Software

Requirements
Analysis and
Specification

REQUIREMENTS 1
Background

◼Problem of scale is a key issue for SE

◼For small scale, understand and specifying
requirements is easy
◼For large problem - very hard; probably the
hardest, most problematic and error prone
◼Input : user needs in minds of people
◼Output : precise statement of what the future
system will do

REQUIREMENTS 2
Background…

◼Identifying and specifying req necessarily involves

people interaction
◼Cannot be automated
◼Requirement (IEEE)= A condition or capability that
must be possessed by a system
◼Req. phase ends with a software requirements
specification (SRS) document
◼SRS specifies what the proposed system should do

REQUIREMENTS 3
 Background..

▪Requirements understanding is hard

▪Visualizing a future system is difficult
▪Capability of the future system not clear, hence
needs not clear
▪Requirements change with time
▪…
▪Essential to do a proper analysis and
specification of requirements

REQUIREMENTS 4
Need for SRS

◼SRS establishes basis of agreement between

the user and the supplier.
◼Users needs have to be satisfied, but user may not
understand software
◼Developers will develop the system, but may not
know about problem domain
◼SRS is the medium to bridge the communication
gap and specify user needs in a manner both can
understand

REQUIREMENTS 5
Need for SRS…

Helps user understand his needs.

◦ users do not always know their needs
◦ must analyze and understand the potential
◦ the goal is not just to automate a manual system, but also
to add value through IT
◦ The req process helps clarify needs
SRS provides a reference for validation of the final
product
◦ Clear understanding about what is expected.
◦ Validation - “ SW satisfies the SRS “

REQUIREMENTS 6
 Need for SRS…

◼Good SRS reduces the development cost

◼SRS errors are expensive to fix later
◼Req. changes can cost a lot (up to 40%)
◼Good SRS can minimize changes and errors
◼Substantial savings; extra effort spent during req. saves
multiple times that effort

REQUIREMENTS 7
 Requirements Process
◼Sequence of steps that need to be performed to
convert user needs into SRS
◼Process has to elicit needs and requirements and
clearly specifies it
◼Basic activities
◼problem or requirement analysis
◼requirement specification
◼validation
◼Analysis involves elicitation and is the hardest

REQUIREMENTS 8
Requirements Process..

needs

Analysis

Specification

Validation

REQUIREMENTS 9
Requirement process..
◼Process is not linear, it is iterative and parallel
◼Overlap between phases - some parts may be
analyzed and specified
◼Specification itself may help analysis
◼Validation can show gaps that can lead to further
analysis and spec

REQUIREMENTS 10
Requirements Process…
▪Focus of analysis is on understanding the desired
systems and it’s requirements
▪Divide and conquer is the basic strategy
▪ decompose into small parts, understand each part and
relation between parts
▪Large volumes of information is generated
▪ organizing them is a key
▪Techniques like data flow diagrams, object diagrams
etc. used in the analysis

REQUIREMENTS 11
 Requirements Process..
◼Transition from analysis to specs is hard
◼in specs, external behavior specified
◼during analysis, structure and domain are
understood
◼analysis structures helps in specification, but the
transition is not final
◼methods of analysis are similar to that of design,
but objective and scope different
◼analysis deals with the problem domain, whereas
design deals with solution domain

REQUIREMENTS 12
Problem Analysis
▪Aim: to gain an understanding of the needs,
requirements, and constraints on the software
▪Analysis involves
▪ interviewing client and users
▪ reading manuals
▪ studying current systems
▪ helping client/users understand new possibilities
▪ Like becoming a consultant
▪Must understand the working of the organization ,
client and users
REQUIREMENTS 13
Problem Analysis…
▪Some issues
▪Obtaining the necessary information
▪Brainstorming: interacting with clients to establish
desired properties
▪Information organization, as large amount of info.
gets collected
▪Ensuring completeness
▪Ensuring consistency
▪Avoiding internal design

