Machine learning

Machine learning (ML) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the development and
study of statistical algorithms that can learn from data and generalise to unseen data, and thus
perform tasks without explicit instructions.[1] Within a subdiscipline in machine learning, advances in
the field of deep learning have allowed neural networks, a class of statistical algorithms, to surpass
many previous machine learning approaches in performance.[2]

ML finds application in many fields, including natural language processing, computer vision, speech
recognition, email filtering, agriculture, and medicine.[3][4] The application of ML to business problems
is known as predictive analytics.

Statistics and mathematical optimisation (mathematical programming) methods comprise the

foundations of machine learning. Data mining is a related field of study, focusing on exploratory data
analysis (EDA) via unsupervised learning.[6][7]

From a theoretical viewpoint, probably approximately correct learning provides a framework for
describing machine learning.

History

The term machine learning was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel, an IBM employee and pioneer in
the field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence.[8][9] The synonym self-teaching computers
was also used in this time period.[10][11]

Although the earliest machine learning model was introduced in the 1950s when Arthur Samuel
invented a program that calculated the winning chance in checkers for each side, the history of
machine learning roots back to decades of human desire and effort to study human cognitive
processes.[12] In 1949, Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb published the book The Organization of
Behavior, in which he introduced a theoretical neural structure formed by certain interactions among
nerve cells.[13] Hebb's model of neurons interacting with one another set a groundwork for how AIs
and machine learning algorithms work under nodes, or artificial neurons used by computers to
communicate data.[12] Other researchers who have studied human cognitive systems contributed to
the modern machine learning technologies as well, including logician Walter Pitts and Warren
McCulloch, who proposed the early mathematical models of neural networks to come up with
algorithms that mirror human thought processes.[12]
By the early 1960s, an experimental "learning machine" with punched tape memory, called Cybertron,
had been developed by Raytheon Company to analyse sonar signals, electrocardiograms, and speech
patterns using rudimentary reinforcement learning. It was repetitively "trained" by a human
operator/teacher to recognise patterns and equipped with a "goof" button to cause it to reevaluate
incorrect decisions.[14] A representative book on research into machine learning during the 1960s
was Nilsson's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern
classification.[15] Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by
Duda and Hart in 1973.[16] In 1981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that an artificial
neural network learns to recognise 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a
computer terminal.[17]

Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the
machine learning field: "A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some
class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P,
improves with experience E."[18] This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned
offers a fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This
follows Alan Turing's proposal in his paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence", in which the
question "Can machines think?" is replaced with the question "Can machines do what we (as thinking
entities) can do?".[19]

Modern-day machine learning has two objectives. One is to classify data based on models which
have been developed; the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these
models. A hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles
coupled with supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine
learning algorithm for stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions.[20]
Relationships to other fields

Artificial intelligence

Machine learning as subfield of AI[21]

As a scientific endeavour, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial intelligence (AI). In the
early days of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines
learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as
what were then termed "neural networks"; these were mostly perceptrons and other models that were
later found to be reinventions of the generalised linear models of statistics.[22] Probabilistic reasoning
was also employed, especially in automated medical diagnosis.[23]: 488

However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based approach caused a rift between AI
and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of
data acquisition and representation.[23]: 488 By 1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and
statistics was out of favour.[24] Work on symbolic/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI,
leading to inductive logic programming(ILP), but the more statistical line of research was now
outside the field of AI proper, in pattern recognition and information retrieval.[23]: 708–710, 755 Neural
networks research had been abandoned by AI and computer science around the same time. This line,
too, was continued outside the AI/CS field, as "connectionism", by researchers from other disciplines
including John Hopfield, David Rumelhart, and Geoffrey Hinton. Their main success came in the mid-
1980s with the reinvention of backpropagation.[23]: 25

Machine learning (ML), reorganised and recognised as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s.
The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a
practical nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and
toward methods and models borrowed from statistics, fuzzy logic, and probability theory.[24]
Data compression

There is a close connection between machine learning and compression. A system that predicts the
posterior probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be used for optimal data
compression (by using arithmetic coding on the output distribution). Conversely, an optimal
compressor can be used for prediction (by finding the symbol that compresses best, given the
previous history). This equivalence has been used as a justification for using data compression as a
benchmark for "general intelligence".[25][26][27]

An alternative view can show compression algorithms implicitly map strings into implicit feature
space vectors, and compression-based similarity measures compute similarity within these feature
spaces. For each compressor C(.) we define an associated vector space ℵ, such that C(.) maps an
input string x, corresponding to the vector norm ||~x||. An exhaustive examination of the feature
spaces underlying all compression algorithms is precluded by space; instead, feature vectors
chooses to examine three representative lossless compression methods, LZW, LZ77, and PPM.[28]

According to AIXI theory, a connection more directly explained in Hutter Prize, the best possible
compression of x is the smallest possible software that generates x. For example, in that model, a zip
file's compressed size includes both the zip file and the unzipping software, since you can not unzip it
without both, but there may be an even smaller combined form.

