Any way in summary: maximum vertical stress (S) is calculated from average bulk density
(using wireline density log). S is than divided by Poisson’s ratio or if poisson’s ratio is
unknow than by 0.33 to get least stress. Least stress value plus formation pressure will give
the Fracture Pressure.
Why do we need to know fracture pressure? So that we do not increase hydrostatic
pressure (or MW) in the hole to the point where it can fracture formation and cause
mudloss or if circulating out a kick, do not cause underground blow out.
Performing LOT serves the same purpose. It tells us at what pressure formation will fracture
just below the shoe (shoe area being the weakest point in the entire open hole section). So
we never try to increase hydrostatic pressure near to fracture pressure.

What is Poisson’s ratio? Why do we need to know Poisson’s Ratio?

Poisson’s ratio is the ratio between vertical and horizontal stress. Knowing poisson’s ration
correctly we can calculate least principal axis more accurately.
Q. What are three different operations that tell you the exact formation pressure?
Ans. 1. Wireline formation pressure tests
2. DST or production tests
3. Kicks
Q. What are common logs that are used to pick overpressure zone by data engineers
during the course of drilling.
Ans. There are many logs but more common are d’exponent, sigma log, sonic log, density
log and resistivity log.
Q. What key characteristics of an overpressured zone do pressure logs focus on to identify
high-pressure formation?
Ans. All pressure logs exploit the most important characteristic of overpressure zones, that
is their under-compactness due to trapped fluid. This is why overpressure zones tend to
drill faster, have comparatively lesser density, lower resistivity and lower sonic speed. These
are typical characteristics of an overpressure zone that pressure logs take advantage in
picking high pressure formations. Any sustained deviation from the normal trend is
suspected due to overpressure. A rough rule of thumb is: More the deviation from the
trend, more the formation pressure.
Q. What is d’exponent? How does it pick an overpressure zone?
Ans. Drilling exponent plot reflects the drill-ability (ROP) of formation as per its compaction
alone. During the course of normal drilling, ROP depends on many factors such as
compaction or density of formation, WOB, RPM, FR, Bit size, MW etc. D’exponent equation
removes the effects of surface controlled parameters (such as WOB, RPM, Bit size, FR and
MW) to calculate ROP as per the compactness of formation. As the hardness of rocks
increases with depth the drill-ability of rocks slows down. Therefore any deviation from
slowing trend indicates under-compaction or overpressure zone.
Q. What is Sigma Log? How does it differ from d’exponent?
Ans. A sigma log is another tool like d’exponent that is some time used to pick overpressure
zone by data engineers. Sigma log also uses drilling parameters like ROP, hole diameter,
RPM and WOB to calculate rock strength in psi. Many corrections are applied to the basic
equation to arrive at final equation called sigma 0. (Sigma zero)
The basic principle of Sigma log is same as D’Exponent, that is the compaction or the
strength increases with depth, however when an undercompacted zone or low strength
formation is encountered the plotted trend shifts to left indicating overpressure. The
difference between d’exponent and sigma log, therefore lies in the approach not in the end
result.
While d’exponent requires a thick shale formation to set the trend; Sigma log is
independent of shale. It therefore works very well in limestone. D’exponent takes into
consideration bit type whereas, Sigma log does not.
Q. How do you pick overpressure zone using electric logs such as density log, resistivity
log and sonic log?Ans. Electriclogs are normally plotted on 1/500 scale to see the physical
characteristics of rocks in detail. However it is not possible to see the compaction trend on
this scale. Therefore we plot electric logs data (mainly sonic density and resistivity) on a
compressed scale eg. 1/10000 scale. On this scale it is easy to see the normal compaction
trend with depth as well as any deflection from normal trend. Any consistent deviation from
normal trend is considered to be due to under-compaction or overpressure. Sonic,
resistivity and density data now days can be acquired in real time from LWD logs. Hence the
formation pressure trend can be monitored in real time.
Notes:
As the depth increases the formations become more and more compact and dense. We know that sonic
waves travel faster in harder rocks and slower in softer formations. Therefore if we plot sonic velocity
against depth we will see a trend of increasing velocity but if we encounter an overpressure
zone (undercompacted formation) the sonic velocity will decrease. This deflection in compaction trend will
indicate an overpressure zone. Similarly density and resistivity will increase with the as formations become
more and more hard. However if an undercompacted or overpressure zone is encountered both density
and resistivity will start decreasing and will shift away from normal compaction trend, making it easy to pick
overpressure zone.
Q. What is Equivalent Depth Method used to estimate formation pressure?
Ans. Here the underlying principle is that for any point at depth A in under-compacted zone
there exist a similar level of normal compaction at shallower depth B. And that the
formation pore fluid at point A is subjected to overburden stress that exists between points
A to B. Therefore this method requires the knowledge of Overburden Stress Gradient.

The following equation has been designed to estimate formation pressure:

FP at Depth A = Overburden gradient at Depth A – (TVD at depth B / tvd at depth A) x
(overburden gradient at depth B – Formation pressure at depth B)

If not known from local area, S can be taken as 2 to 2.31 and FP at depth B as normal 1.05 sg

Example:

Depth at A = 3000m
Depth at B = 2800m
Overburden gradient at A (S) = 2.2 sg
Formation Press at point B= 1.05
Overburden gradient at B = 2.0 sg

2.2-(2800/3000) x 2.0 – 1.05

2.2 – 0.93 x 0.95
2.2 – 0.886
FP at depth 3000m = 1.314 sg
Q. How do we calculate Over Burden Pressure?
Overburden stress (S) Formula:
S=s+P
where

S = Overburden
s = Matrix Stress (vertical stress)
P = Pore Pressure (Formation Pressure)

S is usually taken from field average data catalogue or calculated at site using density log.

S(z) = g * integrale (z) (ρ(z) dz)

where:
S(z) is the overburden stress at depth z
g is the acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s²)
ρ(z) is the bulk density of the formation at depth z (obtained from the density log)
integrale (z) (ρ(z) dz) represents the definite integral of the bulk density function with
respect to depth z
Explanation:
Density Log: This wellbore logging tool measures the density of the formations around the
borehole.
Integration: The formula essentially performs a summation of the product of density and a
small depth increment throughout the entire depth interval of interest (z). This summation
approximates the total weight of the rocks above a specific depth.
Gravity: The acceleration due to gravity (g) converts the calculated weight into a stress
value (force per unit area).

