Assignment one

 Prepare a short lecture note

and present the following topics.
 Type of data
 Methods of data collection
 Methods of data presentation
 Measure of central tendency
 Measure of variation
Answers for all Questions
1. Type of data
There are two type of data or Variables.

1. Qualitative data are nonnumeric variables and can't be measured. Qualitative data is
descriptive, expressed in terms of language rather than numerical values.Qualitative
data analysis describes information and cannot be measured or counted. It refers to the
words or labels used to describe certain characteristics or traits.You would turn to
qualitative data to answer the "why?" or "how?" questions. It is often used to investigate
open-ended studies, allowing participants (or customers) to show their true feelings and
actions without guidance.Examples include gender, religious affiliation, and state of birth.

2. Quantitative data are numerical variables and can be measured. Quantitative data
refers to any information that can be quantified — that is, numbers. If it can be
counted or measured, and given a numerical value, it's quantitative in nature.
Quantitative data can be expressed as a number or
can be quantified. Simply put, it can be measured by
numerical variables. Think of it as measuring stick.Quantitative
variables can tell you "how many," "how much," or "how often."
 Quantitative data are easily amenable to statistical
manipulation and can be represented by a wide variety of
statistical types of graphs and charts such as line, bar graph,
scatter plot, and etc.
Examples of quantitative data:
 Scores on tests and exams e.g. 85, 67, 90 and etc.
 The weight of a person or a subject.
 Your shoe size.
 The temperature in a room.
There are 2 general types of quantitative data: discrete data
and continuous data. We will explain them later in this article.
Examples include balance in checking account, number of children in family. Note that
quantitative variables are either discrete (which can assume only certain values, and there
are usually "gaps" between the values, such as the number of bedrooms in your house) or
continuous (which can assume any value within a specific range, such as the air pressure in
a tire.)

Qualitative vs Quantitative
Data

2. Qualitative data.Qualitative data can’t be

expressed as a number and can’t be measured.
 Qualitative data consist of words, pictures, and symbols,
not numbers.

Qualitative data is also called categorical data because the

information can be sorted by category, not by number.
Qualitative data can answer questions such as “how this has
happened” or and “why this has happened”.

Examples of qualitative data:

 Colors e.g. the color of the sea
 Your favorite holiday destination such as Hawaii, New
Zealand and etc.
 Names as John, Patricia,…..
 Ethnicity such as American Indian, Asian, etc.
More you can see on our post qualitative vs quantitative data.
There are 2 general types of qualitative data: nominal data
and ordinal data.

Nominal vs Ordinal Data

3. Nominal data
Nominal data is used just for labeling variables, without any
type of quantitative value. The name ‘nominal’ comes from
the Latin word “nomen” which means ‘name’.

The nominal data just name a thing without applying it to

order. Actually, the nominal data could just be called “labels.”

Examples of Nominal Data:

 Gender (Women, Men)
 Hair color (Blonde, Brown, Brunette, Red, etc.)
 Marital status (Married, Single, Widowed)
 Ethnicity (Hispanic, Asian)
 As you see from the examples there is no intrinsic ordering to
the variables.

Eye color is a nominal variable having a few categories (Blue,

Green, Brown) and there is no way to order these categories
from highest to lowest.

4. Ordinal data
Ordinal data shows where a number is in order. This is the
crucial difference from nominal types of data.

Ordinal data is data which is placed into some kind of order

by their position on a scale. Ordinal data may indicate
superiority.

However, you cannot do arithmetic with ordinal

numbers because they only show sequence.
Ordinal variables are considered as “in between” qualitative
and quantitative variables.

In other words, the ordinal data is qualitative data for which

the values are ordered.

In comparison with nominal data, the second one is

qualitative data for which the values cannot be placed in an
ordered.

We can also assign numbers to ordinal data to show their

relative position. But we cannot do math with those numbers.
For example: “first, second, third…etc.”

Examples of Ordinal Data:

 The first, second and third person in a competition.
 Letter grades: A, B, C, and etc.
 When a company asks a customer to rate the sales
experience on a scale of 1-10.
 Economic status: low, medium and high.
Much more on the topic plus a quiz, you can learn in our
post: nominal vs ordinal data.
Qualitative or Categorical Data
Qualitative data, also known as the categorical data, describes the data that fits into the categories.
Qualitative data are not numerical. The categorical information involves categorical variables that
describe the features such as a person’s gender, home town etc. Categorical measures are defined
in terms of natural language specifications, but not in terms of numbers.
Sometimes categorical data can hold numerical values (quantitative value), but those values do not
have a mathematical sense. Examples of the categorical data are birthdate, favourite sport, school
postcode. Here, the birthdate and school postcode hold the quantitative value, but it does not give
numerical meaning.

Nominal Data
Nominal data is one of the types of qualitative information which helps to label the variables without
providing the numerical value. Nominal data is also called the nominal scale. It cannot be ordered
and measured. But sometimes, the data can be qualitative and quantitative. Examples of nominal
data are letters, symbols, words, gender etc.
The nominal data are examined using the grouping method. In this method, the data are grouped
into categories, and then the frequency or the percentage of the data can be calculated. These data
are visually represented using the pie charts.

Ordinal Data
Ordinal data/variable is a type of data that follows a natural order. The significant feature of the
nominal data is that the difference between the data values is not determined. This variable is mostly
found in surveys, finance, economics, questionnaires, and so on.
The ordinal data is commonly represented using a bar chart. These data are investigated and
interpreted through many visualisation tools. The information may be expressed using tables in
which each row in the table shows the distinct category.

Quantitative or Numerical Data

Quantitative data is also known as numerical data which represents the numerical value (i.e., how
much, how often, how many). Numerical data gives information about the quantities of a specific
thing. Some examples of numerical data are height, length, size, weight, and so on. The quantitative
data can be classified into two different types based on the data sets. The two different
classifications of numerical data are discrete data and continuous data.

Discrete Data
Discrete data can take only discrete values. Discrete information contains only a finite number of
possible values. Those values cannot be subdivided meaningfully. Here, things can be counted in
whole numbers.
Example: Number of students in the class

Continuous Data
Continuous data is data that can be calculated. It has an infinite number of probable values that can
be selected within a given specific range.
Example: Temperature range

Q2. Methods of data collection

There are two sources of data:

1. Primary Data
 Data measured or collect by the investigator or the user directly from the source.
 Two activities involved: planning and measuring.
a) Planning:
 Identify source and elements of the data.
 Decide whether to consider sample or census.
 If sampling is preferred, decide on sample size, selection method,
… etc
 Decide measurement procedure.
 Set up the necessary organizational structure.
b) Measuring: there are different options.
 Focus Group
 Telephone Interview
 Mail Questionnaires
 Door-to-Door Survey
 Mall Intercept
 New Product Registration
 Personal Interview and
  Experiments are some of the sources for collecting the primary
data.

2. Secondary Data
 Data gathered or compiled from published and unpublished sources or files.
 When our source is secondary data check that:
 The type and objective of the situations.
 The purpose for which the data are collected and compatible with
the present problem.
 The nature and classification of data is appropriate to our
problem.
 There are no biases and misreporting in the published data.
Note: Data which are primary for one may be secondary for the other.

Q3.METHODS OF DATA PRESNTATION

Having collected and edited the data, the next important step is to organize it. That is to present it
in a readily comprehensible condensed form that aids in order to draw inferences from it. It is
also necessary that the like be separated from the unlike ones.

