Unit I - Base band Transmission

Communication Systems
 The communication system is a system which describes the information exchange
between two points.
 The process of transmission and reception of information is called communication.

Major elements of communication

 Transmitter of information,
 Channel or medium of communication and
 the Receiver of information.

Types Of Communication Systems

 Depending on Signal specification or technology, the communication system is
classified as follows:
(1) Analog (2) Digital

Analog
 Analog technology communicates data as electronic signals of varying frequency or
amplitude.
 Broadcast and telephone transmission are common examples of Analog technology.

Digital
 In digital technology, the data are generated and processed in two states: High
(represented as 1) and Low (represented as 0). Digital technology stores and transmits
data in the form of 1s and 0s.

Depending on the communication channel, the communication system is categorized as

follows:
1. Wired (Line communication)
 Parallel wire communication
 Twisted wire communication
  Coaxial cable communication
 Optical fibre communication
2. Wireless (Space communication)
 Ground wave communication
 Skywave communication
 Space wave communication
 Satellite communication

Examples Of Communication Systems

The following are a few examples of communication systems:
1. Internet
2. Public Switched Telephone network
3. Intranet and Extranet
4. Television

Elements Of Communication Systems

What is Digital Communication?
 The communication that occurs in our day-to-day life is in the form of signals.
 These signals, such as sound signals, generally, are analog in nature.
 When the communication needs to be established over a distance, then the analog
signals are sent through wire, using different techniques for effective transmission.
 In digital communication, the transmission of information is done in digital form or in
encoded form.
 Means, we encrypt the signal which gives us added security to our information signal
being transmitted.
 The signal is sent from transmitter through a channel to the receiver.
 Receiver de-crypt the digital signal and produces useful output that is original
information signal.

The Necessity of Digitization

 The conventional methods of communication used analog signals for long distance
communications, which suffer from many losses such as distortion, interference, and
other losses including security breach.
 In order to overcome these problems, the signals are digitized using different
techniques.
 The digitized signals allow the communication to be more clear and accurate without
losses.
 The following figure indicates the difference between analog and digital signals.
 The digital signals consist of 1s and 0s which indicate High and Low values
respectively.

Advantages of Digital Communication over Analog Modulation

 The digital communication has mostly common structure of encoding a signal so
devices used are mostly similar.
 The Digital Communication's main advantage is that it provides us added security to
our information signal.
 The digital Communication system has more immunity to noise and external
interference.
 Digital information can be saved and retrieved when necessary while it is not possible
in analog.
 Digital Communication is cheaper than Analog Communication.
  The configuring process of digital communication system is simple as compared to
analog communication system. Although, they are complex.
 In Digital Communication System, the error correction and detection techniques can
be implemented easily.

Block diagram of Digital Communication

Source
 The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound signal
Input Transducer
 This is a transducer which takes a physical input and converts it to an electrical signal
(Example: microphone). This block also consists of an analog to digital converter
where a digital signal is needed for further processes.
 A digital signal is generally represented by a binary sequence.
Source Encoder
 The source encoder compresses the data into minimum number of bits.
 This process helps in effective utilization of the bandwidth. It removes the redundant
bits unnecessary excess bits,i.e., zeroes
Channel Encoder
 The channel encoder, does the coding for error correction.
 During the transmission of the signal, due to the noise in the channel, the signal may
get altered and hence to avoid this, the channel encoder adds some redundant bits to
the transmitted data.
 These are the error correcting bits.
Digital Modulator
 The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier.
 The signal is also converted to analog from the digital sequence, in order to make it
travel through the channel or medium.
Channel
 The channel or a medium, allows the analog signal to transmit from the transmitter
end to the receiver end.
Digital Demodulator
 This is the first step at the receiver end.
 The received signal is demodulated as well as converted again from analog to digital.
 The signal gets reconstructed here.
Channel Decoder
 The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does some error corrections.
 The distortions which might occur during the transmission, are corrected by adding
some redundant bits.
 This addition of bits helps in the complete recovery of the original signal.
Source Decoder
 The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and quantizing so that the
pure digital output is obtained without the loss of information.
 The source decoder recreates the source output.
Output Transducer
 This is the last block which converts the signal into the original physical form, which
was at the input of the transmitter.
 It converts the electrical signal into physical output (Example: loud speaker).
Output Signal
 This is the output which is produced after the whole process. Example − The sound
signal received.

Baseband and Pass band Transmission

Baseband transmission Bandpass transmission

The baseband transmission does not use

It is used modulator and demodulator.
modulator and demodulator.

Baseband transmission is transmission of the Passband transmission is the transmission

encoded signal using its own baseband after shifting the baseband frequencies to
frequencies i.e. without any shift to higher some higher frequency range using
frequency ranges. modulation.

If modulated signal is transmission over the

If the baseband signal is transmitted directly
channel, it is known as bandpass
then it is known as baseband transmission.
transmission.

It has fixed band of frequencies around

It is prefer at low frequencies.
carrier frequency.
Baseband transmission Bandpass transmission

It is used for short distances. It is used for long distances.

More noise as signal is original. Less noise as signals is modulated.

E.g. general telephony. E.g. AM & FM.

Waveform Representation of Binary Signals

 Data as well as signals that represents data can either be digital or analog.
 Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.
 By this technique we converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.
 At the sender side digital data are encoded into a digital signal and at the receiver side
the digital data are recreated by decoding the digital signal.

Line Coding techniques

 A line code is the code used for data transmission of a digital signal over a
transmission line.
 This process of coding is chosen so as to avoid overlap and distortion of signal such
as inter-symbol interference.