Pore pressure calculation from sonic logs:

During drilling pore pressure calculation can be done using sonic logs (from LWD). Sonic
transit time, DT (micro seconds / foot), will decrease with depth as the compaction of the
formation increases due to reduction in porosity. Sonic is plotted against tvd. on semilog
paper. The plot will show decreasing trend with depth, (increasing trend if sonic velocity
ft/second is plotted, however sonic velocity is usually not used for FP calculation). The
deviation from the normal trend is taken as an indication of overpressure. For approximate
formation pressure following Eaton Equation is used:

FP = S – (S – nFP) x ( DTn / DTo)^3.0

Where:
FP = Pore Pressure
S = Overburden
nFP = Normal Pore Pressure
DTn = Normal Sonic DT
DTo = Observed Sonic DT

***Picture to be inserted here***

Pore pressure calculation from resistivity logs:

Solid rock matrix has very high resistivity. With depth as compaction and density increases,
porosity reduces, this causes resistivity to increase with depth. Any reduction in the
resistivity could be due to under-compaction and high porosity, which is a very significant
characteristic of overpressure zone
Bear in mind that resistivity may also change due to changes in salinity in pore water.
Resistivity logs are frequently used to calculate formation pressure as LWD logs are available
in real time. Following is Eaton’s Equation to calculate formation pressure from resistivity
data:

FP = S – (S – nFP) x ( Rn / Ro)^1.2

Where:
FP = Pore Pressure
S = Overburden
nFP = Normal Formation Pressure
Rn = Normal Resistivity
Ro = Observed Resistivity
Q. As a pressure engineer or data engineer, what should be your approach in estimating
overpressure and advising drilling supervisor on appropriate MW?
Ans. We should not form our opinion based on any single indicator but should carefully take
wholistic view before coming to a conclusion. That is, we should look at all the indicators
such as pressure logs, density log, shale factor plots as well as empirical observations (ROP
trend, Gas trends etc.) before advising client on MW. In my opinion empirical observations
of an experienced pressure engineer or data engineers and wellsite geologists are more
important and should be used to calibrate pressure logs such as d’exponent, sonic log,
density logs and resistivity logs.
Q. What are empirical observations on drilling parameters that will convince you that we
are drilling through an overpressure zone?