The presentation of data is broadly classified in to the following two categories:

 Tabular presentation
 Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation.
The process of arranging data in to classes or categories according to similarities technically is
called classification.
Classification is a preliminary and it prepares the ground for proper presentation of data.
Definitions:
 Raw data: recorded information in its original collected form, whether it be counts or
measurements, is referred to as raw data.
 Frequency: is the number of values in a specific class of the distribution.
 Frequency distribution: is the organization of raw data in table form using classes and
frequencies.
There are three basic types of frequency distributions
 Categorical frequency distribution
 Ungrouped frequency distribution
 Grouped frequency distribution
There are specific procedures for constructing each type.
1) Categorical frequency Distribution:
Used for data that can be place in specific categories such as nominal, or ordinal. e.g. marital status.
Example: a social worker collected the following data on marital status for 25
persons.(M=married, S=single, W=widowed, D=divorced)
M S D W D
S S M M M
W D S M M
W D D S S
S W W D D
Solution:
Since the data are categorical, discrete classes can be used. There are four types of marital status M,
S, D, and W. These types will be used as class for the distribution. We follow procedure to construct
the frequency distribution.

Step 1: Make a table as shown.

Class T a l l y Frequency Percent

(1) (2) (3) (4)

M
S
D
W

Step 2: Tally the data and place the result in column (2).
Step 3: Count the tally and place the result in column (3).
Step 4: Find the percentages of values in each class by using;
f
%  * 100
n Where f= frequency of the class, n=total number of value.
Percentages are not normally a part of frequency distribution but they can be added since they are
used in certain types diagrammatic such as pie charts.
Step 5: Find the total for column (3) and (4).
Combing all the steps one can construct the following frequency distribution.
Class T a l l y Frequency Percent

(1) (2) (3) (4)

M //// 5 2 0

S / / / / / / 7 2 8
D / / / / / / 7 2 8
 W / / / / 6 2 4

2) Ungrouped frequency Distribution:

-Is a table of all the potential raw score values that could possible occur in the data along with the
number of times each actually occurred.
-Is often constructed for small set or data on discrete variable.
Constructing ungrouped frequency distribution:
 First find the smallest and largest raw score in the collected data.
 Arrange the data in order of magnitude and count the frequency.
 To facilitate counting one may include a column of tallies.

Example:
The following data represent the mark of 20 students.
8 0 7 6 9 0 8 5 80
7 0 6 0 6 2 7 0 85
6 5 6 0 6 3 7 4 75
7 6 7 0 7 0 8 0 85
Construct a frequency distribution, which is ungrouped.
Solution:
Step 1: Find the range, Range=Max-Min=90-60=30.
Step 2: Make a table as shown
Step 3: Tally the data.
Step 4: Compute the frequency.
M a r k T a l l y Frequency
6 0 / / 2
6 2 / 1
6 3 / 1
6 5 / 1
7 0 / / / / 4
7 4 / 1
7 5 / / 2
7 6 / 1
8 0 / / / 3
8 5 / / / 3
9 0 / 1

Each individual value is presented separately, that is why it is named ungrouped frequency
distribution.
 3) Grouped frequency Distribution:
-When the range of the data is large, the data must be grouped in to classes that are more than one
unit in width.

Definitions:
 Grouped Frequency Distribution: a frequency distribution when several numbers are
grouped in one class.
 Class limits: Separates one class in a grouped frequency distribution from another. The
limits could actually appear in the data and have gaps between the upper limits of one class
and lower limit of the next.
 Units of measurement (U): the distance between two possible consecutive measures. It is
usually taken as 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, -----.
 Class boundaries: Separates one class in a grouped frequency distribution from another. The
boundaries have one more decimal places than the row data and therefore do not appear in
the data. There is no gap between the upper boundary of one class and lower boundary of the
next class. The lower class boundary is found by subtracting U/2 from the corresponding
lower class limit and the upper class boundary is found by adding U/2 to the corresponding
upper class limit.
 Class width: the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries of any class. It is
also the difference between the lower limits of any two consecutive classes or the difference
between any two consecutive class marks.
 Class mark (Mid points): it is the average of the lower and upper class limits or the average
of upper and lower class boundary.
 Cumulative frequency: is the number ofobservations less than/more than or equal to a
specific value.
 Cumulative frequency above: it isthe total frequency of all values greater than or equal to
the lower class boundary of a given class.
 Cumulative frequency blow: it isthe total frequency of all values less than or equal to the
upper class boundary of a given class.
 Cumulative Frequency Distribution (CFD): it is the tabular arrangement of class interval
together with their corresponding cumulative frequencies. It can be more than or less than
type, depending on the type of cumulative frequency used.
 Relative frequency (rf): it is the frequency divided by the total frequency.
 Relative cumulative frequency (rcf): it is the cumulative frequency divided by the total
frequency.
Guidelines for classes
1. There should be between 5 and 20 classes.
2. The classes must be mutually exclusive. This means that no data value can fall into two
different classes
 3. The classes must be all inclusive or exhaustive. This means that all data values must be
included.
4. The classes must be continuous. There are no gaps in a frequency distribution.
5. The classes must be equal in width. The exception here is the first or last class. It is
possible to have an"below ..." or "... and above" class. This is often used with ages.
Steps for constructing Grouped frequency Distribution
1. Find the largest and smallest values
2. Compute the Range(R) = Maximum - Minimum
3. Select the number of classes desired, usually between 5 and 20 or use Sturges rule
k 1  3.32 log n where k is number of classes desired and n is total number of
observation.
4. Find the class width by dividing the range by the number of classes and rounding up, not
R
w
off. k .
5. Pick a suitable starting point less than or equal to the minimum value. The starting point
is called the lower limit of the first class. Continue to add the class width to this lower
limit to get the rest of the lower limits.
6. To find the upper limit of the first class, subtract U from the lower limit of the second
class. Then continue to add the class width to this upper limit to find the rest of the upper
limits.
7. Find the boundaries by subtracting U/2 units from the lower limits and adding U/2 units
from the upper limits. The boundaries are also half-way between the upper limit of one
class and the lower limit of the next class. !may not be necessary to find the boundaries.
8. Tally the data.
9. Find the frequencies.
10. Find the cumulative frequencies. Depending on what you're trying to accomplish, it may
not be necessary to find the cumulative frequencies.
11. If necessary, find the relative frequencies and/or relative cumulative frequencies
Example*:
Construct a frequency distribution for the following data.
1 1 29 6 33 14 31 22 27 19 20
1 8 17 22 38 23 21 26 34 39 27
Solutions:
Step 1: Find the highest and the lowest value H=39, L=6
Step 2: Find the range; R=H-L=39-6=33
Step 3: Select the number of classes desired using Sturges formula;
k 1  3.32 log n =1+3.32log (20) =5.32=6(rounding up)
Step 4: Find the class width; w=R/k=33/6=5.5=6 (rounding up)
Step 5: Select the starting point, let it be the minimum observation.
 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 are the lower class limits.
Step 6: Find the upper class limit; e.g. the first upper class=12-U=12-1=11
 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, 41 are the upper class limits.
So combining step 5 and step 6, one can construct the following classes.
Class limits
6 – 1 1
 12 – 17
18 – 23
24 – 29
30 – 35
36 – 41
Step 7: Find the class boundaries;
E.g. for class 1 Lower class boundary=6-U/2=5.5
Upper class boundary =11+U/2=11.5
 Then continue adding w on both boundaries to obtain the rest boundaries. By doing so
one can obtain the following classes.
Class boundary
5 . 5 – 1 1 . 5
11.5 – 17.5
17.5 – 23.5
23.5 – 29.5
29.5 – 35.5
35.5 – 41.5
Step 8: tally the data.
Step 9: Write the numeric values for the tallies in the frequency column.
Step 10: Find cumulative frequency.
Step 11: Find relative frequency or/and relative cumulative frequency.