Examples of AI-powered audio/video compression software include NVIDIA Maxine, AIVC.[29]

Examples of software that can perform AI-powered image compression include OpenCV, TensorFlow,
MATLAB's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT) and High-Fidelity Generative Image Compression.[30]

In unsupervised machine learning, k-means clustering can be utilized to compress data by grouping
similar data points into clusters. This technique simplifies handling extensive datasets that lack
predefined labels and finds widespread use in fields such as image compression.[31]

Data compression aims to reduce the size of data files, enhancing storage efficiency and speeding up
data transmission. K-means clustering, an unsupervised machine learning algorithm, is employed to
partition a dataset into a specified number of clusters, k, each represented by the centroid of its
points. This process condenses extensive datasets into a more compact set of representative points.
Particularly beneficial in image and signal processing, k-means clustering aids in data reduction by
replacing groups of data points with their centroids, thereby preserving the core information of the
original data while significantly decreasing the required storage space.[32]

Large language models (LLMs) are also efficient lossless data compressors on some data sets, as
demonstrated by DeepMind's research with the Chinchilla 70B model. Developed by DeepMind,
Chinchilla 70B effectively compressed data, outperforming conventional methods such as Portable
Network Graphics (PNG) for images and Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC) for audio. It achieved
compression of image and audio data to 43.4% and 16.4% of their original sizes, respectively. There
is, however, some reason to be concerned that the data set used for testing overlaps the LLM training
data set, making it possible that the Chinchilla 70B model is only an efficient compression tool on
data it has already been trained on.[33][34]

Data mining

Machine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but
while machine learning focuses on prediction, based on known properties learned from the training
data, data mining focuses on the discovery of (previously) unknown properties in the data (this is the
analysis step of knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning
methods, but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining
methods as "unsupervised learning" or as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of
the confusion between these two research communities (which do often have separate conferences
and separate journals, ECML PKDD being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions
they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to
reproduce known knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data mining (KDD) the key task is the
discovery of previously unknown knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an
uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while
in a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data.

Machine learning also has intimate ties to optimisation: Many learning problems are formulated as
minimisation of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the
discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances
(for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to
correctly predict the preassigned labels of a set of examples).[35]

Generalization

Characterizing the generalisation of various learning algorithms is an active topic of current research,
especially for deep learning algorithms.
Statistics

Machine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their
principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample, while machine learning finds
generalisable predictive patterns.[36] According to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas of machine learning,
from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics.[37] He
also suggested the term data science as a placeholder to call the overall field.[37]

Conventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most suitable for the study
data set. In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant variables based on previous experience
are included for analysis. In contrast, machine learning is not built on a pre-structured model; rather,
the data shape the model by detecting underlying patterns. The more variables (input) used to train
the model, the more accurate the ultimate model will be.[38]

Leo Breiman distinguished two statistical modelling paradigms: data model and algorithmic
model,[39] wherein "algorithmic model" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like
Random Forest.

Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that
they call statistical learning.[40]

Statistical physics

Analytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems
can be extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyse the weight
space of deep neural networks.[41] Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of
medical diagnostics.[42]

Theory

A core objective of a learner is to generalise from its experience.[5][43] Generalisation in this context is
the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples/tasks after having
experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown
probability distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has
to build a general model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions
in new cases.
The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of
theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory via the probably approximately
correct learning model. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory
usually does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on
the performance are quite common. The bias–variance decomposition is one way to quantify
generalisation error.

For the best performance in the context of generalisation, the complexity of the hypothesis should
match the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the
function, then the model has under fitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in
response, then the training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is
subject to overfitting and generalisation will be poorer.[44]

In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of
learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in
polynomial time. There are two kinds of time complexity results: Positive results show that a certain
class of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes
cannot be learned in polynomial time.

Approaches

In supervised learning, the training data is labelled with

the expected answers, while in unsupervised learning, the
model identifies patterns or structures in unlabelled data.

Machine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, which correspond
to learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the "signal" or "feedback" available to the learning
system:

Supervised learning: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs,
given by a "teacher", and the goal is to learn a general rule that maps inputs to outputs.

Unsupervised learning: No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find
structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in
 data) or a means towards an end (feature learning).

Reinforcement learning: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it

must perform a certain goal (such as driving a vehicle or playing a game against an opponent). As
it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards,
which it tries to maximise.[5]

Although each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works for all
problems.[45][46][47]

Supervised learning

A support-vector machine is a supervised

learning model that divides the data into
regions separated by a linear boundary.
Here, the linear boundary divides the black
circles from the white.

Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that contains both the
inputs and the desired outputs.[48] The data, known as training data, consists of a set of training
examples. Each training example has one or more inputs and the desired output, also known as a
supervisory signal. In the mathematical model, each training example is represented by an array or
vector, sometimes called a feature vector, and the training data is represented by a matrix. Through
iterative optimisation of an objective function, supervised learning algorithms learn a function that
can be used to predict the output associated with new inputs.[49] An optimal function allows the
algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were not a part of the training data. An
algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or predictions over time is said to have learned to
perform that task.[18]
Types of supervised-learning algorithms include active learning, classification and regression.[50]
Classification algorithms are used when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, while
regression algorithms are used when the outputs can take any numerical value within a range. For
example, in a classification algorithm that filters emails, the input is an incoming email, and the
output is the folder in which to file the email. In contrast, regression is used for tasks such as
predicting a person's height based on factors like age and genetics or forecasting future
temperatures based on historical data.[51]

Similarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and
classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how
similar or related two objects are. It has applications in ranking, recommendation systems, visual
identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification.

Unsupervised learning

Unsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labelled, classified or
categorised. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify
commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in
each new piece of data. Central applications of unsupervised machine learning include clustering,
dimensionality reduction,[7] and density estimation.[52]

Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters) so that
observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria,
while observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make
different assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some similarity metric and
evaluated, for example, by internal compactness, or the similarity between members of the same
cluster, and separation, the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on estimated
density and graph connectivity.

A special type of unsupervised learning called, self-supervised learning involves training a model by
generating the supervisory signal from the data itself.[53][54]

Semi-supervised learning

Semi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labelled training data) and
supervised learning (with completely labelled training data). Some of the training examples are
missing training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabelled data,
when used in conjunction with a small amount of labelled data, can produce a considerable
improvement in learning accuracy.

In weakly supervised learning, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels
are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets.[55]

Reinforcement learning

Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning

concerned with how software agents ought to take actions in an
environment so as to maximise some notion of cumulative
reward. Due to its generality, the field is studied in many other
disciplines, such as game theory, control theory, operations
research, information theory, simulation-based optimisation,
multi-agent systems, swarm intelligence, statistics and genetic
algorithms. In reinforcement learning, the environment is
typically represented as a Markov decision process (MDP).
Many reinforcement learning algorithms use dynamic
programming techniques.[56] Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an
exact mathematical model of the MDP and are used when exact models are infeasible.
Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game
against a human opponent.

Dimensionality reduction

Dimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of random variables under

consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables.[57] In other words, it is a process of reducing
the dimension of the feature set, also called the "number of features". Most of the dimensionality
reduction techniques can be considered as either feature elimination or extraction. One of the
popular methods of dimensionality reduction is principal component analysis (PCA). PCA involves
changing higher-dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). The manifold hypothesis
proposes that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-dimensional manifolds, and many
dimensionality reduction techniques make this assumption, leading to the area of manifold learning
and manifold regularisation.
Other types

Other approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold categorisation, and
sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example, topic
modelling, meta-learning.[58]

Self-learning

Self-learning, as a machine learning paradigm was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network
capable of self-learning, named crossbar adaptive array (CAA).[59][60] It gives a solution to the
problem learning without any external reward, by introducing emotion as an internal reward. Emotion
is used as state evaluation of a self-learning agent. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a
crossbar fashion, both decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence
situations. The system is driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion.[61] The self-
learning algorithm updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration executes the
following machine learning routine:

1. in situation s perform action a

2. receive a consequence situation s'

3. compute emotion of being in the consequence situation v(s')

4. update crossbar memory w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s')

It is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or behaviour) a. There is
neither a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The
backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation.
The CAA exists in two environments, one is the behavioural environment where it behaves, and the
other is the genetic environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about
situations to be encountered in the behavioural environment. After receiving the genome (species)
vector from the genetic environment, the CAA learns a goal-seeking behaviour, in an environment that
contains both desirable and undesirable situations.[62]

Feature learning

Several learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during
training.[63] Classic examples include principal component analysis and cluster analysis. Feature
learning algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the
information in their input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing
step before performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the
inputs coming from the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to
configurations that are implausible under that distribution. This replaces manual feature engineering,
and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task.

Feature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features
are learned using labelled input data. Examples include artificial neural networks, multilayer
perceptrons, and supervised dictionary learning. In unsupervised feature learning, features are
learned with unlabelled input data. Examples include dictionary learning, independent component
analysis, autoencoders, matrix factorisation[64] and various forms of clustering.[65][66][67]

Manifold learning algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is
low-dimensional. Sparse coding algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned
representation is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. Multilinear
subspace learning algorithms aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from tensor
representations for multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional
vectors.[68] Deep learning algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy of
features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms of (or generating) lower-level
features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine is one that learns a representation that
disentangles the underlying factors of variation that explain the observed data.[69]

Feature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often
require input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world
data such as images, video, and sensory data has not yielded attempts to algorithmically define
specific features. An alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination,
without relying on explicit algorithms.