Ans. There are many empirical observations like increasing ROP trend, increasing total gas
trend, appearance of connection gas and pump off gas, appearance shale cavings (pressure
cavings), increase in torque and drag on connections. Presence of all or most of these
indications is a sure sign of overpessure zone
Q. What do you mean by LCT or SIT? When and how do we perform this test?
Ans. Long connection test (LCT as called by Total Indonesie) or Static Influx test (SIT as called
by Chevron) are two different terms for the same test. This test is performed in
overpressure zone to have an idea how closely hydrostatic pressure is balancing formation
pressure. Both LCT and SIT are performed in exactly the same way. After stand down, the
well is circulated for ten minutes to get rid of any formation gas. Then the circulation is
stopped for five minutes while very slowly reciprocating drill pipe. This is to allow formation
gas to flow into the bore hole under static condition. Then we circulate for ten minutes and
make connection and go ahead with drilling. After one lag time we observe a gas peak. This
gas peak is called SIT or LCT gas and is read above the background gas.
Q. What are geochemical methods that help us in picking overpressure zones during the
course of drilling?
Ans. Geochemical methods offer valuable clues about overpressure zones while drilling by
analyzing the formation fluids and drilled cuttings. Here are some key techniques:
1. Analysis of Formation Gas Composition:
Wet Gas Indicators: Increased concentration of C3 gas compare to C2 (C3/C2 ratio) can
indicate maturation of organic matter at elevated temperatures often associated with
overpressured zones. Non-hydrocarbon Gases: Presence of gases like nitrogen (N2) or
carbon dioxide (CO2) can point towards specific overpressure mechanisms, such as igneous
intrusions releasing N2 or organic matter breakdown generating CO2.
2. Clay Mineral Analysis:
Illite/Smectite Ratio: Transformation of smectite clay to illite happens at higher
temperatures and pressures. An increased smectite content in cuttings compared to illite
(shale Factor performed by titration) suggests a possibility of encountering an
overpressured zone.
3. Vitrinite Reflectance (VR):
VR measures the amount of light reflected by organic matter (vitrinite) in cuttings. Higher
VR values indicate greater thermal maturity, that is expected to increase with depth
(increasing pressure and temperature). Overpressure is known to supress thermal maturity
and VR. Therefore lower than expected VR could be linked with overpressure zone. (Not
always a reliable indicator nor the method is used in mudlogging units very frequently).
Q 40. What are the advantages and disadvantages of d’exponent in over pressure
detection?
The d-exponent (also known as corrected d-exponent or dc-exponent) is a well-established
method in mudlogging for overpressure detection. Here’s a breakdown of its advantages
and disadvantages:
Advantages:
Simplicity: The calculation for d-exponent is relatively straightforward, requiring readily
available drilling parameters like Rate of Penetration (ROP), rotary speed, Weight on Bit
(WOB), bit diameter, and mud weight.
Real-time monitoring: d-exponent can be calculated continuously while drilling, allowing for
quick identification of potential overpressure zones.
Trend analysis: By plotting the d-exponent value against depth, mudloggers can identify
deviations from the expected trend, which might indicate a transition to an overpressured
formation.
Cost-effective: Since it relies on existing drilling data, d-exponent doesn’t require additional
downhole tools or complex measurements, making it a cost-effective approach.
Disadvantages:
Limited applicability: The d-exponent method is primarily based on the concept of normal
compaction in shale formations. It might not be as accurate in formations like carbonates or
sandstones with different compaction behavior.
Mud weight dependence: The original d-exponent calculation doesn’t account for changes
in mud weight. The corrected d-exponent (dc-exponent) addresses this, but requires
additional considerations.
Indirect indicator: d-exponent is an indirect indicator of pore pressure. Deviations can be
caused by factors other than overpressure, such as changes in formation properties or
drilling efficiency.
Limited accuracy in complex wells: In tectonically active areas d’exponent is not an effective
tool. Also in highly deviated or horizontal wells, the d-exponent might not accurately reflect
the downhole stresses due to the influence of wellbore geometry on drilling parameters.
Overall, the d-exponent remains a valuable tool for mudlogging, especially in conjunction
with gas readings and other pressure logs using sonic and resistivity data. The simplicity
and real-time monitoring capabilities make d’exponent a good starting point, but its
limitations should be kept in mind in complex situations.
Q. What are the characteristics of geological basins prone to overpressure?
Geological basins with certain characteristics are more prone to developing zones of
overpressure. Here’s a breakdown of these key features:
Basin History:
Rapid Burial: Basins with a history of rapid sedimentation lead to quick burial of organic
matter and pore fluids. This rapid burial can trap fluids before they have a chance to escape,
leading to overpressure.
Limited Fluid Expulsion: The presence of impermeable layers like caprocks or salt domes can
hinder the natural expulsion of pore fluids during compaction. This trapped fluid contributes
to overpressure development.
Tectonic Activity: Tectonic processes like compressional forces or strike-slip faulting can
cause pore pressure imbalances within the basin. This can lead to localized zones of
overpressure.
Basin Geochemistry:
Presence of Source Rocks: Basins rich in organic matter and organic-rich source rocks have
the potential to generate hydrocarbons during thermal maturation. The gas generation can
significantly increase pore pressure within the formation.
Sedimentary Processes:
Predominance of Fine-Grained Sediments: Basins dominated by fine-grained sediments like
shales have lower permeability compared to coarser formations like sandstones. This low
permeability restricts fluid flow and hinders pore pressure equilibration, promoting
overpressure development.
Additional Factors:
Diagenetic Processes: Chemical and physical changes occurring within the basin rocks, like
the transformation of smectite clay to illite, can indicate past exposure to elevated
temperatures and pressures associated with overpressure.
Hydrodynamic Regimes: Basins with restricted fluid flow due to factors like limited
connection to external fluid sources or compartmentalization by faults can experience
overpressure development.
By understanding these characteristics, geologists can identify basins with a higher risk of
encountering overpressure zones during drilling operations. This allows for proactive well
planning and implementation of appropriate drilling practices to ensure wellbore stability
and safety.
It’s important to note that these characteristics often occur together, and the likelihood of
overpressure generation increases with the presence of multiple factors.
Q. Can a shallower zone become overpressured by getting a recharge from deeper
formation?
Ans. Shallower porous formation may some time get recharged from deeper formation
through fault plane, interconnected fractures or through conduits along the poorly
cemented casing of an old well. The deeper formation may have normal pressure but the
same pressure at shallower depth will behave abnormally high. These recharged zones and
zones that get uplifted due to faulting are very difficult to pick on d’exponent or on other
pressure logs. Unless one has prior warning from the offset wells, these zones will almost
always result in a severe kick or even in blow out if the zone happened to be gas bearing.
Q. What is shale factor? What is it’s significance in detecting overpressure zone during
drilling?
Ans. Shale Factor, also known as cation exchange capacity (CEC), is an important parameter
used in mudlogging to identify overpressure zones in drilling operations. Overpressure
occurs when the pore pressure within a formation exceeds the normal hydrostatic pressure,
posing potential hazards like wellbore instability and kicks.
Mudlogging teams utilize various methods to detect overpressure, including mathematical
calculations and empirical observations. Shale Factor is one such empirical method that
exploits the fact that all overpressure zones are under compacted.
The significance of Shale Factor lies in its ability to detect the type and abundance of clay
minerals present in the shale. Montmorillonite, a clay mineral commonly found in shallower
formations, exhibits a high CEC due to its greater negative surface charge. As depth
increases, montmorillonite gradually transforms into illite, which has a lower CEC, under the
influence of increasing pressure and temperature.
In a normally pressured formation, Shale Factor decreases with depth, reflecting the
conversion of montmorillonite to illite. However, an increase in Shale Factor with depth can
indicate an overpressure zone. This occurs because overpressure zones are porous and
under-compacted, which do not allow the conversion of montmorillonite to illite, preserving
the higher CEC.
By monitoring the trend of Shale Factor with depth, mudloggers can identify potential
overpressure zones and advise the drilling team to adjust the mud weight accordingly,
ensuring wellbore stability and preventing kicks.
Experienced mudlogging crews consider Shale Factor in conjunction with other indicators,
such as gas trends, total gas peaks, drilling rate, and pressure logs, to form a comprehensive
understanding of formation pressure and make safe decisions in mitigating drilling risks.
Q. How do you perform Shale Factor Test?
Ans. Methodology to perform Shale Factor Test:
What you’ll need:
Dried and crushed shale cuttings (representative sample)
Prepared methylene blue solution
Burette (for precise dispensing of the solution)
Beakers or flasks
Graduated cylinder
Filter paper

How to make Methylene Blue solution:

1. Weigh the dye: Use an analytical balance to weigh 0.1 grams of methylene blue dye.
2. Dissolve the dye: Add the weighed dye to a 1-liter volumetric flask.
3. Add water: Fill the flask with distilled water up to the 1-liter mark.
4. Mix thoroughly: Stir or shake the solution until the dye is completely dissolved.

How to perform the test:

Prepare the shale: Take one gm dried shale powder.
Add to solution: Place the shale sample in a beaker or flask and add a known volume of the
methylene blue solution (e.g., 50 ml).
Agitate: Stir or shake the mixture vigorously for a few minutes to allow the dye to adsorb
onto the shale.
Observe the color: The solution will initially be blue. As the dye adsorbs onto the shale, the
colour will begin to fade. Slowly add more methylene blue from the burette until a faint
blue colour persists. Record the volume of methylene blue used.

