EET 06105

CONTROL ENGINEERING

Lecture No.3A
Prepared by JACKSON NTABUNGU, 0715076004
CONTROL SYSTEM MODELS
OR REPRESENTATIONS
 Modeling
Modeling is the process of obtaining the approximate description of a system.
The mathematical model of a system is a mathematical relation which relates the
input, the system, and the output.

Modeling is used for:

❖Designing
❖Analysis
❖Development,
❖Modification,
❖Performance evaluation,
❖Study the system’s stability
❖ Improving the system’s performance.
 Several types of mathematical models

1. The differential equations (integrodifferential equations)

2. The transfer function representation.
3. The block diagrams
4. The signal-flow graphs
5. State-space analysis.
TRANSFER FUNCTION
 Transfer function
A Transfer function is a mathematical representation of the relationship existing between the input
and the output of a control system. It describes how the system changes an input signal to an
output signal.
Mathematically, The transfer function is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of the output
to the Laplace transform of the input, under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
𝐿(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)
Transfer function = ቚ
𝐿(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝐿(𝑐(𝑡)) 𝐶(𝑠)
Transfer function = ቚ Transfer function = 𝐺(𝑠) =
𝐿(𝑟(𝑡)) 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑅(𝑠)

Capital letters are used to represent Laplace

Lowercase letters are used to represent quantities as
transformed quantities, as functions of the complex
functions of time(t)
variable s.
f(t) = f, for example r(t) = r
F(s) = F, For example R(s) =R
 V-I relations
Component Symbol V-I Relation Laplace transform

Resistor 𝑣𝑅 (t)=𝑖𝑅 𝑡 R 𝑉𝑅 (s)=𝐼𝑅 𝑠 R

1 1 𝐼𝐶 𝑠
𝑣𝐶 (t)= ‫𝐶𝑖 ׬‬ 𝑡 ⅆ𝑡 𝑉𝐶 (s)=
Capacitor 𝐶 𝐶 𝑠

𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑡
Inductor 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡)= L 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠)= L s𝐼𝐿 𝑠
𝑑𝑡

In above Laplace transformation of capacitor and inductor is assumed that, initially there is no charge stored in the
capacitor, and no energy stored in inductor ( i.e. zero initial conditions)
 Example
The network shown in the following figure has 𝑣𝑖 t as the input voltage
and 𝑣0 t as the output voltage.
Find the transfer function 𝑉𝑜 s /𝑉𝑖 s of the network.
 SOLUTION
Step 1 : Applying KVL to obtain differential equations of the system
𝑣𝑅 (t)= 𝑣𝑅 t + 𝑣𝑐 (t)
1 1
𝑣𝑖 (t)=𝑖𝑅 𝑡 R + ‫𝐶𝑖 ׬‬ 𝑡 ⅆ𝑡 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝑣𝑂 (t)= ‫ 𝑡 𝐶𝑖 ׬‬ⅆ𝑡
𝐶 𝐶
Step 2: Taking Laplace transform of both equations, considering initial conditions to be zero.
𝐀𝐍𝐃
Step 3: Rearrange both equations
𝐀𝐍𝐃
Step 4: Substitute I(s) in equation on left

Transfer function:

Step 5: Take the ratio (output/input)

Block diagram:
 EET 06105
CONTROL ENGINEERING

Lecture No.3B
Prepared by JACKSON NTABUNGU, 0715076004
BLOCK DIAGRAMS
 Block diagram
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the
functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals.
Such a diagram depicts the interrelationships that exist among the
various components.
In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through
functional blocks.
 Points to note
❑For making a block diagram, first the transfer function of the system
components is determined. They are then entered in the corresponding blocks.
❑These blocks are connected by arrows indicating the direction of flow of
signals. The signals can pass only in the direction of arrows. The arrow head
pointing towards a particular block indicates the input to the system component
and the arrow head moving away from the block indicates the output.
❑The dimension of the output signal from the block is the dimension of the
input signal multiplied by the dimension of the transfer function in the block

C(s) = R(s) x G(s)

 Five elements in block diagrams
▪ Blocks
▪ Transfer functions of elements shown inside the blocks
▪ Summing points (or Summing junctions)
▪ Takeoff points(or pickoff points or branch points)
▪ Arrows
 Summing Point
A block/an element at which two or more signals are either added or subtracted is
known as the summing point.
The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs.
Any number of inputs may enter a summing point.

X Z= 𝐗∓𝒀 X + Z= 𝐗∓𝒀 X + Z= 𝐗∓𝒀

+
∓
∓ ∓
Y Y Y
 Takeoff point
The point at which a signal is applied to two or more blocks is known as
the take-off point.