Properties of Line Coding

 As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal, the bandwidth
used is much reduced.
 For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.
 The probability of error is much reduced.
 Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.
 Power density is much favorable.
 The timing content is adequate.
 Long strings of 1s and 0s is avoided to maintain transparency.

Types of Line Coding

 There are 3 types of Line Coding
 Unipolar
 Polar
 Bi-polar
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary
sequence, i.e., 1s and 0s.
 The output of a pcm will resemble a binary sequence.
 The following figure shows an example of pcm output with respect to instantaneous
values of a given sine wave.

 Instead of a pulse train, PCM produces a series of numbers or digits, and hence this
process is called as digital.
 Each one of these digits, though in binary code, represent the approximate amplitude
of the signal sample at that instant.
 In Pulse Code Modulation, the message signal is represented by a sequence of coded
pulses.
 This message signal is achieved by representing the signal in discrete form in both
time and amplitude.

Block diagram of PCM

Low Pass Filter
 This filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input analog
signal which is greater than the highest frequency of the message signal, to avoid
aliasing of the message signal.
Sampler
 This is the technique which helps to collect the sample data at instantaneous values of
message signal, so as to reconstruct the original signal.
 The sampling rate must be greater than twice the highest frequency component W of
the message signal, in accordance with the sampling theorem.
Quantizer
 Quantizing is a process of reducing the excessive bits and confining the data.
 The sampled output when given to Quantizer, reduces the redundant bits and
compresses the value.
Encoder
 The digitization of analog signal is done by the encoder.
 It designates each quantized level by a binary code.
 The sampling done here is the sample-and-hold process.
 These three sections LPF, Sampler, and Quantizer will act as an analog to digital
converter.
 Encoding minimizes the bandwidth used.
Regenerative Repeater
 This section increases the signal strength. The output of the channel also has one
regenerative repeater circuit, to compensate the signal loss and reconstruct the signal,
and also to increase its strength.
Decoder
 The decoder circuit decodes the pulse coded waveform to reproduce the original
signal. This circuit acts as the demodulator.
Reconstruction Filter
 After the digital-to-analog conversion is done by the regenerative circuit and the
decoder, a low-pass filter is employed, called as the reconstruction filter to get back
the original signal.
 Hence, the Pulse Code Modulator circuit digitizes the given analog signal, codes it
and samples it, and then transmits it in an analog form.
 This whole process is repeated in a reverse pattern to obtain the original signal.

Advantages
 Pulse Code Modulation is used in long-distance communication.
 The efficiency of the transmitter in PCM is high.
 Higher noise immunity is seen.
 Efficient method.
Disadvantages
 The bandwidth requirement is high.
 PCM is a complex process, since it involves encoding, decoding and quantisation of
the circuit.
Applications of Pulse Code Modulation
 It is used in telephony and compact discs.
 Pulse Code Modulation is used in satellite transmission systems and space
communications.

Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)

 Differential pulse code modulation is a technique of analog to digital signal
conversion.
 This technique samples the analog signal and then quantizes the difference between
the sampled value and its predicted value, then encodes the signal to form a digital
value.

The demerits of PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

 The samples of a signal are highly correlated with each other.
 The signal’s value from the present sample to the next sample does not differ by a
large amount.
 The adjacent samples of the signal carry the same information with a small difference.
 When these samples are encoded by the standard PCM system, the resulting encoded
signal contains some redundant information bits.
DPCM
 This signal is sampled by flat-top sampling at intervals Ts, 2Ts, 3Ts…nTs.
 The sampling frequency is selected to be higher than the Nyquist rate.
 These samples are encoded by using 3-bit (7 levels) PCM.
 The samples are quantized to the nearest digital level as shown by small circles in the
above figure.
 The encoded binary value of each sample is written on the top of the samples.
 Just observe the above figure at samples taken at 4Ts, 5Ts, and 6Ts are encoded to
the same value of (110).
 This information can be carried only by one sample value.
 But three samples are carrying the same information means redundant.
 Now let consider the samples at 9Ts and 10Ts, the difference between these samples
only due to the last bit and first two bits are redundant since they do not change.
 So in order to make the process this redundant information and to have a better
output.
 It is an intelligent decision to take a predicted sampled value, assumed from its
previous output and summarise them with the quantized values.
 Such a process is called a Differential PCM (DPCM) technique.

Principle of Differential Pulse Code Modulation

 If the redundancy is reduced, then the overall bit rate will decrease and the number of
bits required to transmit one sample will also reduce.
 This type of digital pulse modulation technique is called differential pulse code
modulation.
 The DPCM works on the principle of prediction.
 The value of the present sample is predicted from the previous samples.
 The prediction may not be exact, but it is very close to the actual sample value.