Example:
Let’s say you used 30 ml of 0.01 N methylene blue solution to titrate 1 gram of shale
cuttings. The calculation would be:
Shale Factor = (30 ml * 0.01 N * 100) / 1 g = 30 meq/100g
This result indicates a high CEC, suggesting the presence of reactive clays (Montmorillonite)
and a possible overpressure zone.
Remember to always consult with experienced mud engineers or geologists to help you
interpret the results in the context of the specific well and formation.
Q . What is drilling fluid? What critical functions does it perform?
Ans. Oil well drilling fluid is called mud on rigs. It is a specially formulated heavy, viscous
fluid which is circulated through a wellbore while drilling for oil and gas. It serves several
critical functions:
Carries Rock Cuttings: The mud helps remove rock cuttings created by the drill bit as it drills
into the formations, transporting them to the surface for disposal.
Cools and Lubricates the Drill Bit: Drilling generates friction and heat. The mud circulation
helps cool the drill bit and lubricate the drill string, reducing wear and tear.
Controls Well Pressure: Drilling mud exerts hydrostatic pressure against the wellbore walls,
preventing formation fluids (like oil, gas, or water) from entering the wellbore
uncontrollably. This helps maintain wellbore stability and prevent blowouts.
Supports Wellbore Walls: The mud helps stabilize exposed rock formations within the
wellbore, preventing them from collapsing and hindering the drilling process.
Q. There are different types of muds; what do you know about them?
Ans. Broadly speaking, there are three types of drilling fluids:
Water-based muds (WBMs): The most common type, using fresh water or salt water (brine)
or a combination as the base fluid with various chemical additives to maintain viscosity,
lubrication, and formation control.
Oil-based muds (OBMs): Utilise oil as the base fluid, offering superior lubrication and
wellbore stability, but requiring stricter environmental regulations due to their oil content.
Synthetic-based muds (SBMs): A compromise between WBMs and OBMs, using synthetic
lubricants that offer good performance with lower environmental impact than OBMs.
Q. What are mud additives? Why do we use them in drilling fluid? Give a few examples of
additives?
Ans. Drilling fluid additives are chemicals additionally used to alter chemical and physical
properties of mud. For example, barite is used as a weighting material to increase the
density of the mud or oil is added to increase lubricity of the mud.

Notes:
Drilling mud additives are chemicals used to enhance the capability of mud. Here is a
breakdown of some common types of additives:
Weighting agents increase the weight of the drilling mud. This is necessary to counteract
the pressure of the rock formations being drilled through. Exaple: Barite, Galena, Hematite
Thinning agents make the drilling mud thinner and easier to pump. thinners reduce the
attractive forces between clay particles in the mud,
resulting in reductions in YP, gel strength and viscosity. Example: lignosulphanates

Filtration control agents, these absorb and hold water in the mud and form a filter cake,
which reduces the rate of water loss. These include CMC and starch
pH control agents are used to maintain the correct acidity or alkalinity of the drilling mud.
This is important for the performance of other additives. Caustic Soda (NaOH) is added to
mud, keeping the pH above 8 to aid the solubility of thinning agents. Caustic Soda also gives
better yield to bentonite.
Lost circulation material (LCM) is added to the drilling mud to help prevent mud loss into
the rock formations. Examples: walnut shells, Calcium carbonate etc.
Q. What do you understand by total pressure loss?
Ans. For an easy understanding, pressure loss can be considered as the amount of energy
spent to circulate mud in the hole. Total pressure loss depends upon OD & ID of drill string,
geometry of hole/annulus, mud properties and depth of bit. Entire circulatory system can
be divided into three major parts: drill pipe, bit and annulus. Amount of energy required to
move the mud from top of drill-pipe to bottom of BHA is called Pressure Loss in DP
Energy spent to make mud pass through bit nozzles is called Bit Pressure loss. Energy spent
to make the mud move from bottom of hole to surface of hole is called Annular pressure
loss. Maximum pressure (roughly 50 to 65%) is lost through the bit nozzles.
Q. What is rheology? What are some of the rheological properties of mud?
Ans. Rheology is the study of flow behaviour of mud under pressure. Some of the
rheological properties of mud are PV, YP, Gel
Notes:
Plastic Viscosity (PV): Plastic viscosity indicates resistance of mud to flow due to mechanical
friction. Plastic viscosity plays an important role in hole cleaning and keeping barite in
suspension. Also it reduces turbulence in open hole section to avoid hole wash out. Ideally
it should not be higher than needed. Higher than optimum PV will create higher than
optimum pressure loss.
PV is a function of solids in the mud like bentonite, barite and other additives. More the
solids more will be viscosity.
For quick field measurements and routine mud property monitoring, subtracting Fann
viscometer readings at 600 rpm and 300 rpm gives a quick estimate plastic viscosity in
centipoise.
Plastic Viscosity (cP) = Θ600 – Θ300 in

Yield Point (YP): Yield point indicates the amount of resistance that a stationary mud will
show before it moves. It may also be stated that it is amount of force required in order to
move a stationary drilling mud. In more technical term, YP represents the attractive forces
among the colloidal particles.

In engineering and material science YP is described as a point on stress, strain curve where
the elastic deformation ends and plastic deformation begins. In elastic deformation, a
material regains its original shape after the stress is removed.
A suitable YP helps suspend cuttings in the mud and stabilises open hole by forming thin
mud cack. Yield Point is measured using viscometer

YP = Readings at 300rpm – PV (in lbs/100ft)

In top hole section where large amount of cuttings are generated high YP is preferred to
efficiently remove the cuttings.

Drilled solids such as type of clay, and contaminants such as CO2, salt and anhydrite tend to
effect yield point.

Gel strength: is another crucial property of drilling fluids that impacts mud behaviour and
hydraulics downhole. It is a measure of capacity of mud to hold the cuttings and barite in
suspension during non-circulation period.