Takeoff point

Z Z
G(s)

Z
The forward path is the transmission path from the summing point to the output
G(s) = Forward transfer function = Equivalent Forward path transfer function = Direct transfer function
G(s) = Forward path gain
The feedback path is the transmission path from the output back to the summing point.

H(s) = Feedback transfer function = Equivalent Feedback path transfer function

H(s) = Feedback path gain
 Canonical form (Standard form or Simple form) of
block diagram representation of a system
−sign → Negative feedback
+ sign → Positive feedback

+ sign → Negative feedback

− sign → Positive feedback
 POINTS TO NOTE
▪ G(s)H(s) = Loop transfer function = Open loop transfer function

+ sign → Negative feedback

▪ 1 ± G(s)H(s) = 0 is the characteristic equation
− sign → Positive feedback

C(s)
▪ = Closed loop transfer function = Control ratio
R(s)

E(s)
▪ = Error ratio
R(s)

B(s)
▪ = Feedback ratio
R(s)
 Closed loop control system with unity feedback
A unity feedback system is one in which the feedback signal is identically equal to the output
For a unity feedback control system, H(s) = 1.

+ sign → Negative feedback

− sign → Positive feedback
 Questions
1. A negative feedback system has a forward gain of 10 and feedback gain of 1.
Determine the overall gain of the system
2. A negative feedback system with a forward gain of 2 and a feedback gain of 8
is subjected to an input of 5 V. Determine the output voltage of the system.
3. A positive feedback system was subjected to an input of 3 V. Determine the
output voltage of the following sets of gains:
i. G(s) = 1, H(s) = 0.75
ii. G(s) = 1, H(s) = 0.9
iii. G(s) = 1, H(s) = 0.99
iv. G(s) = 1.9, H(s) = 0.5
v. G(s) = 1.99, H(s) = 0.5
vi. G(s) = 1.999, H(s) = 0.5
BLOCK DIAGRAM
REDUCTION
 BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION
For complicated systems, the block diagram interconnecting all the sub-systems
becomes a complex one. Reduction of such complex block diagram makes it easy
to determine the overall transfer function of the whole system. Various techniques
are then applied to analyze the performance of the system.
 BLOCK REDUCTION RULES

*
*

*
*

*
*

*
 REDUCTION OF COMPLICATED BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Step 1: Combine all cascade blocks using Transformation 1.

Step 2: Combine all parallel blocks using Transformation 2.
Step 3: Eliminate all minor feedback loops using Transformation 4.
Step 4: As far as possible, Try to Shift summing points to the left and takeoff points to the
right of the major loop, using Transformations 7, 10, and 12.
Step 5: Repeat Steps 1 to 4 until the canonical form has been achieved for a particular input.

NOTE:
❑IN most cases, we apply rules(transformations) number 1, 2,4,7,8,9 and 10. Make
sure you understand these rules.
❑Transformations 3, 5, 6, 9, 11 and 12 are sometimes useful, and experience with the
reduction technique will determine their application.
 Be carefully!

If there is a take off point or summing point in between the blocks, the blocks can not be said to be in series
So, for them to be in series, rules for shifting(take off or summing point) may apply.

➢ Block 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are not in series due to the presence of summing point between them.

➢ Block 𝐺2 and 𝐺3 are not in series due to the presence of takeoff point between them.
So, for them to be in series , take off point should be shifted ( in this case beyond the block 𝐺3 ) by applying rule
for shifting take off point)
 Be carefully!
𝑮𝟐

𝑮𝟏

Block 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are not in parallel due to the presence of takeoff point beyond block 𝐺1 .
So, for them to be in parallel, take off point should be shifted ( in this case behind the block)
by applying rule for shifting take off point)
 Be carefully!

Block 𝐺3 and 𝐻2 are not in parallel, That combination is called minor feedback loop.
For a parallel combination the direction of signals for the blocks in parallel must be the same.
In this case the direction of signal through 𝐺3 and 𝐻2 is opposite.
So use rule for eliminating feedback loop (transformation 4) to reduce it.
 Be carefully!

An arrow without anything has the transfer function of 1, i.e. H(s)=1, G(s) = 1
 Example 1A
Reduce the following block diagram into canonical form and determine
its transfer function

ANSWER, TF
SOLUTION
SOLUTION cont.….
 Example 1B
Simplify the block diagram shown in Figure below and obtain the
closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s).
 Example 2
Reduce the following block diagram into canonical form and determine
its transfer function

ANSWER, TF
 Example 3
Reduce the following block diagram and determine its transfer function

ANSWER
REDUCTION PROCEDURES FOR MULTIPLE INPUTS
We apply the superposition theorem to reduce the block diagram, considering the effect
of one input at a time when other is set to zero.

Step 1: Set all inputs except one equal to zero.