Differential Pulse Code Modulation Transmitter

 The below figure shows the DPCM transmitter. The transmitter consists of a
comparator, quantizer, prediction filter, and an encoder.
 The sampled signal is denoted by x(nTs) and the predicted signal is indicated by
x^(nTs).
 The comparator finds out the difference between the actual sample value x(nTs) and
the predicted value x^(nTs).
 This is called signal error and it is denoted as e(nTs)
 e(nTs)= x(nTs)- x^( nTs) …….(1)
 Here the predicted value x^(nTs) is produced by using a prediction filter(signal
processing filter).
 The quantizer output signal eq(nTs) and the previous prediction is added and given as
input to the prediction filter, this signal is denoted by xq(nTs).
 This makes the prediction closer to the actually sampled signal.
 The quantized error signal eq(nTs) is very small and can be encoded by using a small
number of bits.
 Thus the number of bits per sample is reduced in DPCM.
 The quantizer output would be written as,
 eq(nTs)= e(nTs)+ q(nTs) ……(2)
 Here q(nTs) is quantization error.
 From the above block diagram the prediction filter input xq(nTs) is obtained by sum
of x^(nTs) and the quantizer output eq(nTs).
 i.e, xq(nTs) = x^(nTs)+ eq(nTs).………. (3)
 by substituting the value of eq(nTs) from the equation (2)inequation (3) we get,
xq(nTs) = x^(nTs)+ e(nTs)+ q(nTs)……. (4)
 Equation (1) can written as,
e(nTs)+ x^( nTs) = x(nTs)……. (5)
 from the above equations 4 and 5 we get,
xq(nTs) = x(nTs)+ x(nTs)
 Therefore, the quantized version of signal xq(nTs) is the sum of original sample value
and quantized error q(nTs).
 The quantized error can be positive or negative.
 So the output of the prediction filter does not depend on its characteristics.
Differential Pulse Code Modulation Receiver
 In order to reconstruct the received digital signal, the DPCM receiver (shown in the
below figure) consists of a decoder and prediction filter.
 In the absenteeism of noise, the encoded receiver input will be the same as the
encoded transmitter output.

 The predictor undertakes a value, based on the previous outputs.

 The input given to the decoder is processed and that output is summed up with the
output of the predictor, to obtain better output.
 That means here first of all the decoder will reconstruct the quantized form of the
original signal.
 Therefore the signal at the receiver differs from the actual signal by quantization error
q(nTs), which is introduced permanently in the reconstructed signal.

Comparison of PCM and DPCM

Pulse Code Modulation Differential Pulse Code
Parameters
(PCM) Modulation (DPCM)

It uses 4, 8, or 16 bits per

Number of bits < PCM bits
sample

Fixed step size. Cannot A fixed number of levels are

Levels, step size
varied used.

Bit redundancy Present

Can permanently remove
Slope overload distortion
Quantization error and Depends on the number of and quantization noise are
distortion levels used present but very less as
compared to PCM
Higher bandwidth has been
The bandwidth of the
required since the number of Lower than PCM bandwidth
transmission channel
bits is absent
Feedback No feedback in Tx and Rx Feedback exists

Complexity of notation Complex Simple

Good Fair
Signal to noise ratio (SNR)

Applications of DPCM
 The DPCM technique mainly used Speech, image and audio signal compression.
 To understand the efficiency of this method of medical compression and real-time
application of medical imaging such as telemedicine and online diagnosis.

Advantages of DPCM
 As the difference between x(nTs) and xˆ(nTs) is being encoded and transmitted by the
DPCM technique, a small difference voltage is to be quantized and encoded.
 This will require less number of quantization levels and hence less number of bits to
represent them.
 Thus signaling rate and bandwidth of a DPCM system will be less than that of PCM.

Delta Modulation
 When signals are transmitted over long distances, they get affected by noise and
interference.
 There are several methods invented for effective transmission of signals over long
distances without any error.
 The conversion of analog signals to into digital form has brought a game-changing
revolution in the field of communication.
 Modulation is the common term used in communication systems.
 Communication systems use modulation and Demodulation methods for effective
transmission of low-frequency signals.
 When modulation is used along with digital signals it solved many drawbacks of
analog communication.
 Some of the digital signal processing methods used in communication systems
are Pulse code modulation, Differential pulse code modulation, Delta modulation,
etc…
What is Delta Modulation?
 It is also known as the simplified form of Differential pulse code modulation.
 It provides a staircase approximation of over-sampled base-band signal.
 Here, the difference between the present sample and previous approximated sample is
quantized into two levels i.e. ±δ.
 If the previous approximation is below the present sample value, then the error is
quantized by +δ.
 If the approximation is above the present sample value then the error is quantized by
-δ.
Why Delta Modulation?
 In PCM the signaling rate and transmission channel bandwidth are quite large since it
transmits all the bits which are used to code a sample. To overcome this problem,
Delta modulation is used.
 Delta modulation transmits only one bit per sample.
 Here, the present sample value is compared with the previous sample value and this
result whether the amplitude is increased or decreased is transmitted.

Transmitter

 It consists of a 1-bit quantizer and a delay circuit along with two summer circuits.
 The summer in the accumulator adds quantizer output (±Δ) with the previous sample
approximation . This gives present sample approximation. i.e.,

 The previous sample approximation u[(n-1)Ts ] is restored by delaying one sample

period Ts .
 The samples input signal x(nTs ) and staircase approximated signal xˆ(nTs ) are
subtracted to get error signal e(nTs ).
 Thus, depending on the sign of e(nTs ), one bit quantizer generates an output of +Δ or
-Δ .
 If the step size is +Δ, then binary ‘1’ is transmitted and if it is -Δ, then binary ‘0’ is
transmitted .
Receiver
 At the receiver end also known as delta demodulator, as shown in Fig.2, it comprises
of a low pass filter(LPF), a summer, and a delay circuit.
 The predictor circuit is eliminated here and hence no assumed input is given to the
demodulator.