REQUIREMENTS 14
Problem Analysis…
▪Interpersonal issues are important
▪Communication skills are very important
▪Basic principle: problem partition
▪Partition w.r.t what?
▪ Object - OO analysis
▪ Function - structural analysis
▪ Events in the system – event partitioning
▪Projection - get different views
▪Will discuss few different analysis techniques
REQUIREMENTS 15
Informal Approach to Analysis
▪No defined methodology; info obtained through
analysis, observation, interaction, discussions,…
▪No formal model of the system built
▪Obtained info organized in the SRS; SRS reviewed
with clients
▪Relies on analyst experience and feedback from
clients in reviews
▪Useful in many contexts

REQUIREMENTS 16
 Data Flow Modeling
▪Widely used; focuses on functions performed in the
system
▪Views a system as a network of data transforms
through which the data flows
▪Uses data flow diagrams (DFDs) and functional
decomposition in modeling

REQUIREMENTS 17
Data flow diagrams (DFD)

◼A DFD shows flow of data through the

system
◼Views system as transforming inputs to outputs
◼Transformation done through transforms
◼DFD captures how transformation occurs from
input to output as data moves through the
transforms
◼Not limited to software

REQUIREMENTS 18
Data flow diagrams…
◼DFD
◼Transforms represented by named
circles/bubbles
◼Bubbles connected by arrows on which named
data travels
◼A rectangle represents a source or sink and is
originator/consumer of data (often outside the
system)

REQUIREMENTS 19
DFD Example

REQUIREMENTS 20
DFD Conventions
◼External files shown as labeled straight lines
◼Need for multiple data flows by a process
represented by * (means AND)
◼OR relationship represented by +
◼All processes and arrows should be named
◼Processes should represent transforms, arrows
should represent some data

REQUIREMENTS 21
 Data flow diagrams…
▪Focus on what transforms happen
▪how they are done is not important
▪Usually major inputs/outputs shown
▪minor are ignored in this modeling
▪No loops , conditional thinking , …
▪DFD is NOT a control chart, no algorithmic
design/thinking
▪Sink/Source , external files

REQUIREMENTS 22
Drawing a DFD for a system
1. Identify inputs, outputs, sources, sinks for the
system
2. Work your way consistently from inputs to
outputs, and identify a few high-level transforms
to capture full transformation
3. If get stuck, reverse direction
4. When high-level transforms defined, then refine
each transform with more detailed
transformations

REQUIREMENTS 23
Drawing a DFD for a system..
◼Never show control logic; if thinking in terms of
loops/decisions, stop & restart
◼Label each arrows and bubbles; carefully identify
inputs and outputs of each transform
◼Make use of + & *
◼Try drawing alternate DFDs

REQUIREMENTS 24
Leveled DFDs
▪DFD of a system may be very large
▪Can organize it hierarchically
▪Start with a top level DFD with a few bubbles
▪then draw DFD for each bubble
▪Preserve I/O when “ exploding” a bubble so
consistency preserved
▪Makes drawing the leveled DFD a top-down
refinement process, and allows modeling of large and
complex systems

REQUIREMENTS 25
 DFD drawing – common errors
◼Unlabeled data flows
◼Missing data flows
◼Extraneous data flows
◼Consistency not maintained during refinement
◼Missing processes
◼Too detailed or too abstract
◼Contains some control information

REQUIREMENTS 26
Structured Analysis Method
▪Structured system analysis and design (SSAD) – we
will focus only on analysis
▪Was used a lot when automating existing manual
systems
▪Main steps
1. Draw a context diagram
2. Draw DFD of the existing system
3. Draw DFD of the proposed system
✓ Identify the man-machine boundary

REQUIREMENTS 27
Context Diagram
◼Views the entire system as a transform and
identifies the context
◼Is a DFD with one transform (system), with all
inputs, outputs, sources, sinks for the system
identified

REQUIREMENTS 28
DFD of the current system
◼The current system is modeled as-is as a DFD to
understand the working
◼The context diagram is refined
◼Each bubble represents a logical transformation of
some data
◼Leveled DFD may be used
◼Generally obtained after understanding and
interaction with users
◼Validate the DFD by walking through with users

REQUIREMENTS 29
Modeling the Proposed System

◼No general rules for drawing the DFD of the future

system
◼Use existing system understanding
◼DFD should model the entire proposed system -
process may be automated or manual
◼validate with the user
◼Then establish man-machine boundary
◼what processes will be automated and which remains
manual
◼Show clearly interaction between automated and
manual processes
REQUIREMENTS 30
Example – context diagram:
Restaurant System