Sparse dictionary learning

Sparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a
linear combination of basis functions and assumed to be a sparse matrix. The method is strongly
NP-hard and difficult to solve approximately.[70] A popular heuristic method for sparse dictionary
learning is the k-SVD algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In
classification, the problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example
belongs. For a dictionary where each class has already been built, a new training example is
associated with the class that is best sparsely represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse
dictionary learning has also been applied in image de-noising. The key idea is that a clean image
patch can be sparsely represented by an image dictionary, but the noise cannot.[71]
Anomaly detection

In data mining, anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items,
events or observations which raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the
data.[72] Typically, the anomalous items represent an issue such as bank fraud, a structural defect,
medical problems or errors in a text. Anomalies are referred to as outliers, novelties, noise, deviations
and exceptions.[73]

In particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often
not rare objects, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common
statistical definition of an outlier as a rare object. Many outlier detection methods (in particular,
unsupervised algorithms) will fail on such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster
analysis algorithm may be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns.[74]

Three broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist.[75] Unsupervised anomaly detection
techniques detect anomalies in an unlabelled test data set under the assumption that the majority of
the instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the
remainder of the data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been
labelled as "normal" and "abnormal" and involves training a classifier (the key difference from many
other statistical classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection).
Semi-supervised anomaly detection techniques construct a model representing normal behaviour
from a given normal training data set and then test the likelihood of a test instance to be generated
by the model.

Robot learning

Robot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised
learning, reinforcement learning,[76][77] and finally meta-learning (e.g. MAML).

Association rules

Association rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering relationships
between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases
using some measure of "interestingness".[78]

Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies,
learns, or evolves "rules" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a
rule-based machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilisation of a set of relational rules
that collectively represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other
machine learning algorithms that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied
to any instance in order to make a prediction.[79] Rule-based machine learning approaches include
learning classifier systems, association rule learning, and artificial immune systems.

Based on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieliński and Arun Swami
introduced association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction
data recorded by point-of-sale (POS) systems in supermarkets.[80] For example, the rule
found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if
a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such
information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional
pricing or product placements. In addition to market basket analysis, association rules are employed
today in application areas including Web usage mining, intrusion detection, continuous production,
and bioinformatics. In contrast with sequence mining, association rule learning typically does not
consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions.

Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that
combine a discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with a learning component,
performing either supervised learning, reinforcement learning, or unsupervised learning. They seek to
identify a set of context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise
manner in order to make predictions.[81]

Inductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using logic programming as a
uniform representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an
encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical
database of facts, an ILP system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and
no negative examples. Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind of
programming language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as
functional programs.

Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural language processing.
Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning
in a logical setting.[82][83][84] Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981:
a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples.[85]
The term inductive here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed
facts, rather than mathematical induction, proving a property for all members of a well-ordered set.
Models

A machine learning model is a type of mathematical model that, once "trained" on a given dataset,
can be used to make predictions or classifications on new data. During training, a learning algorithm
iteratively adjusts the model's internal parameters to minimise errors in its predictions.[86] By
extension, the term "model" can refer to several levels of specificity, from a general class of models
and their associated learning algorithms to a fully trained model with all its internal parameters
tuned.[87]

Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems, picking the
best model for a task is called model selection.

Artificial neural networks

An artificial neural network is an interconnected

group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons
in a brain. Here, each circular node represents an
artificial neuron and an arrow represents a
connection from the output of one artificial neuron
to the input of another.

Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired
by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems "learn" to perform
tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task-specific rules.
An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called "artificial neurons",
which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a
biological brain, can transmit information, a "signal", from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial
neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to
it. In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real
number, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum
of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are called "edges". Artificial neurons and
edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases
the strength of the signal at a connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the
signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are
aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of transformations on their
inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer (the output layer), possibly
after traversing the layers multiple times.

The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human brain
would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from
biology. Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision,
speech recognition, machine translation, social network filtering, playing board and video games and
medical diagnosis.

Deep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to
model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful
applications of deep learning are computer vision and speech recognition.[88]
Decision trees

A decision tree showing survival probability

of passengers on the Titanic

Decision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive model to go from observations about an
item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the
leaves). It is one of the predictive modelling approaches used in statistics, data mining, and machine
learning. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called
classification trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels, and branches represent
conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees where the target variable can
take continuous values (typically real numbers) are called regression trees. In decision analysis, a
decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and decision making. In data
mining, a decision tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for
decision-making.