 The accumulator generates the staircase approximated signal output and is delayed by
one sampling period Ts.
 It is then added to the input signal.
 If the input is binary ‘1’ then it adds +Δ step to the previous output (which is
delayed).
 If the input is binary ‘0’ then one step ‘Δ’ is subtracted from the delayed signal.
 Also, the low pass filter smoothens the staircase signal to reconstruct the original
message signal x(t) .
 The delta modulation has two major drawbacks as under :
 (a)Slope Overload Distortion (b) Granular Noise

1.Slope Overload Distortion

 This distortion arises because of large dynamic range of the input signal.
  We can observe from Fig.3 , the rate of rise of input signal x(t) is so high that the
staircase signal can not approximate it, the step size ‘Δ’ becomes too small for
staircase signal u(t) to follow the step segment of x(t).
 Hence, there is a large error between the staircase approximated signal and the
original input signal x(t).
 This error or noise is known as slope overload distortion .
 To reduce this error, the step size must be increased when slope of signal x(t) is high.

2. Granular or Idle Noise

 Granular or Idle noise occurs when the step size is too large compared to small
variation in the input signal.
 This means that for very small variations in the input signal, the staircase signal is
changed by large amount (Δ) because of large step size.
 Fig. shows that when the input signal is almost flat , the staircase signal u(t) keeps on
oscillating by ±Δ around the signal.
 The error between the input and approximated signal is called granular noise.
 The solution to this problem is to make the step size small .

Benefits or advantages of Delta Modulation

 In Delta modulation electronic circuit requirement for modulation at transmitter and
for demodulation at receiver is substantially simpler compare to PCM.
 In delta modulation, amplitude of speech signal does not exceed maximum sinusoidal
amplitude.
 PCM has sampling rate higher than nyquist rate. The encode signal contains
redundant information.
 DPCM can efficiently remove this redundancy.
 DPCM needs less number of quantization levels and hence less number of bits are
needed to represent them.
 Signaling rate and bandwidth of DPCM or delta modulation is less than PCM
technique.

Applications of Delta Modulation

 Some of the applications of this modulation are given below –
 Voice transmission systems such as telephone and radio communications highly
prefer this Modulation technique.
 Delta Modulation is most useful in systems where timely data delivery at the receiver
is more important than the data quality.
  This modulation is applied to ECG waveform for database reduction and real-time
signal processing.
 For analog-to-PCM encoding, this Modulation method is used.
 Delta Modulation is applied in television systems.

Adaptive Delta Modulation

 This Modulation is the refined form of delta modulation.
 This method was introduced to solve the granular noise and slope overload error
caused during Delta modulation.
 This Modulation method is similar to Delta modulation except that the step size is
variable according to the input signal in Adaptive Delta Modulation whereas it is a
fixed value in delta modulation.

ADM Transmitter
 The logic for step size control is added in the diagram.
 The step size increases or decreases according to a specified rule depending on one bit
quantizer output.
 For an example, if one bit quantizer output is high (i.e., 1), then step size may be
doubled for next sample.
 If one bit quantizer output is low, then step size may be reduced by one step.

 Fig.2 shows the staircase waveforms of adaptive delta modulator and sequence of bits
to be transmitted.
ADM Waveform

Receiver

 The receiver has two portions.

 The first portion produces the step size from each incoming bit.
 Exactly the same process is followed as that in transmitter.
 The previous input and present input decide the step size.
 It is then applied to the second portion i.e., an accumulator which builds up staircase
waveform.
 The low pass filter then smoothens out the staircase waveform to reconstruct the
original signal.
Advantages of Adaptive Delta Modulation
Adaptive delta modulation has certain advantages over delta modulation as under :
 The signal to noise ratio of ADM is better than that of DM because of the reduction
in slope overload distortion and idle noise.
 Because of the variable step size , the dynamic range of ADM is wider than DM.
 Utilization of bandwidth is better in ADM than DM.
 Adaptive delta modulation decreases slope error present in delta modulation.
 During demodulation, it uses a low pass filter which removes the quantized noise.

Differences between Delta Modulation and Adaptive Delta Modulation

 In Delta Modulation step size is fixed for the whole signal. Whereas in Adaptive delta
modulation, the step size varies depending upon the input signal.
 The slope overload and granular noise errors which are present in delta modulation
are not seen in this modulation.
 The dynamic range of Adaptive delta modulation is wider than delta modulation.
 This modulation utilizes bandwidth more effectively than delta modulation.

Applications
 This modulation is used for a system which requires improved wireless voice quality
as well as speed transfer of bits.
 In television signal transmission this modulation process is used.
 This modulation method is used in voice coding.
 This modulation is also used as a standard by NASA for all communications between
mission control and spacecraft.
 To provide voice detection quality audio at deployed areas, military uses 16 to 32
kbit/sec modulation system in TRI-TAC digital telephones.
 US army forces use 16kbit/sec rates to conserve bandwidth over tactical links.
 For improved voice quality US Air Forces uses 32kbits/sec rates.
 In Bluetooth-services to encode voice signals, this modulation is used with 32bits/sec
rates.
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 UNIT II – BAND PASS TRANSMISSION
Part A questions with answers
1. What is meant by pass band data transmission?
The digital data modulates high frequency carrier. It is also called as digital
modulation. It is suitable for long distance transmission.
2. List out the advantages of digital modulation.
 Long distance transmission.
 Absence of ISI.
3. Define coherent detection.
In this method, the locally generated carrier at the receiver is phase locked
with the carrier at the transmitter. It is also called as synchronous detection.
4. Define non coherent detection.
In this method, the receiver carrier need not be phase locked with the
transmitter. It is also called envelope detection. Non coherent detection is simple but
has high probability of error.
5. List the advantages and disadvantages of DPSK.
Advantages:
 DPSK does not need carrier at the receiver. Hence complex circuitry for the
generation of local carrier is avoided.
 Bandwidth requirement of DPSK is reduced compared to that of DPSK.
Disadvantages
 Bit error rate of BPSK is higher than that of BPSK.
 Error propagation in DPSK is more than that of BPSK.
6. Mention the advantages of QPSK over BPSK.
 For the same bit error rate, bandwidth required by QPSK is reduced to half as
compared to BPSK.
 Because of reduced bandwidth, the information transmission rate of QPSK is
higher.
7. Why binary ASK is also called as on off keying?
In binary ASK, the carrier is transmitted for binary ‘1’ and no carrier is
transmitted for binary ‘0’. Thus the carrier is simply turned on for binary 1 and turned
off for binary 0. Therefore it is called on off keying.
8. Draw the waveform of on off keying.
 9. Define bit rate and baud rate.
Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted in one second. It is expressed as bits per
second. (bps)
Baud rate is the number of symbols transmitted in unit time. It is also referred to as
symbol rate.
10. Define bandwidth efficiency / spectral efficiency.
Bandwidth efficiency is defined as the ratio of data rate to channel bandwidth; it is
measured in the units of bits per second per Hertz.
11. Draw the signal space diagram of BFSK modulation scheme.