The complete frequency distribution follows:

Class limit Class boundary Class Mark T a l l y Freq. Cf (less than type) Cf (more than type) r f . rcf (less than type
6 – 11 5.5 – 11.5 8 . 5 / / 2 2 2 0 0 .10 0 . 1 0
12 – 17 1 1 . 5 – 1 7 . 5 1 4 . 5 / / 2 4 1 8 0 .10 0 . 2 0
18 – 23 1 7 . 5 – 2 3 . 5 2 0 . 5 / / / / / / 7 1 1 1 6 0 .35 0 . 5 5
24 – 29 2 3 . 5 – 2 9 . 5 2 6 . 5 / / / / 4 1 5 9 0 .20 0 . 7 5
30 – 35 2 9 . 5 – 3 5 . 5 3 2 . 5 / / / 3 1 8 5 0 .15 0 . 9 0
36 – 41 3 5 . 5 – 4 1 . 5 3 8 . 5 / / 2 2 0 2 0 .10 1 . 0 0

Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation of data.

These are techniques for presenting data in visual displays using geometric and pictures.
Importance:
 They have greater attraction.
 They facilitate comparison.
 They are easily understandable.
-Diagrams are appropriate for presenting discrete data.
-The three most commonly used diagrammatic presentation for discrete as well as qualitative data are:
 Pie charts
 Pictogram
 Bar charts
Pie chart
- A pie chart is a circle that is divided in to sections or wedges according to the percentage of
frequencies in each category of the distribution. The angle of the sector is obtained using:
Valueofthe part
Angleof sec tor  * 100
thewholequ antity
Example: Draw a suitable diagram to represent the following population in a town.
M e n Women G i r l s B o y s
2 5 0 0 2 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 5 0 0
Solutions:
Step 1: Find the percentage.
Step 2: Find the number of degrees for each class.
Step 3: Using a protractor and compass, graph each section and write its name corresponding percentage.
C l a s s Frequency Percent D e g r e e
M e n 2 5 0 0 2 5 9 0
W o m e n 2 0 0 0 2 0 7 2
G i r l s 4 0 0 0 4 0 1 4 4
B o y s 1 5 0 0 1 5 5 4

CLASS

Boys Men

Girls Women

Pictogram
-In these diagram, we represent data by means of some picture symbols. We decide abut a
suitable picture to represent a definite number of units in which the variable is measured.

Example: draw a pictogram to represent the following population of a town.

Year 1 9 8 9 1 9 9 0 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 2
Population 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 7 0 0 0
 Bar Charts:
- A set of bars (thick lines or narrow rectangles) representing some magnitude over time space.
- They are useful for comparing aggregate over time space.
- Bars can be drawn either vertically or horizontally.
- There are different types of bar charts. The most common being :
 Simple bar chart
 Deviation o0r two way bar chart
 Broken bar chart
 Component or sub divided bar chart.
 Multiple bar charts.

Simple Bar Chart

-Are used to display data on one variable.
-They are thick lines (narrow rectangles) having the same breadth. The magnitude of a quantity is
represented by the height /length of the bar.
Example: The following data represent sale by product, 1957- 1959 of a given company for three
products A, B, C.
Product Sales($) S a l e s ( $ ) S a l e s ( $ )
In 1957 In 1958 In 1959
A 1 2 1 4 1 8
B 2 4 2 1 1 8
C 2 4 3 5 5 4

Solutions:

Sales by product in 1957

30
25
Sales in $

20
15
10
5
0
A B C
product

Component Bar chart

-When there is a desire to show how a total (or aggregate) is divided in to its component parts, we use
component bar chart.
-The bars represent total value of a variable with each total broken in to its component parts and different
colours or designs are used for identifications
Example:
Draw a component bar chart to represent the sales by product from 1957 to 1959.
Solutions:

SALES BY PRODUCT 1957-1959

100

80
Sales in $

Product C
60
Product B
40
Product A
20

0
1957 1958 1959
Year of production

Multiple Bar charts

- These are used to display data on more than one variable.
- They are used for comparing different variables at the same time.
Example:
Draw a component bar chart to represent the sales by product from 1957 to 1959.
Solutions:
 Sales by product 1957-1959

60
50
Sales in $

40 Product A
30 Product B
20 Product C

10
0
1957 1958 1959
Year of production

Graphical Presentation of data

- The histogram, frequency polygon and cumulative frequency graph or ogive are most commonly
applied graphical representation for continuous data.

Procedures for constructing statistical graphs:

 Draw and label the X and Y axes.
 Choose a suitable scale for the frequencies or cumulative frequencies and label it on the Y axes.
 Represent the class boundaries for the histogram or ogive or the mid points for the frequency
polygon on the X axes.
 Plot the points.
 Draw the bars or lines to connect the points.
Histogram
A graph which displays the data by using vertical bars of various height to represent frequencies. Class
boundaries are placed along the horizontal axes. Class marks and class limits are some times used as
quantity on the X axes.
Example: Construct a histogram to represent the previous data (example *).
Frequency Polygon:
- A line graph. The frequency is placed along the vertical axis and classes mid points are placed along
the horizontal axis. It is customer to the next higher and lower class interval with corresponding
frequency of zero, this is to make it a complete polygon.
Example: Draw a frequency polygon for the above data (example *).
Solutions:
 8

Va l u e F re q u e n c y

0
2. 5 8. 5 14. 5 20. 5 26. 5 32. 5 38. 5 44. 5

Cl a s s Mi d p o i n t s

Ogive (cumulative frequency polygon)

- A graph showing the cumulative frequency (less than or more than type) plotted against upper or
lower class boundaries respectively. That is class boundaries are plotted along the horizontal axis and
the corresponding cumulative frequencies are plotted along the vertical axis. The points are joined by a
free hand curve.
Example: Draw an ogive curve(less than type) for the above data. (Example *)

Q4.Measure of central tendency

 When we want to make comparison between groups of numbers it is good to have a single value
that is considered to be a good representative of each group. This single value is called the average
of the group. Averages are also called measures of central tendency.
 An average which is representative is called typical average and an average which is not
representative and has only a theoretical value is called a descriptive average. A typical average
should posses the following:
 It should be rigidly defined.
 It should be based on all observation under investigation.
 It should be as little as affected by extreme observations.
 It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
 It should be as little as affected by fluctuations of sampling.
 It should be ease to calculate and simple to understand.
Objectives:
 To comprehend the data easily.
 To facilitate comparison.
 To make further statistical analysis.
The Summation Notation:
  Let X1, X2 ,X3 …XN be a number of measurements where N is the total number of observation
and Xi is ith observation.
 Very often in statistics an algebraic expression of the form X 1+X2+X3+...+XN is used in a
formula to compute a statistic. It is tedious to write an expression like this very often, so
mathematicians have developed a shorthand notation to represent a sum of scores, called
the summation notation.
N

X i
 The symbol i 1 is a mathematical shorthand for X1+X2+X3+...+XN

The expression is read, "the sum of X sub i from i equals 1 to N." It means "add up all the
numbers."
Example: Suppose the following were scores made on the first homework assignment for five
students in the class: 5, 7, 7, 6, and 8. In this example set of five numbers, where N=5, the
summation could be written:

The "i=1" in the bottom of the summation notation tells where to begin the sequence of
summation. If the expression were written with "i=3", the summation would start with the third
number in the set. For example:

In the example set of numbers, this would give the following result:

The "N" in the upper part of the summation notation tells where to end the sequence of
summation. If there were only three scores then the summation and example would be:

Sometimes if the summation notation is used in an expression and the expression must be written
a number of times, as in a proof, then a shorthand notation for the shorthand notation is
employed. When the summation sign "" is used without additional notation, then "i=1" and "N"
are assumed.
For example:

PROPERTIES OF SUMMATION
n

 k nk
1. i 1 where k is any constant
 n n

 kX i k  X i
2. i 1 i 1 where k is any constant
n n

 (a  bX i ) na  b  X i
3. i 1 i 1 where a and b are any constant
n n n

 (X i  Yi )  X i   Yi
4. i 1 i 1 i 1

The sum of the product of the two variables could be written:

Example: considering the following data determine

X Y
5 6
7 7
7 8
6 7
8 8
5

X i
a) i 1
5

Y i
b) i 1
5

 10
c) i 1
5

 (X i  Yi )
d) i 1
5

 (X i  Yi )
e) i 1
5

X Y i i
f) i 1
5

X
2
i
g) i 1
5 5
( X i )(  Yi )
h) i 1 i 1
Solutions:
5

X i 5  7  7  6  8 33
a) i 1
5

Y i 6  7  8  7  8 36
b) i 1
5

 10 5 *10 50
c) i 1
5

 (X i  Yi ) (5  6)  (7  7)  (7  8)  (6  7)  (8  8) 69 33  36

d) i 1
5

 (X i  Yi ) (5  6)  (7  7)  (7  8)  (6  7)  (8  8)  3 33  36
e) i 1
5

X Y i i 5 * 6  7 * 7  7 * 8  6 * 7  8 * 8 241
f) i 1
5

X
2
i 5 2  7 2  7 2  6 2  8 2 223
g) i 1
5 5
( X i )(  Yi ) 33 * 36 1188
h) i 1 i 1

Types of measures of central tendency

There are several different measures of central tendency; each has its advantage and
disadvantage.
 The Mean (Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic)
 The Mode
 The Median
 Quantiles (Quartiles, Deciles and Percentiles)
The choice of these averages depends up on which best fit the property under discussion.
The Arithmetic Mean
 Is defined as the sum of the magnitude of the items divided by the number of items.
 The mean of X1, X2 ,X3 …Xn is denoted by A.M ,m or X and is given by:
X 1  X 2  ...  X n
X
n
n

X i
 X  i 1
n
 If X1 occurs f1 times
 If X2occurs f2 times
 .
 .
 If Xn occurs fn times
 k

fX i i
X  i 1k k

 fi f i n
Then the mean will be i 1 , where k is the number of classes and i 1

Example: Obtain the mean of the following number

2, 7, 8, 2, 7, 3, 7
Solution:
X i f i Xifi
2 2 4
3 1 3
7 3 2 1
8 1 8
Total 7 3 6
4

f
i 1
i Xi
36
X  4
 5.15
7
f i 1
i

Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Data

If data are given in the shape of a continuous frequency distribution, then the mean is obtained as
follows:
k

f
i 1
i Xi
X  k
, Where
f i
i 1 Xi =the class mark of the ith class and fi= the frequency of the ith class
Example: calculate the mean for the following age distribution.
C l a s s Frequency
6 - 1 0 3 5
11- 15 2 3
16- 20 1 5
21- 25 1 2
26- 30 9
31- 35 6
Solutions:
 First find the class marks

 .
Find the product of frequency and class marks. Find mean using the formula.
C l a s s f i X i Xifi
6 - 1 0 3 5 8 2 8 0
6
1 1 - 1 5 2 3 1 3 2 9 9
1 6 - 2 0 1 5 1 8 2 7 0
i 1
fi X i
1575
X  6  15.75
2 1 - 2 5 1 2 2 3 2 7 6 100
2 6 - 3 0 9 2 8 2 5 2 i 1
fi
3 1 - 3 5 6 3 3 1 9 8 .
T o t a l 100 1575
Special properties of Arithmetic mean
1. The sum of the deviations of a set of items from their mean is always zero. i.e.
n

 (X
i 1
i  X ) 0.

2. The sum of the squared deviations of a set of items from their mean is the minimum. i.e.
n n

 ( Xi 
i 1
X ) 2   ( X i  A) 2 , A  X
i 1

3. If X 1 is the mean of n1 observations

If X 2 is the mean of n2 observations
.
.
n
If X k is the mean of k observations
Then the mean of all the observation in all groups often called the combined mean is given
by:
k

X 1 n1  X 2 n 2  ....  X k n k X i ni
Xc   i 1k
n1  n2  ...n k
n i 1
i

Example: In a class there are 30 females and 70 males. If females averaged 60 in an

examination and boys averaged 72, find the mean for the entire class.
Solutions:
Females Males
X 1 60 X 2 72
n1 30 n2 70

X 1n1  X 2 n2 X n i i
Xc   i 12
n1  n2
n
i 1
i

30(60)  70(72) 6840

 Xc   68.40
30  70 100
If a wrong figure has been used when calculating the mean the correct mean can be obtained
without repeating the whole process using:
(Correct Value  WrongValue )
CorrectMea n WrongMean 
n
Where n is total number of observations.
Example: An average weight of 10 students was calculated to be 65.Latter it was
discovered that one weight was misread as 40 instead of 80 k.g. Calculate the correct
average weight.
Solutions:
 (CorrectVal ue  WrongValue )
CorrectMea n WrongMean 
n
(80  40)
CorrectMea n 65  65  4 69k .g .
10
4. The effect of transforming original series on the mean.
a) If a constant k is added/ subtracted to/from every observation then the new mean
will be the old mean ± k respectively.
b) If every observations are multiplied by a constant k then the new mean will be k*old
mean
Example:
1. The mean of n Tetracycline Capsules X 1, X2, …,Xn are known to be 12 gm. New set of
capsules of another drug are obtained by the linear transformation Y i = 2Xi – 0.5 ( i =
1, 2, …, n ) then what will be the mean of the new set of capsules
Solutions:
NewMean 2 * OldMean  0.5 2 *12  0.5 23.5
2. The mean of a set of numbers is 500.
a) If 10 is added to each of the numbers in the set, then what will be the mean of the new
set?
b) If each of the numbers in the set are multiplied by -5, then what will be the mean of
the new set?
Solutions:
a ). NewMean OldMean  10 500  10 510
b). NewMean  5 * OldMean  5 * 500  2500
Weighted Mean
 When a proper importance is desired to be given to different data a weighted mean is
appropriate.
 Weights are assigned to each item in proportion to its relative importance.
 Let X1, X2, …Xn be the value of items of a series and W 1, W2, …Wn their corresponding
weights , then the weighted mean denoted X w is defined as:
n

XW
i 1
i i
Xw  n

W i 1
i

Example: A student obtained the following percentage in an examination:

English 60, Biology 75, Mathematics 63, Physics 59, and chemistry 55.Find the students
weighted arithmetic mean if weights 1, 2, 1, 3, 3 respectively are allotted to the subjects.
Solutions:
5

XW
i 1
i i
60 * 1  75 * 2  63 * 1  59 * 3  55 * 3 615
Xw  5
  61.5
1  2 1  3  3 10
W i 1
i