Gel Strength is measured using viscometer on 3RPM at three different times 10 sec. 10 mins
and 30 mins. After the mud is put to rest. The readings are reported in units like pounds per
100 square feet (lb/100ft²)

Good gel strength helps the mud to keep cuttings in suspension when there is no
circulation. This prevents cuttings from settling on the bottom of the wellbore and on top of
bit, which can lead to problems like pipe sticking or formation collapse.
Q. What do you understand by Mud Hydraulics?
Mud hydraulics deals with the mud flowing under pressure in the hole and directing that
energy or hydraulic force to break formation and remove cuttings from underneath the bit
and from annulus.
Optimized hydraulics improve rate of penetration, reduces stress and fatigue on equipment
like mud pumps and avoids build up of cuttings in the annulus and thus mechanical stuck
up.
Q. When company man asks you to simulate optimum hydraulic conditions; What is he
asking you to do?
Ans. He is basically asking to calculate the optimum total pressure loss in the circulatory
system or what should be the optimum SPP. He is asking us to calculate the nozzle sizes that
will give him either the optimum impact force at the bit or the maximum horsepower at the
bit as well as a flow rate that will avoid turbulence in the open hole section and generate a
laminar flow. He is also asking us what is the slip velocity given the mud properties and the
hole geometry. What is the ECD at the bottom of hole? We answer all these questions in our
hydraulics report.
Q. How do you optimize bit hydraulics ?
Ans. There are two methods to optimize bit hydraulics depending upon which hole section
we are drilling.
Maximum Bit Hydraulic Impact Force
Maximum Bit Hydraulic Horse Power
Maximum bit hydraulic impact force is achieved when flow rate and nozzle sizes are
selected in such a way that 48% of total pressure is lost across the bit nozzles. This method
is usually employed when drilling shallow hole. Shallow hole sections have large hole
diameter and are usually drilled faster as the formations at shallow depths are not very
hard. Drilling fast a large diameter hole generates large amount of cuttings. In shallower
sections since formation is not very compacted, ROP is not our concern, here our concern is
to remove large amount of cuttings from the annulus.
When you employ this concept you use only 48% of pressure drop at the bit. That means
you are using only 48% of energy at the bit and rest 52% of energy elsewhere in the
circulating system. A significant amount of pressure drop or energy is consumed in the
annulus to lift and transport the cutting from the annulus.
Maximum Bit Hydraulic Horse Power, as per this concept maximum bit efficiency is
achieved when you select the flow rate and nozzle sizes that cause a pressure drop of 65%
of total pressure loss across at the bit. Across the bit means, through the three nozzles of
the bit.
This concept is used in the deeper section of hole where the hole diameter is small and
formations are usually hard to very hard. In small hole sections eg. 8 ½” hole or 6” hole, the
amount of cuttings generated are small (due to small diameter of hole) and also due to
slower ROP as the formations at deeper depths are more compacted. So in smaller hole-
section our focus shift from removing the cuttings to drilling hole at faster ROP. In this
scenario the maximum bit hydraulic horse power is beneficial. Here we consume 65% of
pressure drop (or hydraulic energy) at bit, that not only helps in removing the cuttings
underneath the bit but also in fracturing the formation underneath the bit to help the bit
drill more efficiently.
Q. What are different flow regimes that exist in hole during circulation?
Ans. In the circulating system three distinct flow regimes can be identified: laminar,
transitional and
turbulent.
Laminar flow – fluid flows in smooth layers with minimal mixing between layers. Velocity
increases towards the center of the flow.
Transitional flow – the flow pattern is between laminar and turbulent. (Most hydraulic
calculation software do not identify transitional flow)
Turbulent flow – fluid particles flow in random directions and the velocity is almost constant
across the flow area.
Laminar flow is desirable in the annulus (space between drill pipe and formation) to prevent
erosion. Turbulent flow may be desirable in high angle holes to break up cuttings beds.
The regimes are identified by Reynolds numbers. If the number is greater than 2000, the
flow is likely turbulen
Q. What are the disadvantages in keeping high hydrostatic pressure over formation
pressure?
Ans. It is always desirable and safe to keep hydrostatic pressure above formation pressure,
but there are some disadvantages in consistently keeping HP very high over formation
pressure. What are they?

1. Reduced ROP
2. Poor expression of gasses from permeable formations, due to drilling fluid flushing of
formation
3. Poor electric log response, due to drilling fluid flushing of formation
4. Reservoir damage, from injection of drilling solids into formation pores
5. Possible lost circulation from opening of existing formation fractures.

Q. Apart from carbide or rice and pulses etc. how else can you check the accuracy of lag
time?

Ans. We can approximately check lag time by looking at positive or negative drill break and
correlating the lithology and their appearance on shaker. Similarly we can use connection
gas, pump off gas and coal gas peaks against ROP on mudlog. There should be consistency
and good match among these parameters.
Q. What is ECD? What parameters affect ECD?
Ans. Equivalent Circulating Density is an apparent mud density when the circulation is going
on. Static mud density is the density when mud is not in circulation. On surface we measure
only static mud density. ECD cannot be measured directly. It is either calculated or derived
from bottom hole pressure as measured by MWD.
Size of annular cross-sections, mud properties like density, PV, YP, and accumulation of
cuttings in the annulus increase the ECD.
Q60. While drilling, how will you know that Bottom Hole Circulating Pressure is close to
Formation Pressure?
Ans. In such case we will see increasing trend of ROP and background gas and a good
expression of all types of gas peaks including connection gas, short trip gas, trip gas pump
off gas etc.
Q. How does nozzle selection effect drilling efficiency? What is the effect of nozzle size on
ROP?
Ans: Nozzle sizes effect jet velocity which in turn effect ROP or drilling efficiency
If we are drilling hard formation we must employ maximum hydraulic horse power at the bit
by selecting nozzles in such a way that we lose 65% pressure across the bit. If we are drilling
soft formation then ROP will be naturally fast. Therefore we must ensure to spend more
hydraulic energy in the annulus to efficiently remove the cuttings and avoid cutting build in
the hole. To achieve this we must select large nozzle sizes so that only 48% energy is spent
across the bit nozzles.
Q. How does a mud cake form and why do we monitor it?
Ans. A mud cake is formed usually against porous and permeable formation where the
liquid phase of mud goes into formation leaving a deposit of mud solids at the bore hole
wall.
Cake is formed during circulation as well as non-circulation period. A thin cake is preferred
to safe guard hole wall but thicker mud cake may cause drilling related problems like:

Tight hole, causing excessive drag.