REQUIREMENTS 31
Example – DFD of existing sys

REQUIREMENTS 32
Example – DFD of proposed system

REQUIREMENTS 33
Other Approaches to RA
◼Prototyping
◼Evolutionary
◼Throw-away
◼Object Oriented
◼Classes, attributes, methods
◼Association between classes
◼Class hierarchies
◼The OOD approach is applied, except to the problem
domain

REQUIREMENTS 34
Requirements Specification
◼Final output of requirements task is the SRS
◼Why are DFDs, OO models, etc not SRS ?
◼SRS focuses on external behavior, while modeling focuses
on problem structure
◼UI etc. not modeled, but have to be in SRS
◼Error handling, constraints etc. also needed in SRS
◼Transition from analysis to specification is not
straight forward
◼knowledge about the system acquired in analysis
used in specification
REQUIREMENTS 35
Characteristics of an SRS
◼Correct
◼Complete
◼Unambiguous
◼Consistent
◼Verifiable
◼Traceable
◼Modifiable
◼Ranked for importance and/or stability
REQUIREMENTS 36
Characteristics…
◼Correctness
◼Each requirement accurately represents some desired
feature in the final system
◼Completeness
◼All desired features/characteristics specified
◼Hardest to satisfy
◼Completeness and correctness strongly related
◼Unambiguous
◼Each req has exactly one meaning
◼Without this errors will creep in
◼Important as natural languages often used

REQUIREMENTS 37
Characteristics…
▪Verifiability
▪ There must exist a cost effective way of checking if sw satisfies
requirements
▪Consistent
▪ two requirements don’t contradict each other
▪Traceable
▪ The origin of the req, and how the req relates to software elements
can be determined
▪Ranked for importance/stability
▪ Needed for prioritizing in construction
▪ To reduce risks due to changing requirements

REQUIREMENTS 38
Components of an SRS
◼What should an SRS contain ?
◼Clarifying this will help ensure completeness
◼An SRS must specify requirements on
◼Functionality
◼Performance
◼Design constraints
◼External interfaces

REQUIREMENTS 39
 Functional Requirements

◼Heart of the SRS document; this forms the bulk of

the specs
◼Specifies all the functionality that the system should
support
◼Outputs for the given inputs and the relationship
between them
◼All operations the system is to do
◼Must specify behavior for invalid inputs too

REQUIREMENTS 40
Performance Requirements
◼All the performance constraints on the software
system
◼Generally on response time , throughput etc =>
dynamic
◼Capacity requirements => static
◼Must be in measurable terms (verifiability)
◼Eg resp time should be xx 90% of the time

REQUIREMENTS 41
Design Constraints
◼Factors in the client environment that restrict the
choices
◼Some such restrictions
◼Standard compliance and compatibility with other
systems
◼Hardware Limitations
◼Reliability, fault tolerance, backup req.
◼Security

REQUIREMENTS 42
External Interface
▪All interactions of the software with people,
hardware, and sw
▪User interface most important
▪General requirements of “friendliness” should be
avoided
▪These should also be verifiable

REQUIREMENTS 43
Specification Language
◼Language should support desired char of the SRS
◼Formal languages are precise and unambiguous but hard
◼Natural languages mostly used, with some structure for
the document
◼Formal languages used for special features or in highly
critical systems

REQUIREMENTS 44
Structure of an SRS
◼Introduction
◼Purpose , the basic objective of the system
◼Scope of what the system is to do , not to do
◼Overview
◼Overall description
◼Product perspective
◼Product functions
◼User characteristics
◼Assumptions
◼Constraints

REQUIREMENTS 45
Structure of an SRS…

◼Specific requirements
◼External interfaces
◼Functional requirements
◼Performance requirements
◼Design constraints
◼Acceptable criteria
◼desirable to specify this up front.
◼This standardization of the SRS was done by IEEE.