12. Draw the waveforms of BPSK.

13. Draw the waveforms of BFSK.

14. Define antipodal signals.

A pair of sinusoidal signals that differ only in a phase shift of 180 degrees are
referred to as antipodal signals.
15. Draw the signal space diagram for QPSK.
16. Draw the signal space diagram of BPSK.

17. What is meant by quadrature amplitude modulation?

In phase shift keying technique, if the amplitude is also made to vary with the
phase, then the resulting modulation is called quadrature amplitude modulation.
18. What is meant by MSK?
Minimum shift keying (MSK) is a special type of continuous phase-frequency
shift keying (CPFSK) with deviation ratio h=0.5 corresponding to the minimum
frequency spacing that allows two FSK signals to be coherently orthogonal.
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 UNIT III – SPREAD SPECTRUM COMMUNICATION

PART A QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

1. What are the features of CDMA?

 CDMA /spread spectrum provides a form of secured communication in a hostile
environment.
 Ability to reject unintentional or intentional interference.
 Provides multiple access communication.

2. What are the potential applications of spread spectrum techniques?

 Antijamming capability
 Interference rejection.
 Multiple access capability
 Multipath protection
 Secure communication
 Improved spectral efficiency

3. What are the types of spread spectrum?

The two types of spread spectrum are
o Direct sequence spread spectrum
o Frequency hopped spread spectrum

4. Define spread spectrum communication.

 Spread spectrum is a means of transmission in which the data of interest occupies a
bandwidth in excess of minimum bandwidth necessary to send the data.
 The spectrum spreading is accomplished before transmission through the use of a
code that is independent of the data sequence. The same code is used in the
receiver to despread the received signal so that the original data may be recovered.

5. Define pseudo noise sequence.

PN sequence is a binary sequence with noise like waveform that is usually generated
using linear feedback shift register used to spread the data signal.

6. What is meant by direct sequence spread spectrum?

Direct sequence spread spectrum uses two stages of modulation. In the first stage, the
incoming data sequence modulates the wideband code. This transforms the narrow band
incoming data sequence into a wideband signal, spreaded in frequency. This wideband signal
then undergoes the second modulation using BPSK.

7. What is meant by frequency hopped spread spectrum?

The type of spread spectrum in which the carrier hops randomly from one frequency to
another is called frequency hopped spread spectrum.

8. Define the types of frequency hopped spread spectrum.

The two types of frequency hopped spread spectrum are:
 Slow frequency hopping: The symbol rate RS of the MFSK signal is an integer
multiple of the hop rate Rh. Several symbols are transmitted in each hop.
  Fast frequency hopping: The hop rate Rh is an integral multiple of MFSK symbol rate
RS. The carrier frequency will change or hop several times during a single hop.

9. List the properties of PN sequence.

Balance Property:
In each period of the maximal length sequence, the number of 1’s is always one
greater than the number of 0’s.
Run Property:
Among the runs of 1’s and 0’s in each period of maximal length sequence, one half
of the runs of each kind are of length one, one – fourth of the runs are length two, one
eighth of the runs are of length of three and so on.
Correlation Property:
The auto correlation function of a maximal length sequence is periodic and binary
valued.

10. Define processing gain.

Processing gain is defined as the ratio of bandwidth of the spreaded message signal
to the bandwidth of the unspreaded data signal.
1
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑏
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = =
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 1 𝑇𝐶
𝑇𝑏
11. What is jamming margin?

Jamming margin is the ratio of average power of interference (J) and the average power
of the data signal (PS).

12. How to implement the spread spectrum technique?

The spread spectrum can be implemented in two ways:
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum:
The narrowband message signal b(t) is multiplied with a wideband PN sequence c(t)
to produce m(t) which has to be transmitted.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum:
The spectrum of the transmitted signal is spread sequentially rather than
instantaneously. The carrier hops from one frequency to another in a random manner.
13. Compare slow and fast frequency hopping.

14. Define RAKE receiver.

RAKE receiver is a radio receiver used in CDMA wireless communication to equalize

the effect of multipath by using a correlation method to detect the echo signals individually
and then adding them algebraically
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 UNIT V

CRYPTOGRAPHY

CLASSICAL ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES:

Introduction to Cryptography:

Cryptography is the science of devising methods that allow information to be sent in a

secure form such a way that the only person able to retrieve this information is the intended
recipient.

Encryption is based on algorithms that scramble information into unreadable or non

discernable form.