Increased pressure surges due to reduced hole diameter.
Differential sticking due to an increased area of pipe contact in filter cake.
Excessive formation damage and evaluation problems.
Q. What are some of the serious borehole problems associated with oil well drilling?
Ans. Following are some of the serious problems that can significantly disrupt the drilling
progress:
1. Kick
2. Wellbore instability
3. Stuck pipe
4. Mud loss
Q. What do you understand by severity of mud loss? How will you pick different types of
mud loss?
Ans. There are three types of mud loss:
1. Seepage loss: A very slow and steady mud loss usually in porous and permeable
formation. This is usually identified by very slow drop in active pit. It may sometime require
an hour or two to confirm.
2. Partial mud loss: Here the rate of loss is more, therefore it can be picked immediately by
reducing mud volume in active tank, reduction in mud return in flow line and by certain
amount of drop in SPP.
3. Total mud loss: is immediately identified by sharp reduction in active pit volume, no
return in flow line and significantly sharp drop in SPP.
Q. What are the possible causes of mud loss?
Ans. These can be listed as follows:
1. Channelling behind casing due to poor cement job
2. Unconsolidated formation specially coarse to very coarse sand
3. Cavernous and vugular limestone
4. Naturally fractured formation
5. Mechanically induced fractures.
Q. How can we mechanically induce fractures and cause mud loss?
Ans. We can force create fractures in formation (unintentionally) in many ways and cause
mud loss:
1. By running drill string and casing in hole at fast speed, creating surge pressures higher
than formation fracture pressure at shoe.
2. Allowing cuttings to accumulate around the bit or letting the hole bridge form that may
lead to SPP build up beyond formation strength.
3. Excessively high gel strengths and viscosity may require very high pump pressure that
may occasionally break formation and cause mud loss.
4. Very high bottom hole circulating pressure while killing a kick may fracture formation at
shoe, resulting in mud loss.
Q. How can we accurately pick lost circulation zone (thief zone)?
Ans. Usually a porous permeable and fractured zone, the ideal site for mud loss are drilled
faster and can be identified by drill break. Total mud loss happens immediately upon hitting
the lost circulation zone, so its depth can easily be picked. We can also pick the depth of lost
circulation by running temperature survey, that shows a dip in temperature gradient against
the lost circulation zone. We can also pump radioactive tracers and record gamma ray log,
which will show a very high concentration of radiation against lost circulation zone.
Q. What are the common types and causes of stuck pipe?
Ans. Mechanical sticking: There are many causes of pipe getting mechanically stuck e.g.
dropped object, metal junk, accumulation of cuttings around the bit, swelling of claystone
around drill pipe, hole collapse and hole bridge.
Key Seat sticking: This happens in directional hole by the action of rotating pipe that creates
a pipe size groove, through which pipe can rotate and slide up and down but BHA and bit
cannot pass through.
Differential Sticking: Differential sticking is caused by differential pressure. Two conditions
are required for differential sticking to happen: 1. Hydrostatic pressure should be
significantly higher than formation pressure 2. Formation should be porous and permeable.
Both these conditions are frequently found in old fields, where the reservoirs are porous
and permeable as well as depleted due to production for years.
Q70. Looking at drilling parameters, how will you find out the type of pipe sticking?
Ans. In mechanical sticking of pipe we cannot move or rotate pipe, nor can we circulate. In
differential sticking we can circulate almost normally but cannot rotate and move pipe. In
key seat sticking we can rotate, and circulate normally but vertical movement is limited.
Also key seat sticking happens only in directional hole.
Q. What are the drilling related problems associated with unconsolidated and friable
formations?
Ans. If the mud properties are not maintained at optimum, these formations may cause
hole fill, excessive torque and drag on connections and trip. Hole may pack off and hole
bridges may form. Large amount of cavings and large size cuttings may be witnessed on
shakers.
Q. Explain the phenomenon of bit balling during drilling? What are the factors
contributing to it and what are the potential consequences and mitigation strategies?
Ans. Bit balling in drilling, especially shale, happens when hydrated clay sticks to the drill bit
due to electrochemical attraction. This adhesion is influenced by clay properties, mud
composition, and reactive solids concentration.
Impacts:
Reduced drilling efficiency
Increased equipment wear
Potential downtime
Mitigation:
Use suitable drilling fluids (oil-based, synthetic, or water-based with inhibitors)
Choose bits with anti-balling features
Manage reactive solids with efficient equipment
Q. What are the drilling related problems one encounters while drilling thick section of
evaporite?
Ans. Evaporites disturb the mud properties. They saturate the mud with chloride, which
cannot be treated only diluted. Anhydrite increase hardness and plastic viscosity. These
problems can be handled using inhibitive mud system e.g. oil base mud or salt saturated
mud and casing off the section right after drilling the evaporite.
Q. What is difference between earthing and grounding?
Ans. Earthing and grounding both are a process of connecting an electrical system to the
ground. Earthing process means connecting the dead part (the part that doesn’t carry
current under normal conditions like chromatograph casing, motor body) to the earth. The
grounding process means connecting the live part (that is the part that carries current
under normal conditions e.g. electrical sockets) to the earth
Q80. What is difference between input signals and output signals? Give examples.
Ans. Input signals are the signals received from a sensor eg SPM sensor sending pulses that
count strokes per minute or SPP sensor converting mud pressure into electrical
signal. whereas output signals are command signals given to activate alarms or valves and
actuators.
Q. What is a pressure transducer?
A pressure transducer is a pressure sensor. When a pressure or mechanical force is applied,
its diaphragm undergoes deformation proportional to the pressure being applied and
produce electrical signals either in mv or m amps which are amplified and sent to
controller.
A transducer basically converts one form of energy into another form of energy into
another form of energy. Therefore an antenna is also a transducer as it converts electrical
energy to electromagnetic energy and vice versa.
Q90. What is the role of solenoid valve and gas columns in a chromatograph?
Ans. Unlike total gas detector where gas flows continuously into detector chamber and is
analysed continuously, in chromatograph gas samples are injected in batches by solenoid
valves. From where the gas sample goes into columns where each component (like C1, C2,
C3 etc.) is separated and pushed into detector cell for analysis.
How do Wellsite Geologists witness wireline operations and QC logs:
Introduction: By vigilantly overseeing and implementing QC procedures, a wellsite geologist
helps in acquiring reliable wireline data. This accurate data is essential for informed
decision-making throughout the wellbore’s lifecycle, from formation evaluation and
reservoir characterization to maximizing well productivity as well as optimizing drilling
operations for future wells. In order to witness wireline operations and QC logs in real-time,
a wellsite geologist needs to have required knowledge, experience and skills. This article
gives a glimpse of ‘how do wellsite geologists witness wireline operations and QC logs’:
One week before a wireline job is expected:
1. Geologist calls wire-line engineer in town to update him with the expected date of
the upcoming job. On this calls he also discusses logging program to ensure all the
tools are available in the base or will be made available by the time logging starts.
2. Geologist briefly informs him about expected lithologies and anticipated downhole