Step 2: Transform the block diagram to canonical form
Step 3: Calculate the response due to the chosen input acting alone.
Step 4: Repeat Steps 1 to 3 for each of the remaining inputs.
Step 5: Algebraically add all of the responses (outputs) determined in Steps 1 to 4.
This sum is the total output of the system with all inputs acting simultaneously
 Be carefully!
If sign of the signal present at the summing point which is to be removed is negative, this negative sign must be
carried forward in the further analysis by introducing a block of transfer function -1 in series with that signal.

When Y(s) is considered, R(s) = 0

If sign of the signal present at the summing point which is to be removed is positive, there is no need of
introducing a block of transfer function +1 in series with that signal.

When R(s) is considered, Y(s) = 0

 Example 4
Reduce the following block diagram and determine Net output response

ANSWER
 Solution
There are two input signals, R(s) and U(s), and one output signal, C(s).
We apply the superposition theorem to reduce the block diagram, considering the
effect of one input at a time when other is set to zero.
To determine the total response, the individual responses will be added.
i) Let us consider input R(s) first, keeping U(s) = 0. The block diagram will be as
shown below. Afterwards, we will consider the input U(s), keeping R(s) = 0
Solution cont.….
Solution cont.….
Solution cont.….
 Example 5

Obtain the resultant output C(s) in terms of the input R(s) and Y(s)

ANSWER
 Example 6
Determine the net response of the system shown below using block
diagram reduction technique

ANSWER
 Example 7
Obtain the expression for 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 for the following multiple input multiple
output control system

ANSWER
 Advantages & Disadvantages of the block
diagram representation
Advantages Disadvantages
1. It is easy to form the overall block diagram for the 1. It does not include any information on the
entire system by connecting the blocks of the physical construction of the system. It just
components according to the signal flow contains information about system dynamics in
2. It is possible to evaluate the contribution of each the form of transfer function, Consequently, many
component towards the overall performance of the dissimilar and unrelated systems can be
control system. represented by the same block diagram.
2. In a block diagram the main source of energy is
3. It indicates more realistically the signal flows of the not explicitly shown
actual system.
4. Block diagram helps in understanding the 3. The block diagram of a given system is not
functional operation of the system more readily unique. A number of different block diagrams can
than examination of the actual control system be drawn for a system, depending on the point of
physically view of the analysis.
5. Overall closed loop transfer function of the system
can be easily calculated by using block diagram
reduction rule
 EET 06105
CONTROL ENGINEERING

Lecture No.3C
Prepared by JACKSON NTABUNGU, 0715076004
SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS
(SFG)
 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS
A signal flow graph is graphical representation of the variables of a set of linear
algebraic equations(simultaneous equations) representing the system.
It graphically displays the transmission(flow) of signals through the system, as
does the block diagram. But it is easier to draw and therefore easier to
manipulate than the block diagram.
 Signal Flow Graph Terminologies
Node is the small circle (or small dot) which represents a variable of the system.
Branch is a line with an arrow which represents the transmission function(transfer
function or gain). It joins two nodes. The arrow indicates the flow of signal and
signal can travel only along an arrow.
Branch Gain( or transmittance or transmission function ) is the multiplication
factor or gain between the two nodes. e.g. 𝐴12
 EXAMPLE

i. System Equation ?
ii. System Variables ?
iii. Branch transfer function or branch gain or branch transmittance ?
iv. Signal flow graph of the system?
 EXAMPLE

i. System Equation, V= IR
ii. System Variables are voltage (V) and current (I) are represented by nodes and they
are connected by the branch
iii. Branch transfer function or branch gain or branch transmittance is Resistance (R)
becomes branch transfer function or branch gain or branch transmittance
iv. System Variables [voltage (V) and current (I)] are represented by nodes and they
are connected by the branch with branch transfer function (R) joining I and V.
The direction of arrow is from I to V
 Signal Flow Graph Algebra (Rules)
The signal at a node is obtained by multiplying the branch gain or branch
transmittance of the branch connecting the nodes and the signal at the previous
node
 Signal Flow Graph Algebra (Rules)
A cascaded (series) connected of A parallel connected of branches can be
branches can be replaced by a single replaced by a single branch with a new
branch with a new transmission transmission function equal to the sum
function equal to the product of their of their transmission functions
transmission functions
 Signal Flow Graph Algebra (Rules)
The value of the variable represented The value of the variable represented
by a node is equal to the sum of all by a node is available to all the
signals entering the node. branches leaving that node.