Decryption is the process of restoring the scrambled information to its original form.

Fig: The process of Encryption and Decryption model

There are five primary functions of cryptography today:

1. Privacy/confidentiality: Ensuring that no one can read the message except the intended
receiver.
2. Authentication: The process of proving one's identity.
3. Integrity: Assuring the receiver that the received message has not been altered in any
way from the original.
4. Non-repudiation: A mechanism to prove that the sender really sent this message.
5. Key exchange: The method by which crypto keys are shared between sender and
receiver.

Basic definitions of cryptography:

Plaintext: A message in its original form

Ciphertext: Amessage in the transformed, unrecognized form

Encryption: The process for producing ciphertext from plaintext

Decryption: The reverse of encryption

Key: A secret value used to control encryption/decryption.

Goal of Cryptography:

The goal of cryptographic system is to provide a high level of confidentiality, integrity,

non-repudiation( someone cannot deny something) and authenticity to information that is
exchanged over networks.

Cryptographic systems are generally classified along 3 independent dimensions:

Type of operations used for transforming plain text to cipher text :

All the encryption algorithms are based on two general principles:

 Substitution, in which each element in the plaintext is mapped into another

element,this operation replaces the bits in the plain text with other bits decided
upon the algorithm to produce cipher text. and
 Transposition, in which elements in the plaintext are rearranged. If the resultant
cipher text is then put through more transpositions, the end result is increasingly
secure.

The number of keys used :

 If the sender and receiver uses same key then it is said to be symmetric key (or)
single key (or) conventional encryption.
 If the sender and receiver use different keys then it is said to be public key
encryption.

The way in which the plain text is processed

 A block cipher processes the input and block of elements at a time, producing
output block for each input block.
 A stream cipher processes the input elements continuously, producing output
element one at a time, as it goes along.

SYMMETRIC (SECRET KEY) CRYPTOGRAPHY/ CIPHER PRINCIPLES:

The cipher, an algorithm that is used for converting the plaintext to cipher text, operates
on a key, which is essentially a specially generated number (value). To decrypt a secret message
(cipher text) to get back the original message (plaintext), a decrypt algorithm uses a decrypt key.

In symmetric key cryptography, same key is shared, i.e. the same key is used in both
encryption and decryption as shown in Fig. The algorithm used to decrypt is just the inverse of
the algorithm used for encryption. For example, if addition and division is used for encryption,
multiplication and subtraction are to be used for decryption. Symmetric key cryptography
algorithms are simple requiring lesser execution time. As a consequence, these are commonly
used for long messages.

However, these algorithms suffer from the following limitations: ƒ

 Requirement of large number of unique keys. For example for n users the number
of keys required is n(n-1)/2. ƒ
 Distribution of keys among the users in a secured manner is difficult.

Fig : A simple symmetric key cryptography model

Mono-alphabetic Substitution:

One simple example of symmetric key cryptography is the Mono alphabetic substitution.
In this case, the relationship between a character in the plaintext and a character in the cipher text
is always one-to-one. An example Mono alphabetic substitution is the Caesar cipher. As shown
in Fig., in this approach a character in the cipher text is substituted by another character shifted
by three places, e.g. A is substituted by N. Key feature of this approach is that it is very simple
but the code can be attacked very easily.
BLOCK CIPHERS:

Block ciphers use a block of bits as the unit of encryption and decryption. To encrypt a
64-bit block, one has to take each of the 264 input values and map it to one of the 264 output
values. The mapping should be one-to-one.

Fig: Block cipher

Some operations, such as permutation and substitution, are performed on the block of bits
based on a key (a secret number) to produce another block of bits.

In the decryption process, operations are performed in the reverse order based on the
same key to get back the original block of bits.

Permutation: As shown in Fig., the permutation is performed by a permutation box at

the bit-level, which keeps the number of 0s and 1s same at the input and output. Although it can
be implemented either by hardware or software, the hardware implementation is faster.

Substitution: The substitution is implemented with the help of three building blocks – a
decoder, one p-box and an encoder. For an n-bit input, the decoder produces a 2n bit output
having only one 1, which is applied.

DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD (DES):

The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric-key block cipher published by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

DES is an implementation of a Feistel Cipher. It uses 16 round Feistel structure. The

block size is 64-bit. Though, key length is 64-bit, DES has an effective key length of 56 bits,
since 8 of the 64 bits of the key are not used by the encryption algorithm (function as check bits
only). General Structure of DES is depicted in the following illustration −
Since DES is based on the Feistel Cipher, all that is required to specify DES is −

 Round function
 Key schedule
 Any additional processing − Initial and final permutation
Initial and Final Permutation:

The initial and final permutations are straight Permutation boxes (P-boxes) that are inverses of
each other. They have no cryptography significance in DES. The initial and final permutations
are shown as follows −
Round Function

The heart of this cipher is the DES function, f. The DES function applies a 48-bit key to the
rightmost 32 bits to produce a 32-bit output.

Expansion Permutation Box − since right input is 32-bit and round key is a 48-bit, we first
need to expand right input to 48 bits. Permutation logic is graphically depicted in the following
illustration –

XOR (Whitener). − After the expansion permutation, DES does XOR operation on the
expanded right section and the round key. The round key is used only in this operation.

Substitution Boxes. − The S-boxes carry out the real mixing (confusion). DES uses 8 S-boxes,
each with a 6-bit input and a 4-bit output. Refer the following illustration −
Key Generation:
The round-key generator creates sixteen 48-bit keys out of a 56-bit cipher key.