Merits and Demerits of Arithmetic Mean

Merits:
  It is rigidly defined.
 It is based on all observation.
 It is suitable for further mathematical treatment.
 It is stable average, i.e. it is not affected by fluctuations of sampling to some extent.
 It is easy to calculate and simple to understand.
Demerits:
 It is affected by extreme observations.
 It cannot be used in the case of open end classes.
 It cannot be determined by the method of inspection.
 It cannot be used when dealing with qualitative characteristics, such as intelligence, honesty,
beauty.
 It can be a number which does not exist in a serious.
 Sometimes it leads to wrong conclusion if the details of the data from which it is obtained are
not available.
 It gives high weight to high extreme values and less weight to low extreme values.
The Geometric Mean
 The geometric mean of a set of n observation is the nth root of their product.
 The geometric mean of X1, X2 ,X3 …Xn is denoted by G.M and given by:
G.M  n X 1 * X 2 * ... * X n
 Taking the logarithms of both sides
1

log(G.M ) log( n X 1 * X 2 * ... * X n ) log( X 1 * X 2 * ... * X n ) n

1 1
 log(G.M )  log( X 1 * X 2 * .... * X n )  (log X 1  log X 2  ...  log X n )
n n
n
1
 log(G.M )   log X i
n i 1
 The logarithm of the G.M of a set of observation is the arithmetic mean of their
logarithm.
n
1
 G.M  Anti log(
n
 log X
i 1
i )

Example: Find the G.M of the numbers 2, 4, 8.

Solutions:
G.M n X 1 * X 2 * ... * X n 3 2 * 4 * 8 3 64 4
Remark: The Geometric Mean is useful and appropriate for finding averages of ratios.
The Harmonic Mean
The harmonic mean of X1, X2 , X3 …Xn is denoted by H.M and given by:
n
H .M  n
1
X
i 1 , This is called simple harmonic mean.
i

In a case of frequency distribution:

n
H .M  k
fi n  f i
k

 Xi
i 1 , i 1
 If observations X1, X2, …Xn have weights W1, W2, …Wn respectively, then their harmonic mean
is given by
n

Wi 1
i
H .M  n

W i Xi
i 1 , This is called Weighted Harmonic Mean.
Remark: The Harmonic Mean is useful and appropriate in finding average speeds and average
rates.

Example: A cyclist pedals from his house to his college at speed of 10 km/hr and back from the college to
his house at 15 km/hr. Find the average speed.
Solution: Here the distance is constant
The simple H.M is appropriate for this problem.
X1= 10km/hr X2=15km/hr
2
H .M  12km / hr
1 1

10 15
The Mode
- Mode is a value which occurs most frequently in a set of values
- The mode may not exist and even if it does exist, it may not be unique.
- In case of discrete distribution the value having the maximum frequency is the model value.
Examples:
1. Find the mode of 5, 3, 5, 8, 9
Mode =5
2. Find the mode of 8, 9, 9, 7, 8, 2, and 5.
It is a bimodal Data: 8 and 9
3. Find the mode of 4, 12, 3, 6, and 7.
No mode for this data.
- The mode of a set of numbers X1, X2, …Xn is usually denoted by X̂ .
Mode for Grouped data
If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the mode is defined as:
 1 
Xˆ  Lmo  w 
 1   2 
Where:
 Xˆ the mod e of the distributi on
w the size of the mod al class
 1  f mo  f 1
 2  f mo  f 2
f mo  frequency of the mod al class
f 1  frequency of the class preceeding the mod al class
f 2  frequency of the class following the mod al class
Note: The modal class is a class with the highest frequency.
Example: Following is the distribution of the size of certain farms selected at random from a
district. Calculate the mode of the distribution.
Size of farms No. of farms
5 - 1 5 8
1 5 - 2 5 1 2
2 5 - 3 5 1 7
3 5 - 4 5 2 9
4 5 - 5 5 3 1
5 5 - 6 5 5
6 5 - 7 5 3
Solutions:
45  55 is the mod al class , sin ce it is a class with the highest frequency .
Lmo 45
w 10
1  f mo  f1 2
 2  f mo  f 2 26
f mo 31
f1 29
f 2 5
 2 
 Xˆ  45  10 
 2  26 
45.71
Merits and Demerits of Mode
Merits:
 It is not affected by extreme observations.
 Easy to calculate and simple to understand.
 It can be calculated for distribution with open end class
Demerits:
 It is not rigidly defined.
 It is not based on all observations
 It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment.
 It is not stable average, i.e. it is affected by fluctuations of sampling to some
extent.
 Often its value is not unique.
 Note: being the point of maximum density, mode is especially useful in finding the most popular
size in studies relating to marketing, trade, business, and industry. It is the appropriate average to
be used to find the ideal size.
The Median
- In a distribution, median is the value of the variable which divides it in to two equal halves.
- In an ordered series of data median is an observation lying exactly in the middle of the series. It is the
middle most value in the sense that the number of values less than the median is equal to the number
of values greater than it.
-If X1, X2, …Xn be the observations, then the numbers arranged in ascending order will be X [1], X[2],
…X[n], where X[i] is ith smallest value.
 X[1]< X[2]< …<X[n]
-Median is denoted by X̂ .
Median for ungrouped data

 X , If n is odd .
~  ( n 1) 2 
X  1
(X  X ), If n is even
 2 n 2  ( n 2)  1


Example: Find the median of the following numbers.

a) 6, 5, 2, 8, 9, 4.
b) 2, 1, 8, 3, 5, 8.
Solutions:
a) First order the data: 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9
Here n=6
~ 1
X  (X n  X n )
2 [2] [ 1]
2

1
 ( X [ 3]  X [ 4 ] )
2
1
 (5  6) 5.5
2
b) Order the data :1, 2, 3, 5, 8
Here n=5
~
X X n 1
[ ]
2

 X [ 3]
3
Median for grouped data

If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the median is defined as:
 ~ w n
X  Lmed  (  c)
f med 2
Where :
Lmed lower class boundary of the median class .
w the size of the median class
n  total number of observatio ns.
c  the cumulative frequency (less than type ) preceeding the median class .
f med thefrequen cy of the median class .

Remark:
The median class is the class with the smallest cumulative frequency (less than type) greater than or
n
equal to 2 .
Example: Find the median of the following distribution.
C l a s s Frequency
40-44 7
45-49 1 0
50-54 2 2
55-59 1 5
60-64 1 2
65-69 6
70-74 3
Solutions:
 First find the less than cumulative frequency.
 Identify the median class.
 Find median using formula.
Clas Frequenc Cumu.Freq(less than type)
s y
40-44 7 7
45-49 1 0 1 7
50-54 2 2 3 9
55-59 1 5 5 4
60-64 1 2 6 6
65-69 6 7 2
70-74 3 7 5
 n 75
 37.5
2 2
39 is the first cumulative frequency to be greater than or equal to 37.5
 50  54 is the median class .

L 49.5, w 5
med
n  75, c 17, f 22
med
~
 X L  w ( n  c)
med f 2
med
49.5  5 (37.5  17)
22
54.16

Merits and Demerits of Median

Merits:
 Median is a positional average and hence not influenced by extreme observations.
 Can be calculated in the case of open end intervals.
 Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.
Demerits:
 It is not a good representative of data if the number of items is small.
 It is not amenable to further algebraic treatment.
 It is susceptible to sampling fluctuations.