Random forest regression

Random forest regression (RFR) falls under umbrella of decision tree-based models. RFR is an
ensemble learning method that builds multiple decision trees and averages their predictions to
improve accuracy and to avoid overfitting. To build decision trees, RFR uses bootstrapped sampling,
for instance each decision tree is trained on random data of from training set. This random selection
of RFR for training enables model to reduce bias predictions and achieve accuracy. RFR generates
independent decision trees, and it can work on single output data as well multiple regressor task.
This makes RFR compatible to be used in various application.[89][90]
Support-vector machines

Support-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related
supervised learning methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples,
each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that
predicts whether a new example falls into one category.[91] An SVM training algorithm is a non-
probabilistic, binary, linear classifier, although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in a
probabilistic classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently
perform a non-linear classification using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs
into high-dimensional feature spaces.

Regression analysis

Illustration of linear regression on a data set

Regression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate the relationship
between input variables and their associated features. Its most common form is linear regression,
where a single line is drawn to best fit the given data according to a mathematical criterion such as
ordinary least squares. The latter is often extended by regularisation methods to mitigate overfitting
and bias, as in ridge regression. When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models include
polynomial regression (for example, used for trendline fitting in Microsoft Excel[92]), logistic
regression (often used in statistical classification) or even kernel regression, which introduces non-
linearity by taking advantage of the kernel trick to implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional
space.

Multivariate linear regression extends the concept of linear regression to handle multiple dependent
variables simultaneously. This approach estimates the relationships between a set of input variables
and several output variables by fitting a multidimensional linear model. It is particularly useful in
scenarios where outputs are interdependent or share underlying patterns, such as predicting multiple
economic indicators or reconstructing images,[93] which are inherently multi-dimensional.

Bayesian networks

A simple Bayesian network. Rain influences

whether the sprinkler is activated, and both
rain and the sprinkler influence whether the
grass is wet.

A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic graphical model is a probabilistic graphical
model that represents a set of random variables and their conditional independence with a directed
acyclic graph (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships
between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the
probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform inference
and learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like speech signals or protein
sequences, are called dynamic Bayesian networks. Generalisations of Bayesian networks that can
represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams.

Gaussian processes

An example of Gaussian Process

Regression (prediction) compared with
other regression models[94]

A Gaussian process is a stochastic process in which every finite collection of the random variables in
the process has a multivariate normal distribution, and it relies on a pre-defined covariance function,
or kernel, that models how pairs of points relate to each other depending on their locations.
Given a set of observed points, or input–output examples, the distribution of the (unobserved) output
of a new point as function of its input data can be directly computed by looking like the observed
points and the covariances between those points and the new, unobserved point.

Gaussian processes are popular surrogate models in Bayesian optimisation used to do

hyperparameter optimisation.

Genetic algorithms

A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimics the process of
natural selection, using methods such as mutation and crossover to generate new genotypes in the
hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used
in the 1980s and 1990s.[95][96] Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve
the performance of genetic and evolutionary algorithms.[97]

Belief functions

The theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster–Shafer theory, is a
general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood connections to other frameworks
such as probability, possibility and imprecise probability theories. These theoretical frameworks can
be thought of as a kind of learner and have some analogous properties of how evidence is combined
(e.g., Dempster's rule of combination), just like how in a pmf-based Bayesian approach would
combine probabilities.[98] However, there are many caveats to these beliefs functions when compared
to Bayesian approaches in order to incorporate ignorance and uncertainty quantification. These belief
function approaches that are implemented within the machine learning domain typically leverage a
fusion approach of various ensemble methods to better handle the learner's decision boundary, low
samples, and ambiguous class issues that standard machine learning approach tend to have
difficulty resolving.[4][9] However, the computational complexity of these algorithms are dependent on
the number of propositions (classes), and can lead to a much higher computation time when
compared to other machine learning approaches.

Rule-based models

Rule-based machine learning (RBML) is a branch of machine learning that automatically discovers
and learns 'rules' from data. It provides interpretable models, making it useful for decision-making in
fields like healthcare, fraud detection, and cybersecurity. Key RBML techniques includes learning
classifier systems,[99] association rule learning,[100] artificial immune systems,[101] and other similar
models. These methods extract patterns from data and evolve rules over time.

Training models

Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data to perform accurate
predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and
collect a large and representative sample of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a
corpus of text, a collection of images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users of a
service. Overfitting is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained
models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions.
Biased models may result in detrimental outcomes, thereby furthering the negative impacts on
society or objectives. Algorithmic bias is a potential result of data not being fully prepared for
training. Machine learning ethics is becoming a field of study and notably, becoming integrated within
machine learning engineering teams.

