Basic Machining Operations

1. TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS 2 BASIC MANUFACTURING 7 o INTRODUCTION 7 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 8 MANUFACTURING COST ESTIMATING 9 o COSTS ESTIMATES 9 o COGS (COST OF GOODS SOLD) 14 o VALUE ENGINEERING 14 o REFERENCES 14 BASIC CUTTING TOOLS 15 o CUTTING SPEEDS, FEEDS, TOOLS AND TIMES 15 o HIGH SPEED MACHINING 16 o REFERENCES 17 CUTTING THEORY 17 o CHIP FORMATION 17 o THE MECHANISM OF CUTTING 18 o POWER CONSUMED IN CUTTING 25 o PRACTICE QUESTIONS 31 o TEMPERATURES IN CUTTING 39 o TOOL WEAR 39 o CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS 41 o TOOL LIFE 43 o REFERENCES 51 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 52 SAWS 55 o SPEEDS AND FEEDS 56 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 56 DRILLING 57 o TYPES OF DRILL PRESSES 57 o TYPICAL DRILL PRESS OPERATIONS 57 o TYPICAL DRILL BITS 59 o DRILLING PROCESS PARAMETERS 66 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 68 LATHES 71 o INTRODUCTION 71 o OPERATIONS ON A LATHE 72 o LATHE TOOLBITS 75 o FEEDS AND SPEEDS 83 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 86

MILLING 92 o INTRODUCTION 92 o FEEDS AND SPEEDS 97 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 103 GRINDING 106 o OPERATIONS 106 o MACHINE TYPES 106 o GRINDING WHEELS 108 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 110 SURFACES 111 o MEASURES OF ROUGHNESS 112 o METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE ROUGHNESS 115 o OTHER SYSTEMS 121 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 124 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 134 METROLOGY 143 o INTRODUCTION 143 o DEFINITIONS 143 o STANDARDS 144 o INSTRUMENTS 147 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 155 o GAUGE BLOCKS 171 o MEASURING APARATUS 196 ASSEMBLY 203 o THE BASICS OF FITS 203 o C.S.A. B97-1 1963 LIMITS AND FITS(REWORK) 205 o CSA MODIFIED FITS 210 o CSA LIMITS AND FITS 211 o THE I.S.O. SYSTEM 214 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 214 WELDING/SOLDERING/BRAZING 216 o ADHESIVE BONDING 217 o ARC WELDING 217 o GAS WELDING 219 o SOLDERING AND BRAZING 220 o TITANIUM WELDING 221 o PLASTIC WELDING 223 o EXPLOSIVE WELDING 229 AESTHETIC FINISHING 233 o CLEANING AND DEGREASING 233 o PAINTING 233 o COATINGS 238 o MARKING 238 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 240 METALLURGICAL TREATMENTS 241

HEAT TREATING 241 ION NITRIDING 241 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 241 CASTING 243 o SAND CASTING 244 o SINGLE USE MOLD TECHNIQUES 249 o MULTIPLE USE MOLD TECHNIQUES 255 o OTHER TOPICS 261 o Design of Castings 262 o REFERENECES 263 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 263 MOLDING 267 o REACTION INJECTION MOLDING (RIM) 268 o INJECTION MOLDING 274 o EXTRUSION 283 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 285 ROLLING AND BENDING 287 o BASIC THEORY 287 o SHEET ROLLING 289 o SHAPE ROLLING 290 o BENDING 290 SHEET METAL FABRICATION 294 o SHEET METAL PROPERTIES 294 o SHEARING 294 o DEEP DRAWING 296 o SPINNING 297 o MAGNETIC PULSE FORMING 297 o HYDROFORMING 299 o SUPERPLASTIC FORMING 302 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 306 FORGING (to be expanded) 310 o PROCESSES 310 EXTRUSION AND DRAWING 310 o DIE EXTRUSION 310 o HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION 311 o DRAWING 311 o EQUIPMENT 311 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 311 ELECTROFORMING 311 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 313 COMPOSITE MANUFACTURING 314 o FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS (FRP) 314 o COMPOSITE MANUFACTURING 325 POWDERED METALLURGY 339 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 341
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ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM) 342 o REFERENCES 346 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 346 HIGH PRESSURE JET CUTTING 346 ABRASIVE WATERJET CUTTING (AWJ) 349 ULTRA SONIC MACHINING (USM) 354 o REFERENCES 367 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM) 369 o WIRE EDM 372 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 375 o REFERENCES 375 ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM) 375 o REFERENCES 385 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 385 ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING 387 o REFERENCES 393 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 394 ION IMPLANTATION 394 o THIN LAYER DEPOSITION 397 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 397 ELECTROSTATIC SPRAYING 398 o ELECTROSTATIC ATOMIZATION METHOD 398 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 401 AIR-PLASMA CUTTING 401 o REFERENCES 404 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 404 LASER CUTTING 405 o LASERS 405 o LASER CUTTING 413 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 420 RAPID PROTOTYPING 421 o STL FILE FORMAT 421 o STEREOLITHOGRAPHY 424 o BONDED POWDERS 433 o SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS) 435 o SOLID GROUND CURING (SGC) 438 o FUSED DEPOSITION MODELLING (FDM) 440 o LAMINATE OBJECT MODELING (LOM) 443 o DIRECT SHELL PRODUCTION CASTING (DSPC) 447 o BALLISTIC PARTICLE MANUFACTURING (BPM) 449 o COMPARISONS 451 o AKNOWLEDGEMENTS 452 o REFERENCES 452 o PRACTICE PROBLEMS 454 PROCESS PLANNING 455