REQUIREMENTS 46
 Use Cases Approach
▪Traditional approach for functional specs – specify each function
▪Use cases is a newer technique for specifying behavior
(functionality)
▪I.e. focuses on functional specs only
▪Though primarily for specification, can be used in analysis and
elicitation
▪Can be used to specify business or org behavior also, though we
will focus on software
▪Well suited for interactive systems

REQUIREMENTS 47
 Use Cases Basics
◼A use case captures a contract
between a user and system
about behavior
◼Basically a textual form;
diagrams are mostly to support
◼Also useful in requirements
elicitation as users like and
understand the story telling
form and react to it easily

REQUIREMENTS 48
Basics…
▪Actor: a person or a system that interacts with the
proposed system to achieve a goal
▪ Eg. User of an ATM (goal: get money); data entry operator; (goal:
Perform transaction)
▪Actor is a logical entity, so receiver and sender actors are
different (even if the same person)
▪Actors can be people or systems
▪Primary actor: The main actor who initiates a UC
▪ UC is to satisfy his goals
▪ The actual execution may be done by a system or another person
on behalf of the Primary actor

REQUIREMENTS 49
Basics..
▪Scenario: a set of actions performed to achieve a
goal under some conditions
▪ Actions specified as a sequence of steps
▪ A step is a logically complete action performed either by
the actor or the system
▪Main success scenario – when things go normally
and the goal is achieved
▪Alternate scenarios: When things go wrong and
goals cannot be achieved

REQUIREMENTS 50
 Use case Name Log in system via ATM
Basics.. Use cade ID Log_1

▪A UC is a collection of many Primary actor Bank Customer

such scenarios
Precondition User has bank card and registered
▪A scenario may employ password

other use cases in a step Postcondition User received menu of available

ATM operations

▪I.e. a sub-goal of a UC goal Main success

scenario
1.
2.
User inserts card
System asks for password
may be performed by 3.
4.
User enters password
System validates s's card and
another UC 5.
password
Display menu option

▪I.e. UCs can be organized Alternate scenarios 4a_1. System notified user that
identification is invalid
hierarchically 4a_2. System exits option, release
the card and returns to initial
states.

REQUIREMENTS 51
Basics…
▪UCs specify functionality by describing interactions
between actors and system
▪Focuses on external behavior
▪UCs are primarily textual
▪ UC diagrams show UCs, actors, and dependencies
▪ They provide an overview
▪Story like description easy to understand by both users
and analysts
▪They do not form the complete SRS, only the
functionality part

REQUIREMENTS 52
Example
Use Case 1: Buy stocks
Primary Actor: Purchaser
Goals of Stakeholders:
Purchaser: wants to buy stocks
Company: wants full transaction info
Precondition: User already has an account

REQUIREMENTS 53
Example …
◼ Main Success Scenario
1. User selects to buy stocks
2. System gets name of web site from user for trading
3. Establishes connection
4. User browses and buys stocks
5. System intercepts responses from the site and
updates user portfolio
6. System shows user new portfolio stading

REQUIREMENTS 54
Example…
◼Alternatives
◼2a: System gives err msg, asks for new suggestion for site,
gives option to cancel
◼3a: Web failure. 1-Sys reports failure to user, backs up to
previous step. 2-User exits or tries again
◼4a: Computer crashes
◼4b: web site does not ack purchase
◼5a: web site does not return needed info

REQUIREMENTS 55
Example 2
◼Use Case 2: Buy a product
◼Primary actor: buyer/customer
◼Goal: purchase some product
◼Precondition: Customer is already logged in

REQUIREMENTS 56
Example 2…
◼ Main Scenario
1. Customer browses and selects items
2. Customer goes to checkout
3. Customer fills shipping options
4. System presents full pricing info
5. Customer fills credit card info
6. System authorizes purchase
7. System confirms sale
8. System sends confirming email

REQUIREMENTS 57
Example 2…
◼Alternatives
◼6a: Credit card authorization fails
◼Allows customer to reenter info
◼3a: Regular customer
◼System displays last 4 digits of credit card no
◼Asks customer to OK it or change it
◼Moves to step 6