problems. For example engineer should be informed if the reservoirs are expected to
be depleted, or deviation exceeds 50 deg. So that he comes prepared for the
challenges.
3. If the temperature in hole is expected (although rare) to be above 320 deg. F,
geologist must mention this to wireline engineer as this environment requires special
tools whose electronics can withstand high temperature.
4. More importantly geologist should mention the results of this discussion to
operations geologist in town. It is imperative to keep operations geologist informed at
all times. Operations geologists do not like surprises.
Three days before the job: call engineer again to update him with current status of well and
expected time of TD. Advisable to have wireline crew and tools on board, two days before
logging job. So that crew has ample time to take rest and check tools. If it is an offshore
location, ensure the chopper flight is booked and tools are on way to rig. Do inform
company man and operations geologist about the expected arrival of crew and wireline
tools on rig.
One day Before the Job Starts:
• Wellsite geologist makes sures wireline crew and tools are on board and at least the
tools of the first run have been function tested.
• He updates company man with logging program, readiness status and estimated
duration of logging job.
• Carries out risk assessments and potential safety issues, prevention measures with
wireline engineer.
 • Wellsite geologist also ensures that he has taken good rest. Logging operation may
take up to 30, 40 or even 50 hours.
• If geologist is estimating it to be long job (longer than 40 hours, he normally requests
a junior geologist from town also requests a second wireline engineer. Making a
wiper trip just to give a break to wireline engineer is more expensive than paying for
second engineer. Also engineer has to handle explosives and radioactive material so
from both angles, his demand is well justified for a second engineer.
Before the logging job starts: wellsite geologist has to provide following information to the
wireline engineer:
• Company Name:
• Well Name:
• Rig Name:
• Rig floor elevation (from mean sea level):
• Shoe depth, casing type and weight per foot.
• Current TD/TVD
• List of directional Surveys to generate TVDss log
• Time and date of EOC (end of circulation)
• Request mud engineer to provide a sample of mud, mud filtrate and cake. This is to
be prepared from mud, collected from flow line just before the circulation stops.
Wireline engineer measures resistivity of all three samples and record it on log
heading.
• Hole condition: Geologist gives an idea about hole condition during POOH. Points out
depths where ever tight hole or abundant caving were encountered
• Temperature of mud out just before the end of circulation
• Percentage of Barite, oil, KCl, mica in the mud, (ask from mud engineer). These may
adversely affect certain logs and may require correction
Note:
Density readings are masked by barite in the mud system and in mud cake. GR readings are
increased in KCl mud system and in mud that contains mica (both due to potassium
content). If a KCl system is used, the log header should have a comment stating
concentration of KCl and correction algorithm used, if any.
When Job Starts:
Wireline job starts with a safety meeting, what we call tool box meeting. Actually meeting
takes place on rig floor after the rig up but prior to picking up tools. It is attended by wellsite
geologist, wireline crew, driller, roughnecks and is conducted by wireline engineer.
Important points that are usually reminded in the meeting are: 1. Unnecessary crew to stay
away from the rig-floor and moon pool area at the time loading and unloading radioactive
sources. 2. People should stay at safe distance from cable. 2. Watch out for potential
hazards such as, pinch points, cable tension, anything that can come loose or get entangled
etc. etc.
Geologist also informs mudlogging crew to closely monitor well on trip tank. Any significant
variation in mud level must immediately be reported to him and company man.
Logging Supervision form: This form is usually available with all consultant geologists. Even
some oil companies have their standard form that is to be filled up by geologist during the
logging operation. It records in detail, timings of various operations, events and important
observations of geologist. It is an important record as it helps understand the efficiency of
operation, problems observed and how were they resolved and what lessons can be
learned to improve the future operation.
Time Record:
Keep a very detailed time record of the events during wireline logging operation, for
example:
• End of circulation at: mention time
• Rig floor clear at: time
• Pre job safety meeting held at: time
• Started Rig up at: time
• Picked up tool at: time
• Loaded radioactive sources and performed before survey calibration at: time
• Start RIH at: time
• Speed RIH: 8000 ft/hr. to 10,000 ft/hr. inside casing.
• Log scales: Ask engineer to show log scales on each track. They should be same as in
offset well.
• Time tool at shoe: Checked shoe depth and record shoe depth, (Use Caliper log or
resistivity log to pick shoe depth)
• Open caliper: check and note casing ID. If sonic tool is in the tool string; check and
note that sonic is reading interval transit time 57 microsec/ft inside casing.
• Tool in open hole section: (note down time and Running speed for log down usually
3000 to 5000 ft/hr.)
 • Tool tension and cable tension: Note down just below shoe and then every 1000 ft. or
so.
• Tool held up depth: If encountered bridge ( mention depth, look at mudlog, note
down lithology and inclination)
• Remarks about hole condition: (Good if no held up, poor if tool speed slowed down
occasionally, bad if tool got held up and had to be tried several time to pass through
the bridge at varying speeds. Note down attempted tool speeds. Also note down tight
spot depths
• Tagged bottom at: note down depth and time. (if shallower, could be due to hole fill)
(bottom hole depth is picked looking at tool and cable tension)
• Time started log up: (Record bottom hole temperature BHT)
• Note down tool tension and cable tension at bottom.
• Logging up speed: (usually around 2000 ft/hr. or as discussed with operations
geologist)
• Log quality: Check quality of various curves, their consistency, gaps in log, spikes,
kinks or straight line on any log, or unnatural looking log curve. Check log readings in
known lithologies. If any log looks unusual ask wireline engineer to repeat log over
doubtful section at slower speed.
• Time tool at shoe (end of logging)
• Time start POOH. POOH speed inside casing (usually faster 5000 to 10000 ft/hr.)
• Time tool on surface
• Time finished unloading radioactive sources and laying down tool
• Time start picking up tools for run #2
• In remarks mention what was total NPT (non-productive time if any)? Reason for it or
how it was prevented or mitigated?
• Also note down lessons learned during the logging operation if any (to be shared with
the team). This helps future operation less strenuous and more efficient.
Individual Log QC: Details of individual logs and how to QC them, can be found in the
section “Wellsite Geologist Interview Q&A”. Please visit: geoskillz.com.
Conclusion:
Aspiring wellsite geologist must pay attention to the following points to build their
knowledge and expertise on the subject:
1. To witness the entire logging operation: Make list of established protocols, from tool
preparation and deployment to data acquisition and demobilisation.
2. Monitor data quality in real-time: Gain basic knowledge of individual logs, their utility,
recording mechanism and borehole environmental effects on them. Learn how to scrutinize
log curves for anomalies, ensure proper tool functioning. (visit: geoskillz.com )
3. Maintain clear communication: with logging engineer, drilling supervisor and operations
geologist. Learn how to convey observations, concerns, and recommendations and address
any data quality issues promptly.
4. Learn to document critical observations: Lean how to maintain detailed records
of logging operation and timings including wellbore conditions, mud properties, and any
deviations from protocol. Some of these notes may be crucial for future reference and data
interpretation.
Skills Required to Become a Consultant Wellsite Geologist