Federated learning

Federated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to training machine learning
models that decentralises the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained by not
needing to send their data to a centralised server. This also increases efficiency by decentralising the
training process to many devices. For example, Gboard uses federated machine learning to train
search query prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual searches
back to Google.[102]

Applications

There are many applications for machine learning, including:

Agriculture Banking

Anatomy Behaviorism

Adaptive website Bioinformatics

Affective computing Brain–machine interfaces

Astronomy Cheminformatics

Automated decision-making Citizen Science

 Climate Science Marketing

Computer networks Medical diagnosis

Computer vision Natural language processing

Credit-card fraud detection Natural language understanding

Data quality Online advertising

DNA sequence classification Optimisation

Economics Recommender systems

Financial market analysis[103] Robot locomotion

General game playing Search engines

Handwriting recognition Sentiment analysis

Healthcare Sequence mining

Information retrieval Software engineering

Insurance Speech recognition

Internet fraud detection Structural health monitoring

Knowledge graph embedding Syntactic pattern recognition

Linguistics Telecommunications

Machine learning control Theorem proving

Machine perception Time-series forecasting

Machine translation Tomographic reconstruction[104]

Material Engineering User behaviour analytics

In 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first "Netflix Prize" competition to find a program
to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie
recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from AT&T Labs-
Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model
to win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million.[105] Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realised
that viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns ("everything is a
recommendation") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly.[106] In 2010 The Wall
Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict
the financial crisis.[107] In 2012, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80% of
medical doctors jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical
diagnostic software.[108] In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied
in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously
unrecognised influences among artists.[109] In 2019 Springer Nature published the first research book
created using machine learning.[110] In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make
diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19.[111] Machine learning was recently
applied to predict the pro-environmental behaviour of travellers.[112] Recently, machine learning
technology was also applied to optimise smartphone's performance and thermal behaviour based on
the user's interaction with the phone.[113][114][115] When applied correctly, machine learning algorithms
(MLAs) can utilise a wide range of company characteristics to predict stock returns without
overfitting. By employing effective feature engineering and combining forecasts, MLAs can generate
results that far surpass those obtained from basic linear techniques like OLS.[116]

Recent advancements in machine learning have extended into the field of quantum chemistry, where
novel algorithms now enable the prediction of solvent effects on chemical reactions, thereby offering
new tools for chemists to tailor experimental conditions for optimal outcomes.[117]

Machine Learning is becoming a useful tool to investigate and predict evacuation decision making in
large scale and small scale disasters. Different solutions have been tested to predict if and when
householders decide to evacuate during wildfires and hurricanes.[118][119][120] Other applications have
been focusing on pre evacuation decisions in building fires.[121][122]

Machine learning is also emerging as a promising tool in geotechnical engineering, where it is used to
support tasks such as ground classification, hazard prediction, and site characterization. Recent
research emphasizes a move toward data-centric methods in this field, where machine learning is
not a replacement for engineering judgment, but a way to enhance it using site-specific data and
patterns.[123]

Limitations

Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often
fail to deliver expected results.[124][125][126] Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack
of access to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools
and people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems.[127]

The "black box theory" poses another yet significant challenge. Black box refers to a situation where
the algorithm or the process of producing an output is entirely opaque, meaning that even the coders
of the algorithm cannot audit the pattern that the machine extracted out of the data.[128] The House
of Lords Select Committee, which claimed that such an "intelligence system" that could have a
"substantial impact on an individual's life" would not be considered acceptable unless it provided "a
full and satisfactory explanation for the decisions" it makes.[128]

In 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision.[129]
Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the IBM Watson system failed to deliver even
after years of time and billions of dollars invested.[130][131] Microsoft's Bing Chat chatbot has been
reported to produce hostile and offensive response against its users.[132]

Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a systematic review
and increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved
with training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting
the necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves.[133]

Explainability

Explainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial

intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI.[134] It
contrasts with the "black box" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain
why an AI arrived at a specific decision.[135] By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered
systems and dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more effectively.
XAI may be an implementation of the social right to explanation.

Overfitting

The blue line could be an example of

overfitting a linear function due to random
noise.

Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as
overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with
how well it fits the data but penalising the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.[136]

Other limitations and vulnerabilities

Learners can also disappoint by "learning the wrong lesson". A toy example is that an image classifier
trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are
likely to be horses.[137] A real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers often do
not primarily make judgements from the spatial relationship between components of the picture, and
they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with
images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image can result in
"adversarial" images that the system misclassifies.[138][139]

Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. For
some systems, it is possible to change the output by only changing a single adversarially chosen
pixel.[140] Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation or evasion via adversarial
machine learning.[141]

Researchers have demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g., for
categories "spam" and well-visible "not spam" of posts) machine learning models that are often
developed or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including in
cases for which a type of data/software transparency is provided, possibly including white-box
access.[142][143][144]

Model assessments

Classification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like
the holdout method, which splits the data in a training and test set (conventionally 2/3 training set
and 1/3 test set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In
comparison, the K-fold-cross-validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then
K experiments are performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the
remaining K-1 subsets for training the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation
methods, bootstrap, which samples n instances with replacement from the dataset, can be used to
assess model accuracy.[145]

In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and specificity meaning true
positive rate (TPR) and true negative rate (TNR) respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes
report the false positive rate (FPR) as well as the false negative rate (FNR). However, these rates are
ratios that fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC)
along with the accompanying Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC) offer additional tools for
classification model assessment. Higher AUC is associated with a better performing model.[146]

Ethics

The ethics of artificial intelligence covers a broad range of topics within AI that are considered to
have particular ethical stakes.[147] This includes algorithmic biases, fairness,[148] automated decision-
making,[149] accountability, privacy, and regulation. It also covers various emerging or potential future
challenges such as machine ethics (how to make machines that behave ethically), lethal
autonomous weapon systems, arms race dynamics, AI safety and alignment, technological
unemployment, AI-enabled misinformation, how to treat certain AI systems if they have a moral
status (AI welfare and rights), artificial superintelligence and existential risks.[147]

Some application areas may also have particularly important ethical implications, like healthcare,
education, criminal justice, or the military.

Bias

Different machine learning approaches can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning
system trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new
customer groups that are not represented in the training data. When trained on human-made data,
machine learning is likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in
society.[150]

Systems that are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases upon use
(algorithmic bias), thus digitising cultural prejudices.[151] For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission
for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a computer program
trained from data of previous admissions staff and that this program had denied nearly 60
candidates who were found to either be women or have non-European sounding names.[150] Using
job hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system
duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous successful applicants.[152][153]
Another example includes predictive policing company Geolitica's predictive algorithm that resulted
in "disproportionately high levels of over-policing in low-income and minority communities" after
being trained with historical crime data.[154]

While responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system is
considered a critical part of machine learning, some researchers blame lack of participation and
representation of minority population in the field of AI for machine learning's vulnerability to
biases.[155] In fact, according to research carried out by the Computing Research Association (CRA)
in 2021, "female faculty merely make up 16.1%" of all faculty members who focus on AI among
several universities around the world.[156] Furthermore, among the group of "new U.S. resident AI PhD
graduates," 45% identified as white, 22.4% as Asian, 3.2% as Hispanic, and 2.4% as African American,
which further demonstrates a lack of diversity in the field of AI.[156]

Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases.[157][158] Because
human languages contain biases, machines trained on language corpora will necessarily also learn
these biases.[159][160] In 2016, Microsoft tested Tay, a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly
picked up racist and sexist language.[161]

In an experiment carried out by ProPublica, an investigative journalism organisation, a machine

learning algorithm's insight into the recidivism rates among prisoners falsely flagged "black
defendants high risk twice as often as white defendants".[154] In 2015, Google Photos once tagged a
couple of black people as gorillas, which caused controversy. The gorilla label was subsequently
removed, and in 2023, it still cannot recognise gorillas.[162] Similar issues with recognising non-white
people have been found in many other systems.[163]

Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in
other domains.[164] Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine
learning and propelling its use for human good, is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence
scientists, including Fei-Fei Li, who said that "[t]here's nothing artificial about AI. It's inspired by
people, it's created by people, and—most importantly—it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are
only just beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility."[165]

Financial incentives

There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in
the public's interest but as income-generating machines. This is especially true in the United States
where there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increasing profits.
For example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or
medication in which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine
learning in health care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan
recovery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated.[166]
Hardware

Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to
more efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a particular narrow subdomain of machine
learning) that contain many layers of nonlinear hidden units.[167] By 2019, graphics processing units
(GPUs), often with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of
training large-scale commercial cloud AI.[168] OpenAI estimated the hardware compute used in the
largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold
increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months.[169][170]

Tensor Processing Units (TPUs)

Tensor Processing Units (TPUs) are specialised hardware accelerators developed by Google
specifically for machine learning workloads. Unlike general-purpose GPUs and FPGAs, TPUs are
optimised for tensor computations, making them particularly efficient for deep learning tasks such as
training and inference. They are widely used in Google Cloud AI services and large-scale machine
learning models like Google's DeepMind AlphaFold and large language models. TPUs leverage matrix
multiplication units and high-bandwidth memory to accelerate computations while maintaining
energy efficiency.[171] Since their introduction in 2016, TPUs have become a key component of AI
infrastructure, especially in cloud-based environments.