DES Analysis:
The DES satisfies both the desired properties of block cipher. These two properties make cipher
very strong.

 Avalanche effect − A small change in plaintext results in the very great change in the
cipher text.

 Completeness − each bit of cipher text depends on many bits of plaintext.

STREAM ENCRYPTION:

S.NO BLOCK CIPHER STREAM CIPHER

Block Cipher Converts the plain text Stream Cipher Converts the plain
into cipher text by taking plain text’s text into cipher text by taking 1 byte
1. block at a time. of plain text at a time.

Block cipher uses either 64 bits or more

2. than 64 bits. While stream cipher uses 8 bits.

The complexity of block cipher is While stream cipher is more

3. simple. complex.

Block cipher Uses confusion as well as While stream cipher uses only
4. diffusion. confusion.

In block cipher, reverse encrypted text While in stream cipher, reverse

5. is hard. encrypted text is easy.

The algorithm modes which are used in The algorithm modes which are used
6. block cipher are: ECB (Electronic Code in stream cipher are: CFB (Cipher
 Book) and CBC (Cipher Block Feedback) and OFB (Output
Chaining). Feedback).

In this scheme, the plaintext is processed one bit at a time i.e. one bit of plaintext is taken, and a
series of operations is performed on it to generate one bit of cipher text. Technically, stream
ciphers are block ciphers with a block size of one bit.

KEY MANAGEMENT:
Key management refers to management of cryptographic keys in a cryptosystem. This
includes dealing with the generation, exchange, storage, use, crypto-shredding (destruction) and
replacement of keys. Key management concerns keys at the user level, either between users or
systems.
In cryptography it is a very tedious task to distribute the public and private key between sender
and receiver. If key is known to the third party (forger/eavesdropper) then the whole security
mechanism becomes worthless. So, there comes the need to secure the exchange of keys.
There are 2 aspects for Key Management:
1. Distribution of public keys.
2. Use of public-key encryption to distribute secret.

Distribution of Public Key:

Public key can be distributed in 4 ways:

 Public announcement,
 Publicly available directory,
 Public-key authority, and
 Public-key certificates.

Life cycle of Key management.

1. Public Announcement:
Here the public key is broadcasted to everyone. Major weakness of this method is forgery.
Anyone can create a key claiming to be someone else and broadcast it. Until forgery is
discovered can masquerade as claimed user.
 2. Publicly Available Directory:
In this type, the public key is stored at a public directory. Directories are trusted here, with
properties like Participant Registration, access and allow modifying values at any time,
contains entries like {name, public-key}.
Directories can be accessed electronically still vulnerable to forgery or tampering.

3. Public Key Authority:

It is similar to the directory but, improve security by tightening control over distribution of
keys from directory. It requires users to know public key for the directory. Whenever the
keys are needed, a real-time access to directory is made by the user to obtain any desired
public key securely.

4. Public Certification:
This time authority provides a certificate (which binds identity to the public key) to allow
key exchange without real-time access to the public authority each time. The certificate is
accompanied with some other info such as period of validity, rights of use etc. All of this
content is signed by the trusted Public-Key or Certificate Authority (CA) and it can be
verified by anyone possessing the authority’s public-key.
There are three primary types of keys that need to be kept safe and secure:

1. Symmetric keys – typically used to encrypt bulk data with symmetric algorithms like 3DES or
AES; anyone with the secret key can decrypt the data

2. Private keys – the secret half of public/private key pairs used in public-key cryptography with
asymmetric algorithms like RSA or ECDSA; anyone with the private key can impersonate the
owner of the private key to decrypt private data.

3. Hash keys – used to safeguard the integrity and authenticity of data and transactions with
algorithms like HMAC-SHA256.
Threats in key Management:

There are many threats that can result in a key being compromised:

Weak keys

A key is essentially just a random number – the longer and more random it is, the more difficult
it is to crack. The strength of the key should be appropriate for the value of the data it is
protecting and the period of time for which it needs to be protected. The key should be long
enough for its intended purpose .
Incorrect use of keys

Each key should be generated for a single, specific purpose (i.e. the intended application and
algorithm) – if it is used for something else, it may not provide the expected or required level of
protection.

Re-use of keys

Improper re-use of keys in certain circumstances can make it easier for an attacker to crack the
key.

Non-rotation of keys

If a key is over-used (e.g. used to encrypt too much data), then it makes the key more vulnerable
to cracking, especially when using older symmetric algorithms. To avoid this, keys should be
rotated (i.e. updated / renewed) at appropriate intervals.
Non-destruction of keys

Keys should be destroyed (i.e. securely deleted, leaving no trace) once they have expired, unless
explicitly required for later use (e.g. to decrypt data). This removes the risk of accidental
compromise at some future date.

Insider threats (user authentication, dual control, segregation of roles)

One of the biggest classes of threat that a key faces is insider threats. If a rogue employee has
unfettered access to a key, they might use it for a malicious purpose or pass it onto someone else
to the same end.
DIFFIE-HELLMAN KEY EXCHANGE:

1. In Public key encryption schemes are secure only if authenticity of the public key is
assured.
2. Diffie-Hellman key exchange is a simple public key algorithm.
3. The protocol enables 2 users to establish a secret key using a public key scheme based on
discrete algorithms.
4. The protocol is secure only if the authenticity of the 2 participants can be established.
5. or this scheme, there are 2 publicly known numbers :
o A prime number q
o An integer α that is a primitive root of q.