A wellsite geologist is a multifaceted expert on an oil rig, who not only identifies oil and
gas reservoirs in a wellbore but also picks up zones of potential hazards. He witnesses
various logging companies’ functioning as well as QC their logs and data; geosteers a
directional well, performs structural correlation and picks up casing and coring points.
Sends logs and reports to town on daily basis and interacts with drilling and logging teams
on rig and G&G team in town where he shares his observations and interpretations and
helps team in fine tuning the upcoming drilling and logging plans. To perform such critical
actions and diverse duties he must possess set of crucial skills. Many of these skills and
competencies are briefly described her:
Mudlogging And Data Engineering: Consultant wellsite geologist must have a thorough
understanding of mudlogging principles and be able to interpret drilling parameters and
data in real-time to understand down hole conditions. He should know how to check the
calibrations of various sensors. It is his duty to ensure the quality of mudlogging data and
logs match the exacting standards of oil company, mudlogging team stays vigilant in
monitoring the parameters and effectively communicate information to driller and
supervisors. A consultant geologist must possess the expert level knowledge and skills to
perform gas ratio analysis and overpressure detection based on both empirical observations
and various log plots.
Formation Evaluation: This skill set includes lithology and core description, shows
evaluation, gas ratio analysis and quick look interpretation of real-time LWD logs to estimate
oil and gas net pay on daily basis.
Witnessing Wireline Operation and Logs QC: This is an essential skill that all wellsite
geologists must possess in abundance. Having working knowledge of logging tools and
measuring principles is a must. They must know how to QC various logs in real-time
including heading, log curves, remarks and tool calibrations. QC for each set of tools and
logs must be completed before the tool is pulled to surface. In addition to conventional
wireline logging, consultant wellsite geologists must be familiar with specialized logging
operations such as side- wall coring, vertical seismic profile, magnetic resonance logs and
various imaging logs.
Pressure Testing and Fluid Sampling: A wellsite geologist is frequently involved in pressure
testing and fluid sampling during the course of wireline operation. Many stages are involved
from setting tool to opening chambers, in each stage geologist expertise is required to take
decision.
Wellbore Stability Analysis: Wellbore stability is a major concern during drilling and logging
operations. Consultant wellsite geologist must be able to identify and assess the risks of
wellbore instability, such as shales instability and hole collapse, depleted and over
pressured zones as well as the effects of very high degree hole deviation. He must also be
able to recommend strategies to mitigate these risks, such as adjusting drilling fluid
properties or using casing. In difficult hole environment, geologists should be able to assess
and recommend the use of TLC for wireline logging.
MWD/LWD Logging: Primary beneficiary of measurement while drilling and logging while
drilling is wellsite geologist. These tools provide real-time information about the wellbore,
including formation characteristics, wellbore trajectory, and potential hydrocarbon zones.
Real time LWD logs though poor in quality do provide tremendous help in estimating net-
pay based on quick look method, performing structural correlation and picking up casing
and coring points. At the same time one should remember that certain challenges are also
associated with these tools, that a skilled wellsite geologist has to manage. For example,
apart from being very expensive tools, some of them carry nuclear sources, hence all
precautions are to be taken to avoid pipe sticking and the possibility of leaving the tools
plugged and abandoned in the hole.
Directional Drilling and Geosteering: For a wellsite geologist, directional drilling is a dynamic
process that requires constant monitoring of directional progress with respect to planned
trajectory; this also means to maintain close communication with directional driller and
operations geologist. It is therefore vital for geologist to have a working knowledge of
directional drilling techniques and be able to use geosteering software to monitor the
wellbore trajectory in real-time.
Communication and Reporting Skills: Consultant wellsite geologists are required to have top
notch communication and reporting skills. They are required to attend meetings where they
have to share their observations, interpretations and suggestions in a logical way. At the
same time they must be good listener and show respect to opinions of other. Wellsite
geologists prepare official reports on many operations, therefore they should be proficient
in various reporting formats.
Health, Safety, and Environment (HSE) Knowledge: Consultant wellsite geologist must be
familiar with HSE regulations and procedures and be able to work safely in a potentially
hazardous environment. He should also ensure that members of various logging teams are
observing safety protocols. If required he should be able to perform safety and technical
audit on various logging units.
Soft Skills: While the above mentioned hard skills are essential to perform your job as a
wellsite geologist, there are additional soft skills that will help you perform your job
amicably. These include:
• Cultural Awareness and Teamwork: Consultant wellsite geologists often work at
international locations and must be sensitive to different cultures and ways of
working.
 • Problem-Solving Skills: Consultant wellsite geologists must be able to think critically
and solve problems that arise during drilling and logging operations.
• Decision-Making Skills: Consultant wellsite geologists are often required to make
quick decisions that can have a significant impact on drilling operation.
Conclusion: To be successful in this demanding and dynamic position, aspiring wellsite
geologists must focus on developing these skills; which would require continuous learning,
on-the-job experience and guidance from an experienced geologist.