Neuromorphic computing

Neuromorphic computing refers to a class of computing systems designed to emulate the structure
and functionality of biological neural networks. These systems may be implemented through
software-based simulations on conventional hardware or through specialised hardware
architectures.[172]

physical neural networks

A physical neural network is a specific type of neuromorphic hardware that relies on electrically
adjustable materials, such as memristors, to emulate the function of neural synapses. The term
"physical neural network" highlights the use of physical hardware for computation, as opposed to
software-based implementations. It broadly refers to artificial neural networks that use materials with
adjustable resistance to replicate neural synapses.[173][174]
Embedded machine learning

Embedded machine learning is a sub-field of machine learning where models are deployed on
embedded systems with limited computing resources, such as wearable computers, edge devices
and microcontrollers.[175][176][177][178] Running models directly on these devices eliminates the need to
transfer and store data on cloud servers for further processing, thereby reducing the risk of data
breaches, privacy leaks and theft of intellectual property, personal data and business secrets.
Embedded machine learning can be achieved through various techniques, such as hardware
acceleration,[179][180] approximate computing,[181] and model optimisation.[182][183] Common
optimisation techniques include pruning, quantisation, knowledge distillation, low-rank factorisation,
network architecture search, and parameter sharing.

Software

Software suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following:

Free and open-source software

Caffe mlpack

Deeplearning4j MXNet

DeepSpeed OpenNN

ELKI Orange

Google JAX pandas (software)

Infer.NET ROOT (TMVA with ROOT)

Keras scikit-learn

Kubeflow Shogun

LightGBM Spark MLlib

Mahout SystemML

Mallet TensorFlow

Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit Torch / PyTorch

ML.NET Weka / MOA

 XGBoost Yooreeka

Proprietary software with free and open-source editions

KNIME

RapidMiner

Proprietary software

Amazon Machine Learning Neural Designer

Angoss KnowledgeSTUDIO NeuroSolutions

Azure Machine Learning Oracle Data Mining

IBM Watson Studio Oracle AI Platform Cloud Service

Google Cloud Vertex AI PolyAnalyst

Google Prediction API RCASE

IBM SPSS Modeller SAS Enterprise Miner

KXEN Modeller SequenceL

LIONsolver Splunk

Mathematica STATISTICA Data Miner

MATLAB

Journals

Journal of Machine Learning Research

Machine Learning

Nature Machine Intelligence

Neural Computation

IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence

Conferences

AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence

Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)

 European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in
Databases (ECML PKDD)

International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and

Biostatistics (CIBB)

International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML)

International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR)

International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)

Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD)

Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS)

See also

Automated machine learning – Process of automating the application of machine learning

Big data – Extremely large or complex datasets

Deep learning — branch of ML concerned with artificial neural networks

Differentiable programming – Programming paradigm

List of datasets for machine-learning research

M-theory (learning framework)

Machine unlearning

Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference – A mathematical theory

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Further reading

Alpaydin, Ethem (2020). Introduction to Machine Learning, (4th edition) MIT Press,
ISBN 9780262043793.

Bishop, Christopher (1995). Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-853864-2.

Bishop, Christopher (2006) Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning, Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-
31073-2

Domingos, Pedro (September 2015), The Master Algorithm, Basic Books, ISBN 978-0-465-06570-7

Duda, Richard O.; Hart, Peter E.; Stork, David G. (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition), Wiley,
New York, ISBN 0-471-05669-3.

Hastie, Trevor; Tibshirani, Robert & Friedman, Jerome H. (2009) The Elements of Statistical
Learning, Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-84858-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-84858-
7) ISBN 0-387-95284-5.

MacKay, David J. C. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-64298-1

Murphy, Kevin P. (2021). Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction (https://probml.github.io/p

ml-book/book1.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210411153246/https://probml.git
hub.io/pml-book/book1.html) 11 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, MIT Press.

Nilsson, Nils J. (2015) Introduction to Machine Learning (https://ai.stanford.edu/people/nilsson/ml

book.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190816182600/http://ai.stanford.edu/peopl
e/nilsson/mlbook.html) 16 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine.

Russell, Stuart & Norvig, Peter (2020). Artificial Intelligence – A Modern Approach. (4th edition)
Pearson, ISBN 978-0134610993.

Solomonoff, Ray, (1956) An Inductive Inference Machine (http://world.std.com/~rjs/indinf56.pdf)

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110426161749/http://world.std.com/~rjs/indinf56.pdf)
26 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine A privately circulated report from the 1956 Dartmouth
Summer Research Conference on AI.

Witten, Ian H. & Frank, Eibe (2011). Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques (h
ttps://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123748560) Morgan Kaufmann, 664pp., ISBN 978-0-
12-374856-0.
External links

International Machine Learning Society (https://web.archive.org/web/20171230081341/http://mac

hinelearning.org/)

mloss (https://mloss.org/) is an academic database of open-source machine learning software.

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