(Note: Premitive root of a prime number P is one, whose powers module P generate all
the images from 1 to P-1)
6. Suppose users A and B wish to exchange the key.
User A selects a random integer XA<q and computes
YA=α XA mod q
7. User B independently selects a random integer XB<q and compute
YB=α XB mod q
8. Each side keeps X value private and makes Y value available publicly to the other side
user A computes the key as:
k= (YB) XA mod q
User B computes the key as:
k= (YA) XB mod q
Figure: Diffie-Hellman Exchange Algorithm
PUBLIC-KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY, OR ASYMMETRIC CRYPTOGRAPHY:

Public-key cryptography, or asymmetric cryptography, is any cryptographic system

that uses pairs of keys: public keys which may be disseminated widely, and private keys which
are known only to the owner.

This accomplishes two functions: authentication, where the public key verifies that a
holder of the paired private key sent the message, and encryption, where only the paired private
key holder can decrypt the message encrypted with the public key.
The most important properties of public key encryption scheme are −

 Different keys are used for encryption and decryption. This is a property which set this
scheme different than symmetric encryption scheme.

 Each receiver possesses a unique decryption key, generally referred to as his private key.

 Receiver needs to publish an encryption key, referred to as his public key.

 Some assurance of the authenticity of a public key is needed in this scheme to avoid
spoofing by adversary as the receiver. Generally, this type of cryptosystem involves
trusted third party which certifies that a particular public key belongs to a specific
person or entity only.

 Encryption algorithm is complex enough to prohibit attacker from deducing the plaintext
from the ciphertext and the encryption (public) key.

 Though private and public keys are related mathematically, it is not be feasible to
calculate the private key from the public key. In fact, intelligent part of any public-key
cryptosystem is in designing a relationship between two keys.
 Example:
Public keys of every user are present in the Public key Register. If B wants to send a
confidential message to C, then B encrypts the message using C Public key. When C
receives the message from B then C can decrypt it using its own Private Key. No other
recipient other than C can decrypt the message because only C know C’s private key.
Components of Public Key Encryption:
 Plain Text:
This is the message which is readable or understandable. This message is given to the
Encryption algorithm as an input.
 Cipher Text:
The cipher text is produced as an output of Encryption algorithm. We cannot simply
understand this message.
 Encryption Algorithm:
The encryption algorithm is used to convert plain text into cipher text.
 Decryption Algorithm:
It accepts the cipher text as input and the matching key (Private Key or Public key) and
produces the original plain text
 Public and Private Key:
One key either Private key (Secret key) or Public Key (known to everyone) is used for
encryption and other is used for decryption

Weakness of the Public Key Encryption:

 Public key Encryption is vulnerable to Brute-force attack.
 This algorithm also fails when the user lost his private key, then the Public key Encryption
becomes the most vulnerable algorithm.
 Public Key Encryption also is weak towards man in the middle attack. In this attack a third
party can disrupt the public key communication and then modify the public keys.
 If user private key used for certificate creation higher in the PKI(Public Key Infrastructure)
server hierarchy is compromised, or accidentally disclosed, then a “man-in-the-middle
attack” is also possible, making any subordinate certificate wholly insecure. This is also
the weakness of Public key Encryption.
Applications:
 Confidentiality can be achieved using Public Key Encryption. In this the Plain text is
encrypted using receiver public key. This will ensures that no one other than receiver
private key can decrypt the cipher text.
  Digital signature is for sender’s authentication purpose. In this sender encrypt the plain text
using his own private key. This step will make sure the authentication of the sender
because receiver can decrypt the cipher text using sender’s pubic key only.
 This algorithm can use in both Key-management and securely transmission of data.

RSA ALGORITHM:

This cryptosystem is one the initial system. The system was invented by three
scholars Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Len Adleman and hence, it is termed as RSA
cryptosystem.

The Algorithm:

The following steps are used to perform RSA algorithm:

1. Generate two large prime numbers of normally equal length ‘p’ and ‘q’ respectively.
2. Let n=p*q
3. Let T=(p-1)*(q-1)
4. Choose a small number ‘e’ co-prime to ‘T’, with GCD(T,e)=1;1<e<T
5. Find ‘d’ such that (de mod T=1)
6. Publish ‘e’ and ’n’ as Public key.
7. Keep ‘d’ and ‘T’ as the Secret key

Encryption:

Cipher = (message)e mod n (x mod y means the remainder of x divided by y)

Decryption:

Message = (Cipher)d mod n

Example:

1. P=7 q=19
2. Let n=p*q
 7x19=133

3. Let T=(p-1)*(q-1)

(7-1)x(19-1)=108

4. Choose a small number ‘e’ co-prime to ‘T’, with GCD(T, e)=1;1<e<T

GCD (108, e) =1

If e = 2 GCD (108,2)=2 (no)

If e = 3 GCD (108,3)=3 (no)

If e = 4 GCD (108,4)=4 (no)

If e = 5 GCD (108,5)=1(yes)

The value of e is 5

5. Find ‘d’ such that (de mod T=1)

To find d, first find d= (1+kT)/e k=0,1,2,3……

K=0; d= (1+ (0x108))/5 =1/5 (no)

K=1; d= (1+ (1x108))/5 =109/5 (no)

K=2; d= (1+ (2x108))/5 =217/5 (no)

K=3; d= (1+ (3x108))/5 =325/5 (yes) =65

6. Public key:
n=133
e=5
7. Secret key:
T=108
d=65

Encryption:

Cipher = (message)e mod n

For eg: message=6

 Cipher = (6)5 mod 133=62

Decryption:

Message = (Cipher)d mod n

Message = (62)65 mod 133 =6