Q5.Measure of variation
Measures of Dispersion (Variation)

Introduction and objectives of measuring Variation

-The scatter or spread of items of a distribution is known as dispersion or variation. In other
words the degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average value is called
dispersion or variation of the data.
-Measures of dispersions are statistical measures which provide ways of measuring the extent in
which data are dispersed or spread out.
Objectives of measuring Variation:
 To judge the reliability of measures of central tendency
 To control variability itself.
 To compare two or more groups of numbers in terms of their variability.
 To make further statistical analysis.
Absolute and Relative Measures of Dispersion
 The measures of dispersion which are expressed in terms of the original unit of a series are
termed as absolute measures. Such measures are not suitable for comparing the variability of two
distributions which are expressed in different units of measurement and different average size.
Relative measures of dispersions are a ratio or percentage of a measure of absolute dispersion to
an appropriate measure of central tendency and are thus pure numbers independent of the units
of measurement. For comparing the variability of two distributions (even if they are measured in
the same unit), we compute the relative measure of dispersion instead of absolute measures of
dispersion.

Types of Measures of Dispersion

Various measures of dispersions are in use. The most commonly used measures of dispersions
are:
1) Range and relative range
2) Quartile deviation and coefficient of Quartile deviation
3) Mean deviation and coefficient of Mean deviation
4) Standard deviation and coefficient of variation.
The Range (R)
The range is the largest score minus the smallest score. It is a quick and dirty measure of
variability, although when a test is given back to students they very often wish to know the range
of scores. Because the range is greatly affected by extreme scores, it may give a distorted picture
of the scores. The following two distributions have the same range, 13, yet appear to differ
greatly in the amount of variability.
Distribution 1: 3 2 3 5 3 6 3 6 3 7 3 8 4 0 4 2 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 5
Distribution 2: 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 5 4 5

For this reason, among others, the range is not the most important measure of variability.

R L  S , L  l arg est observatio n

S  smallest observatio n

Range for grouped data:

If data are given in the shape of continuous frequency distribution, the range is computed as:
R UCLk  LCL1 , UCLk is upperclass lim it of the last class .
UCL1 is lower class lim it of the first class .
This is some times expressed as:
R X k  X1 , X k is class mark of the last class .
X1 is classmark of the first class .
Merits and Demerits of range
Merits:
 It is rigidly defined.
 It is easy to calculate and simple to understand.
 Demerits:
 It is not based on all observation.
 It is highly affected by extreme observations.
 It is affected by fluctuation in sampling.
 It is not liable to further algebraic treatment.
 It cannot be computed in the case of open end distribution.
 It is very sensitive to the size of the sample.
Relative Range (RR)
-it is also some times called coefficient of range and given by:
L S R
RR  
LS LS
Example:
1. Find the relative range of the above two distribution. (exercise!)
2. If the range and relative range of a series are 4 and 0.25 respectively. Then what is the value of:
a) Smallest observation
b) Largest observation

Solutions :( 2)
R 4  L  S 4 _________________(1)
RR 0.25  L  S 16 _____________( 2)
Solving (1) and ( 2) at the same time , one can obtain the following value
L 10 and S 6

The Variance
Population Variance
If we divide the variation by the number of values in the population, we get something called the
population variance. This variance is the "average squared deviation from the mean".
1
Population Varince  2   ( X i   ) 2 , i 1,2,.....N
N
For the case of frequency distribution it is expressed as:
1
Population Varince  2   f i ( X i   ) 2 , i 1,2,.....k
N
Sample Variance
One would expect the sample variance to simply be the population variance with the population
mean replaced by the sample mean. However, one of the major uses of statistics is to estimate
the corresponding parameter. This formula has the problem that the estimated value isn't the
same as the parameter. To counteract this, the sum of the squares of the deviations is divided by
one less than the sample size.
1
Sample Varince S 2 
n 1
 ( X i  X ) 2 , i 1,2,....., n
For the case of frequency distribution it is expressed as:
1
Sample Varince S 2 
n 1
 f i ( X i  X ) 2 , i 1,2,.....k
 We usually use the following short cut formula.
n

2
X i
2
 nX 2
S  i 1
, for raw data.
n 1
k

f i
2
X i  nX 2
S 2  i 1 , for frequency distributi on.
n 1
Standard Deviation

Population s tan dard deviation    2

Sample s tan dard deviation s  S 2 There is a problem with variances. Recall
that the deviations were squared. That means that the units were also squared. To get the units
back the same as the original data values, the square root must be taken.
The following steps are used to calculate the sample variance:
1. Find the arithmetic mean.
2. Find the difference between each observation and the mean.
3. Square these differences.
4. Sum the squared differences.
5. Since the data is a sample, divide the number (from step 4 above) by the number of
observations minus one, i.e., n-1 (where n is equal to the number of observations in the data set).
Examples: Find the variance and standard deviation of the following sample data
1. 5, 17, 12, 10.
2. The data is given in the form of frequency distribution.
C l a s s Frequency
40-44 7
45-49 1 0
50-54 2 2
55-59 1 5
60-64 1 2
65-69 6
70-74 3

Solutions:
1. X 11
X i 5 1 0 1 2 1 7 Total
3 6 1 1 3 6 7 4
(Xi- X ) 2
n

 (X i  X )2
74
 S2  i 1
 24.67.
n 1 3
 S  S2  24.67 4.97.

2. X 55
 X ( C . M )
i 42 4 7 5 2 5 7 6 2 6 7 7 2 Total
118 6 4 0 1 98 6 0 5 88 86 86 4 4 0 0
f (X - X ) 2
i i
3 4 7
n

2

i 1
fi ( X i  X )2
4400
 S   59.46.
n 1 74
 S  S2  59.46 7.71.

Special properties of Standard deviations

 (X i  X )2

 (X i  A) 2
, A X
1. n 1 n 1
2. For normal (symmetric distribution the following holds.
 Approximately 68.27% of the data values fall within one standard deviation of the mean. i.e.
with in ( X  S , X  S )
 Approximately 95.45% of the data values fall within two standard deviations of the mean. i.e.
with in ( X  2 S , X  2 S )
 Approximately 99.73% of the data values fall within three standard deviations of the mean.
i.e. with in ( X  3S , X  3S )

Chebyshev's Theorem
For any data set ,no matter what the pattern of variation, the proportion of the values that fall
1
1
within k standard deviations of the mean or ( X  kS , X  kS )
will be at least k 2 , where k is
an number greater than 1. i.e. the proportion of items falling beyond k standard deviations of
1
the mean is at most k2
Example: Suppose a distribution has mean 50 and standard deviation 6.What percent of the
numbers are:
a) Between 38 and 62
b) Between 32 and 68
c) Less than 38 or more than 62.
d) Less than 32 or more than 68.
Solutions:
a) 38 and 62 are at equal distance from the mean,50 and this distance is 12
  ks 12
12 12
 k   2
S 6

1
(1  ) * 100% 75%
Applying the above theorem at least k2 of the numbers lie between 38 and 62.
b) Similarly done.
1
2
*100% 25%
c) It is just the complement of a) i.e. at most k of the numbers lie less than 32
or more than 62.
d) Similarly done.
Example 2: The average score of a special test of knowledge of wood refinishing has a mean of
53 and standard deviation of 6. Find the range of values in which at least 75% the scores will lie.
(Exercise)
3. If the standard deviation of X 1 , X 2 , ..... X n is S , then the standard deviation of
a) X 1  k , X 2  k , ..... X n  k will also be S
b) kX , kX , .....kX would be k S
1 2 n

a  kX 1 , a  kX 2 , .....a  kX n would be k S
c)
Examples:
1. The mean and standard deviation of n Tetracycline Capsules X 1 , X 2 , ..... X n are known to be
12 gm and 3 gm respectively. New set of capsules of another drug are obtained by the linear
transformation Yi = 2Xi – 0.5 ( i = 1, 2, …, n ) then what will be the standard deviation of the
new set of capsules
2. The mean and the standard deviation of a set of numbers are respectively 500 and 10.
a. If 10 is added to each of the numbers in the set, then what will be the variance
and standard deviation of the new set?
b. If each of the numbers in the set are multiplied by -5, then what will be the
variance and standard deviation of the new set?