Y= 3X
Z= -4X
 Signal Flow Graph Terminologies Cont.…
Source Node or Input Node is the type of node that has only outgoing branches, e.g. 𝑁1
Sink Node or Output Node is the type of node that has only incoming branches e.g. 𝑁8
Mixed Node or Chain Node is the type of node that has both incoming and outgoing branches
e.g. 𝑁2 , 𝑁3 , 𝑁4 , 𝑁5 , 𝑁6 and 𝑁7
 Signal Flow Graph Terminologies Cont.…
Dummy node
If there exists incoming and outgoing branches both at first and last
node representing input and output variables, then as per definition these
can not be called as source and sink nodes.

In such a case a separate input and output nodes can be created by

adding branches with gain 1, Such nodes are called as dummy nodes
 Signal Flow Graph Terminologies Cont.…
A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which
no node is passed more than once.
A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node with none
of the nodes traversed more than once

TASK: Identify other two forward paths

 Signal Flow Graph Terminologies Cont.…
A feedback path (or feedback loop or a Loop) is a path which originates
and terminates at the same node

TASK: Identify other three feedback paths

 Signal Flow Graph Terminologies Cont.…
A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of only one node.
NOTE: A self loop can not appear while defining a forward path or feedback loop
as node containing it gets traced twice which is not allowed.
 Signal Flow Graph Terminologies Cont.…
Path Gain (Forward path gain) is the product of branch gains while going
through a forward path

TASK: Write the path gain of other two forward paths

 Signal Flow Graph Terminologies Cont.…
Loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the branches forming a loop.

TASK: Write the loop gain of other three feedback paths

 Signal Flow Graph Terminologies Cont.…
Non-touching Loops: Loops are said to be non-touching if they do not possess
any common node

TASK:
1. State other three possible combination of two non-touching loops
2. State a combination of three non-touching loops
 Try it!
Consider the signal graph below.

Identify the (a) input node, (b) output node, (c) forward paths, (d) feedback paths, (e) self loop.
Determine the (f) loop gains of the feedback loops, (g) path gains of the forward paths
Methods to obtain signal
flow graphs
 1. From system equations
STEPS
i. Represent each variable by a separate node.
ii. Use the property that value of the variable represented by a node is
an algebraic sum of all the signals entering at that node, to simulate
the equations.
iii. Coefficients of the variables in the equations are to be represented
as the branch gains, joining the nodes in Signal flow graph.
iv. Show the input and output variables separately to complete signal
flow graph
 EXAMPLE 1
Consider a system described by the following set of equations.
The input variable is 𝑥1 and the output variable is 𝑥5
 SOLUTION

The overall SFG can be drawn by adding the individual flow graphs as shown on next slide
SOLUTION Cont.…..
 2. From a given block diagram
i. Name all the summing points and take-off points in the block
diagram.
ii. Represent each summing and take-off point by a separate node in
signal flow graph
iii. Connect them by the branches instead of blocks, indicating block
transfer functions as the gains of the corresponding branches.
iv. Show the input and output nodes separately if required, to complete
signal flow graph
Example 2
MASON’S GAIN FORMULA
For complicated systems, the block diagram reduction approach for arriving at the
transfer function relating the input and output variables is tedious and time
consuming.
An alternative approach is that of the signal flow graph (SFG) developed by S. J.
Mason. A signal flow graph does not require any reduction process because of the
availability of a flow graph gain formula which relates the input and output system
variables
 MASON’S GAIN FORMULA
The transfer function or overall gain of the system represented by SFG can be obtained using
Mason’s gain formula given by
 Example 1
Find overall transfer function using Mason’s gain formula
 SOLUTION
i. Number of forward paths, n = 2
ii. Path gain of each forward path
➢𝑃1 = 𝐺1 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐺6 𝑷𝟐
➢𝑃2 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺6
iii. Loop gains
➢𝐿1 = −𝐺4 𝐻1
➢𝐿2 = − 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐻2
Two non-touching loops 𝑳𝟏 non-touching to 𝑷𝟐
➢𝐿3 = −𝐺2 𝐻2
iv. ∆= 1 − (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 ) + (𝐿1 𝐿3 )
v. ∆1 = Eliminate 𝐿1 ,𝐿2 ,𝐿3 from ∆ as all are touching Forward path 𝑃1
∴ ∆1 = 1
∆2 = Eliminate 𝐿2 and 𝐿3 from ∆ as they are touching Forward path 𝑃2
∴ ∆2 = 1 − (𝐿1 )
𝑃1 ∆1 +𝑃2 ∆2
vi. Substitute in Mason’s gain formula, TF = =
∆
 Example 2
Obtain the transfer function of the system shown below by using signal
flow graph
 SOLUTION
The signal flow graph of the system is drawn below.
SOLUTION Cont.….
 Example 3
Find the gain of the control system represented in block diagram form
using Mason’s gain formula.
 SOLUTION
The signal flow graph of the system is drawn below.
SOLUTION
Cont.….
Prepared by JACKSON NTABUNGU, 0715076004