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TECHNOLOGY DRIVEN FEATURES 456 MOST SIGNIFICANT FEATURE FIRST 456 DATABASE METHODS 467 MANUFACTURING VOLUMES 468 STANDARD PARTS 469 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 469 REFERENCES 477

BASIC MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing is an ages old topic, spanning the entire history of modern man. There are some recurring themes in mans manufacturing techniques. 1. - cutting 2. - grinding 3. - drilling The basic manufacturing processes generally work one material mechanically with another material. There are some basic factors that can be boiled out of the cutting factors. Primarily, cutting forces will be examined, along with the economics of basic machining

INTRODUCTION
Why are new manufacturing processes being developed? 1. - new materials that are not suitable to traditional machining methods. 2. - new approaches to design and manufacture 3. - more complicated designs 4. - tighter tolerances The basic characteristic of any process is some form of energy and/or mass transfer to alter the physical form and properties of an object.

 In general, topics to be covered are varied, but overall they tend to complement various weaknesses in the older machining and forming technologies. The process specific topics to be covered are, 1. Cutting - separating materials is done by physically breaking bonds, or more recently by melting. Cutting techniques have found particular favor with sheets of material, such as metal plates, metal sheets, fabrics, etc. 2. Metallurgical/Finishing - a variety of processes that do not significantly alter the geometry of the object, but are required for product performance or marketing. Consider heat treating processes that will heat a metal and change the properties. Or painting that makes a part more attractive and helps protect the metal surface. 3. Molding/Casting - Molding and casting technologies have been used for millennia, but they have recently begun to find interesting new techniques, and materials that expand the applications, and techniques. In general this method uses material in a liquid form, that solidifies into the shape of a mold. 4. Particulates - small particles of material have been used to manufacture low cost parts of complex geometry at high production rates. In effect a powder is put in a mold, pressed until solid, then heated to make it stronger. Materials include many metals, ceramics, glass, etc. 5. Forming - The idea of reshaping objects has been done for long periods of time (e.g. blacksmiths). Our knowledge of materials has allowed us to take advantage of subtle properties. Certain materials can be worked past the point that they would normally fracture. Materials can be bonded at an atomic level, and entire parts can be made out of a single crystal. 6. Joining/Cutting - By joining two or more parts we can create more complex geometries and assemblies. Consider parts that are glued or welded together. Parts may also be made by cutting larger parts into smaller pieces. 7. Electrical/Chemical - The transformational abilities of electricity have long been known (e.g. lightning), but it has only been controllable in the last two centuries. The ability to manipulate energy at the atomic level allows us to deliver highly concentrated energy, or manipulate materials one atom at a time. Most of these techniques use electrical potential, or flows to move, manipulate, and heat materials. 8. Fibre - By mixing two materials at a macroscopic level, we can obtain properties that are not possible from common materials. This technique basically involves taking strong strands of one materials, and embedding it in another material. Good examples of these materials are boat hulls, rocket fuel tanks and nozzles, fibre reinforced tape.

9. Rapid Prototyping - A newly recognized need is to turn out parts of correct geometry, and reasonable solid properties for testing of new designs, and sometimes production of tooling. These techniques typically make parts in layers, and allow complex new geometries to be built. The layers are often built with photopolymers that are developed with laser light. Various ways to look at processes include, 1. stress - strain curves 2. metal alloy phase diagrams 3. fluid flow problems