Solutions:
2 * 3 6
1. Using c) above the new standard deviation = k S
2. a. They will remain the same.
b. New standard deviation=  k S 5 * 10 50

Coefficient of Variation (C.V)

 Is defined as the ratio of standard deviation to the mean usually expressed as percents.
S
C.V  * 100
X
 The distribution having less C.V is said to be less variable or more consistent.
Examples:
1. An analysis of the monthly wages paid (in Birr) to workers in two firms A and B belonging to the
same industry gives the following results
 Value F i r m A F i r m B
Mean wage 5 2 . 5 4 7 . 5
Median wage 5 0 . 5 4 5 . 5
V a r i a n c e 1 0 0 1 2 1
In which firm A or B is there greater variability in individual wages?
Solutions:
Calculate coefficient of variation for both firms.
SA 10
C.V A  * 100  * 100 19.05%
XA 52.5
SB 11
C.VB  *100  *100 23.16%
XB 47.5
Since C.VA< C.VB, in firm B there is greater variability in individual wages.
2. A meteorologist interested in the consistency of temperatures in three cities during a given week
collected the following data. The temperatures for the five days of the week in the three cities were
City 1 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 6 1 7
City2 2 2 2 1 2 4 2 2 2 0
City3 3 2 2 7 3 5 2 4 2 8
Which city have the most consistent temperature, based on these data? (Exercise)
Standard Scores (Z-scores)
 If X is a measurement from a distribution with mean X and standard deviation S,
then its value in standard units is
X  
Z  , for population .

X  X
Z  , for sample
S
 Z gives the deviations from the mean in units of standard deviation
 Z gives the number of standard deviation a particular observation lie above or below
the mean.
 It is used to compare two observations coming from different groups.

Examples:
1. Two sections were given introduction to statistics examinations. The following information
was given.
V a l u e Section 1 Section 2
M e a n 7 8 9 0
Stan.deviation 6 5
Student A from section 1 scored 90 and student B from section 2 scored 95.Relatively speaking
who performed better?
Solutions: Calculate the standard score of both students.
X A  X1 90  78
ZA   2
S1 6
XB  X2 95  90
ZB   1
S2 5
 Student A performed better relative to his section because the score of student A is two
standard deviation above the mean score of his section while, the score of student B is only one
standard deviation above the mean score of his section.
2. Two groups of people were trained to perform a certain task and tested to find out which
group is faster to learn the task. For the two groups the following information was given:
V a l u e Group one Group two
M e a n 10.4 min 11.9 min
Stan.dev. 1 . 2 m i n 1 . 3 m i n
Relatively speaking:
a) Which group is more consistent in its performance
b) Suppose a person A from group one take 9.2 minutes while person B
from Group two take 9.3 minutes, who was faster in performing the
task? Why?
Solutions:
a) Use coefficient of variation.
S1 1 .2
C.V1  * 100  * 100 11.54%
X1 10.4
S2 1.3
C.V2  *100  *100 10.92%
X2 11.9
Since C.V2< C.V1, group 2 is more consistent.
b) Calculate the standard score of A and B
X A  X1 9.2  10.4
ZA    1
S1 1 .2
XB  X2 9.3  11.9
ZB    2
S2 1.3
Child B is faster because the time taken by child B is two standard deviation shorter than the
average time taken by group 2 while, the time taken by child A is only one standard deviation
shorter than the average time taken by group 1.

Assignment two
• Write the formula with its description for the variance of
discrete and continuous random variable.
• Give one example for each of them
Write the formula with its description for the variance of discrete and continuous random
variable. Give one example for each of them.
• For a discrete random variable X, the variance of X is obtained as
follows: var(X)=∑(x−μ)2pX(x), where the sum is taken over all values of x for which
pX(x)>0. So the variance of X is the weighted average of the squared deviations from the
 mean μ, where the weights are given by the probability function pX(x) of X. Discrete
and Continuous Random Variables:

A variable is a quantity whose value changes.

A discrete variable is a variable whose value is obtained by counting.

Examples: number of students present

number of red marbles in a jar
number of heads when flipping three coins
students’ grade level

A continuous variable is a variable whose value is obtained by measuring.

Examples: height of students in class

weight of students in class
time it takes to get to school
distance traveled between classes

A random variable is a variable whose value is a numerical outcome of a random phenomenon.

▪ A random variable is denoted with a capital letter

▪ The probability distribution of a random variable X tells what the possible values
of X are and how probabilities are assigned to those values
▪ A random variable can be discrete or continuous
A discrete random variable X has a countable number of possible values.

Example: Let X represent the sum of two dice.

Then the probability distribution of X is as follows:

X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

P(X)

To graph the probability distribution of a discrete random variable, construct a probability

histogram.
A continuous random variable X takes all values in a given interval of numbers.

▪ The probability distribution of a continuous random variable is shown by a density

curve.
▪ The probability that X is between an interval of numbers is the area under the density
curve between the interval endpoints
▪ The probability that a continuous random variable X is exactly equal to a number is
zero

Means and Variances of Random Variables:

The mean of a discrete random variable, X, is its weighted average. Each value of X is weighted
by its probability.

To find the mean of X, multiply each value of X by its probability, then add all the products.

The mean of a random variable X is called the expected value of X.

Law of Large Numbers:

As the number of observations increases, the mean of the observed values, , approaches

the mean of the population, .

The more variation in the outcomes, the more trials are needed to ensure that is close

to .
Rules for Means:

If X is a random variable and a and b are fixed numbers, then

If X and Y are random variables, then

Example:
Suppose the equation Y = 20 + 100X converts a PSAT math score, X, into an SAT math score,
Y. Suppose the average PSAT math score is 48. What is the average SAT math score?

Example:
Let represent the average SAT math score.

Let represent the average SAT verbal score.

represents the average combined SAT score.

Then is the average combined

total SAT score.
The Variance of a Discrete Random Variable:

If X is a discrete random variable with mean , then the variance of X is

The standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

Rules for Variances:

If X is a random variable and a and b are fixed numbers, then

If X and Y are independent random variables, then

 Example:
Suppose the equation Y = 20 + 100X converts a PSAT math score, X, into an SAT math score,
Y. Suppose the standard deviation for the PSAT math score is 1.5 points. What is the standard
deviation for the SAT math score?

The mathematical formula for the variance of a continuous random variable?The formula is the
same whether it is a discrete random variable or a continuous random variable.

Explanation:

irrespective of the type of random variable, the formula for variance is σ2 = E(X2) - [E(X)]2.
However, if the random variable is discrete, we use the process of summation.
In the case of a continuous random variable, we use the integral.
E(X2) = ∫∞−∞x2f(x)dx.
E(X) = ∫∞−∞xf(x)dx.
From this, we get σ2 by substitution.
For a discrete random variable X, ΩX⊆{0,1,2,…}ΩX⊆{0,1,2,…}, we can write

E[X]=∑x=0∞(1−F(x))E[X]=∑x=0∞(1−F(x))

where F(x)F(x) is the cumulative distribution function of XX.