REQUIREMENTS 58
 Example – An auction site
◼Use Case1: Put an item for auction
◼Primary Actor: Seller
◼Precondition: Seller has logged in
◼Main Success Scenario:
◼Seller posts an item (its category, description, picture, etc.) for
auction
◼System shows past prices of similar items to seller
◼System specifies the starting bid price and a date when auction
will close
◼System accepts the item and posts it
◼Exception Scenarios:
◼-- 2 a) There are no past items of this category
* System tells the seller this situation
REQUIREMENTS 59
 Example – auction site..
◼ Use Case2: Make a bid
◼ Primary Actor: Buyer
◼ Precondition: The buyer has logged in
◼ Main Success Scenario:
◼ Buyer searches or browses and selects some item
◼ System shows the rating of the seller, the starting bid, the current bids,
and the highest bid; asks buyer to make a bid
◼ Buyer specifies bid price, max bid price, and increment
◼ Systems accepts the bid; Blocks funds in bidders account
◼ System updates the bid price of other bidders where needed, and
updates the records for the item

REQUIREMENTS 60
◼Exception Scenarios:
◼-- 3 a) The bid price is lower than the current highest
* System informs the bidder and asks to rebid

◼-- 4 a) The bidder does not have enough funds in his

account
* System cancels the bid, asks the user to get more
funds

REQUIREMENTS 61
 Example –auction site..

Use Case3: Complete auction of an item

Primary Actor: Auction System
Precondition: The last date for bidding has been reached
Main Success Scenario:
◦ Select highest bidder; send email to selected bidder and seller informing
final bid price; send email to other bidders also
◦ Debit bidder’s account and credit seller’s account
◦ Transfer from seller’s account commission amount to organization’s
account
◦ Remove item from the site; update records

Exception Scenarios: None

REQUIREMENTS 62
Example – summary-level Use Case

◼ Use Case 0 : Auction an item

◼ Primary Actor: Auction system
◼ Scope: Auction conducting organization
◼ Precondition: None
◼ Main Success Scenario:
◼ Seller performs put an item for auction
◼ Various bidders make a bid
◼ On final date perform Complete the auction of the
item
◼ Get feed back from seller; get feedback from buyer;
update records
REQUIREMENTS 63
Requirements with Use Cases
▪UCs specify functional requirements
▪Other req identified separately
▪A complete SRS will contain the use cases plus the
other requirements
▪Note – for system requirements it is important to
identify UCs for which the system itself may be the
actor

REQUIREMENTS 64
Developing Use Cases
◼UCs form a good medium for brainstorming and
discussions
◼Hence can be used in elicitation and problem
analysis also
◼UCs can be developed in a stepwise refinement
manner
◼Many levels possible, but four naturally emerge

REQUIREMENTS 65
Developing…
◼Actors and goals
◼Prepare an actor-goal list
◼Provide a brief overview of the UC
◼This defines the scope of the system
◼Completeness can also be evaluated
◼Main Success Scenarios
◼For each UC, expand main scenario
◼This will provide the normal behavior of the system
◼Can be reviewed to ensure that interests of all
stakeholders and actors is met

REQUIREMENTS 66
Developing…
◼Failure conditions
◼List possible failure conditions for UCs
◼For each step, identify how it may fail
◼This step uncovers special situations
◼Failure handling
◼Perhaps the hardest part
◼Specify system behavior for the failure conditions
◼New business rules and actors may emerge

REQUIREMENTS 67
Developing..
◼The four levels can drive analysis by starting from
top and adding details as analysis proceeds
◼UCs should be specified at a level of detail that is
sufficient
◼For writing, use good technical writing rules
◼Use simple grammer
◼Clearly specify all parts of the UC
◼When needed combine steps or split steps

REQUIREMENTS 68
 Requirements Validation

◼Lot of room for misunderstanding

◼Errors possible
◼Expensive to fix req defects later
◼Must try to remove most errors in SRS
◼Most common errors
◼Omission - 30%
◼Inconsistency - 10-30%
◼Incorrect fact - 10-30%
◼Ambiguity - 5 -20%
REQUIREMENTS 69
Requirements Review
▪SRS reviewed by a group of people
▪Group: author, client, user, dev team rep.
▪Must include client and a user
▪Process – standard inspection process
▪Effectiveness - can catch 40-80% of req. errors

REQUIREMENTS 70