This formula is proving convenient to me on the current problem I'm working on where the
cumulative probability of being in a "sink" state naturally comes out of formulating the problem
in terms of a transition matrix.

However, I was wondering whether there is an analogous formula for variance in terms of the
CDF, or whether if I want the variance I'm going to have to change tack?

I'm thinking there isn't such a formula, because variance is defined as E[(X−μ)2]E[(X−μ)2] and
although (X−μ)2(X−μ)2 is positive, it isn't an integer and so a similar approach won't work.
 There is such a thing as Var(X)=E[X2]−(E[X])2Var⁡(X)=E[X2]−(E[X])2, and I suspect you can
reuse your trick to find E[X2]E[X2].

Specifically: if we let GG be the cdf for X2X2,

then G(1)=G(2)=G(3)=F(1)G(1)=G(2)=G(3)=F(1), G(4)=G(5)=G(6)=G(7)=G(8)=F(2)G(4)=G(5)
=G(6)=G(7)=G(8)=F(2), etc. (This is the "add 2x+12x+1 to get from x2x2 to (x+1)2(x+1)2"
recurrence.) That means that
E[X2]=∑x=0∞(2x+1)(1−F(x)).E[X2]=∑x=0∞(2x+1)(1−F(x)).

 thanks, going via E(X2)E(X2) and the recurrence is very nice.

Suppose the standard deviation for the SAT math score is 150 points, and the standard deviation
for the SAT verbal score is 165 points. What is the standard deviation for the combined SAT
score?
Because the SAT math score and SAT verbal score are not independent, the rule for adding
variances does not apply!

Continuous Random Variable

Continuous random variable is a random variable that can take on a continuum of values. In
other words, a random variable is said to be continuous if it assumes a value that falls between a
particular interval.

Continuous random variables are used to denote measurements such as height, weight, time, etc.
The area under a density curve is used to represent a continuous random variable. In this article,
we will learn about the definition of a continuous random variable, its mean, variance, types, and
associated examples.

What is a Continuous Random Variable?

A continuous random variable and a discrete random variable are the two types of random
variables. A random variable is a variable whose value depends on all the possible outcomes of
an experiment. A continuous random variable is defined over a range of values while a discrete
random variable is defined at an exact value.

Continuous Random Variable Definition

A continuous random variable can be defined as a random variable that can take on an infinite
number of possible values. Due to this, the probability that a continuous random variable will
take on an exact value is 0. The cumulative distribution function and the probability density
function are used to describe the characteristics of a continuous random variable.
Continuous Random Variable Example

where x ∈ [0, 1]. The probability that X takes on a value between 1/2 and 1 needs to be
Suppose the probability density function of a continuous random variable, X, is given by 4x 3,

determined. This can be done by integrating 4x 3 between 1/2 and 1. Thus, the required
probability is 15/16.

Variance of Continuous Random Variable

The variance of a continuous random variable can be defined as the expectation of the squared
differences from the mean. It helps to determine the dispersion in the distribution of the
continuous random variable with respect to the mean. The formula is given as follows:

Var(X) = σ2=∫∞−∞(x−μ)2f(x)dxσ2=∫−∞∞(x−μ)2f(x)dx

Continuous Random Variable Types

A continuous random variable is usually used to model situations that involve measurements. For
example, the possible values of the temperature on any given day. As the temperature could be
any real number in a given interval thus, a continuous random variable is required to describe it.
Some important continuous random variables associated with certain probability distributions are
given below.

Continuous Random Variable vs Discrete Random Variable. Both discrete and continuous
random variables are used to model a random phenomenon. The differences between a
continuous random variable and discrete random variable are given in the table below:

Continuous Random Variable Discrete Random Variable

The value of a continuous random variable falls between a The value of a discrete random
range of values. variable is an exact value.

The probability mass function is used

The probability density function is associated with a
to describe a discrete random
continuous random variable.
variable

A continuous random variable can take on an infinite number Such a variable can take on a finite
 Continuous Random Variable Discrete Random Variable

of values. number of distinct values.

The mean of a discrete random

Mean of a continuous random variable is E[X] variable is E[X] = ∑ x P(X = x),
= ∫∞−∞xf(x)dx∫−∞∞xf(x)dx where P(X = x) is the probability
mass function.

The variance of a discrete random

The variance of a continuous random variable is Var(X)
variable is Var[X] = ∑(x − μ)2 P(X =
= ∫∞−∞(x−μ)2f(x)dx∫−∞∞(x−μ)2f(x)dx
x)

The examples of a discrete random

The examples of a continuous random variable are uniform variable are binomial random
random variable, exponential random variable, normal random variable, geometric random variable,
variable, and standard normal random variable. Bernoulli random variable, and
Poisson random variable.

Important Notes on Continuous Random Variable

 A continuous random variable is a variable that is used to model continuous data and its
value falls between an interval of values.
 The probability density function of a continuous random variable is given as f(x)
= dF(x)dxdF(x)dx = F'(x).
 The cumulative distribution function is given by P(a < X ≤ b) = F(b) - F(a)
= ∫baf(x)dx∫abf(x)dx.
 The mean of a continuous random variable is E[X] = μ=∫∞−∞xf(x)dxμ=∫−∞∞xf(x)dx and
variance is Var(X) = σ2=∫∞−∞(x−μ)2f(x)dxσ2=∫−∞∞(x−μ)2f(x)dx.
 Uniform random variable, exponential random variable, normal random variable, and
standard normal random variable are examples of continuous random variables.

Examples on Continuous Random Variable

 Example 1: The pdf of a continuous random variable, X, is given as follows:

f(x)=⎧⎪⎨⎪⎩x0≤x≤1x+31<x≤20otherwisef(x)={x0≤x≤1x+31<x≤20otherwise
Find P(0 ≤ X ≤ 0.5).
Solution: Using the formula P(a < X ≤ b) = ∫baf(x)dx∫abf(x)dx
 P(0 ≤ X ≤ 0.5) = ∫0.50xdx∫00.5xdx. This is because f(x) = x when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
P(0 ≤ X ≤ 0.5) = [x22]0.50[x22]00.5
= 0.125
Answer: The probability that the value of the continuous random variable will lie between 0
and 0.5 is 0.125
 Example 2: If a continuous random variable follows a normal distribution with the pdf f(x)
= 1√8Πe−(x−1)2818Πe−(x−1)28, then what is the mean?
Solution: The general formula for the pdf followed by a normal continuous random variable
isf(x)= 1σ√2Πe−12(x−μσ)21σ2Πe−12(x−μσ)2.
Thus,f(x)= 12√2Πe−12(x−12)2122Πe−12(x−12)2
Bycomparing weget the mean as 1.
Answer: Mean = 1
 Example 3: Find the expected value of a continuous random variable that follows a pdf
givenby
f(x)= 3x0≤x≤1x+11<x≤20otherwise{3x0≤x≤1x+11<x≤20otherwise
Solution: The formula for the expectation of continuous random variable is E[X]
= μ=∫∞−∞xf(x)dxμ=∫−∞∞xf(x)dx
Using the pdf given, the expression for expectation is written as
E[X]= ∫10x.3xdx+∫21x(x+1)dx∫01x.3xdx+∫12x(x+1)dx
= ∫103x2dx+∫21(x2+x)dx∫013x2dx+∫12(x2+x)dx
= 3[x33]10+[x33+x22]213[x33]01+[x33+x22]12
=1+(23/6)=29/6=4.833
Answer: E[X] = 4.833