DATA COMMUNICATION

Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as co-axial cable.

Characteristics of data communication:

1. Delivery :
The data should be delivered to the correct destination. It should reach only to the
intended user.
2. Accuracy:
There is a possibility of data alteration when it is travelling over a communication
medium. This usually affects the accuracy of the received data. Hence data
communication system should be such that it should deliver data accurately without
any error.
3. Timeliness:
For the audio &video data, the system should deliver the data in a timely manner i.e
data should be delivered without any time delay such a data delivery is called as real
time transmission of data.

Components of data communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:
1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one
person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.

2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile,
telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.

3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone

mobile, workstation, etc.

4. Transmission Medium/Communication Channels: Communication channels are

the medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected
by either wired media or wireless media.

5. Set of rules (Protocol): It is defined as the set of rules which governs data
communication. Actual communication takes place with the help of protocol.
When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be understandable to the
receiver also otherwise it is meaningless.
 SIMPLIFIED DATA COMMUNICATION MODEL

SOURCE TRANSMITTER TRANSMISSION RECEIVER DESTINATION

SYSTEM

GOALS AND APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

The computer networks are playing an important role in providing services to large
organizations as well as to individual common man. The computer networks are useful to
the organizations in the following ways.

1. Resource sharing: It allows all programs, equipments & data available to anyone on
the network irrespective of the physical location of the resource and the user.

2. High reliability due to the alternative sources of data: All files can be replicated
on more than one machine so if one of them is unavailable due to hardware failure
or any other reason, then other copies can be used.

3. Money saving: organizations can use separate PC for one user instead of using
mainframe computer which are expensive.
The organizations can use the workgroup model (peer to peer) in which all PCs are
networked together and each one can have access to the other communicating or
sharing purpose.

INTRODUCTION TO OSI MODEL

The users of computer network are located over a wide physical range i.e. all over
the world. Therefore, to ensure that nationwide& worldwide data communication
systems can be developed and are compatible to each other, an international group
of standards has been developed. These standards will fit into a framework which
has been developed by ISO.

A more detailed OSI model is shown in fig. The below model is based on a proposal
developed by ISO-OSI model (open system Interconnection reference model)
Functions of the layers of ISO-OSI model.

1. Physical Layer

 It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

 It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data
over network.
 Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical
layer.
 It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
 Data encoding is also done in this layer.

2. Data Link Layer

 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from
one node to another, over the physical layer.
 Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer
  Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over
the physical layer.

3. The network Layer

 Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one node to
other.
 It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
 It decides by which route data should take.
 It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming
packets into messages for higher levels.

4. Transport Layer
 Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or
single path.
 Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done
by this layer
 It receives messages from the Session layer above it, converts the message
into smaller units and passes it on to the Network layer.
 Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network
requirements.

5. The Session Layer

 Session Layer manages and synchronizes the conversation between two

different applications.
 Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are
marked and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are
not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

6. The presentation Layer

 Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the
receiver will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the
data.
 While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready
for the application layer.
 It performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

7. Application Layer

 Application Layer is the topmost layer.

 Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this
layer. Mail services, directory services, network resource etc are services
provided by application layer.
 This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to
be sent data.
INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
We live in a world of communication and wireless communication, In particular is a key
part of our lives. Some of the commonly used wireless communication systems in our day
to day life are: mobile phones, GPS receivers, remote controls, Bluetooth audio and Wi-Fi
etc.

Wireless communication does not require any physical medium but propagates the
signal through space. Since space only allows for signal transmission without any guidance,
hence the medium used in wireless communication is called the unguided medium.

ADVANTAGES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

1. COST: In wireless comm., cost of installing wires and cables &other infrastructure is
reduced /eliminated.
2. MOBILITY: It is the main advantage of wireless communication; it offers the
freedom to move around while still connected to network.
3. EASE OF INSTALLATION: The setup and installation of wireless network’s
equipment & infrastructure is very easy less time consuming than cabled network.
4. RELIABILITY: There is no chance of communication failure due to the damage of
cables which may be caused by environmental conditions and natural diminution of
conductors.
5. DISASTER RECOVERY: In case of accidents due to fire, floods or other disasters, the
loss of communication infrastructure is minimal.

DISADVANTAGES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

1. INTERFERENCE: Since in wireless communication open space is used as the medium

for transmitting signals hence there is a huge chance that radio signals from one
wireless system or network might interfere with other signals.
For ex. Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, both of these technologies use the 2.4 GHz frequency
for communication, when both the devices are active at the same time, there is a
chance of interference.
2. SECURITY: One of the main concerns of wireless communication is the security of
data. Since the signals are transmitted in the open space, hence it is possible that an
intruder can intercept the signals and copy sensitive information.
3. HEALTH CONCERNS: Continuous exposure to any type of radiation can be
hazardous. Although the levels of RF energy that can cause the damage is not
accurately established but still it is advised to avoid RF radiation to the maximum.

Evolution of Mobile Radio Communication Fundamentals

1. Radio and Television Communication: Basically the word ‘radio’ came from the
term “radiated energy”. Further Marconi in the year 1935, carried out some distance
based search experiments which eventually led to the invention of Radar.
 By the year 1970, television had become the primary information and
entertainment medium in the world.
2. Radio Communication: The first practical radar system was produced in 1935 by
British physicist Robert Watson-watt. By 1939, England has established a chain of
radar stations along its southern and eastern coasts to detect aggressors in the air of
on the sea.
Radar is an active remote- sensing system that operates on the principle of echoes.
3. Satellite communication: It may be defined as an object that revolves around any
other object. For ex. the moon is a satellite of the earth as it revolves around earth
and the earth is the satellite of sun.
Also manmade satellites provides the communication capabilities around the world
and thus transmitting TV signals, telephone calls faxes, computer communication
and weather information.
4. Wireless and mobile communication: Wireless communication is the fastest –
growing part of the dynamic field of electronic communication. Wireless
communication began only a little later than the wired variety.
The first cellular system used an analog FM transmission but the digital modulation
schemes, which provide greater privacy & can use bandwidth more efficiently.
Current cellular systems are optimized for voice but can also transmit data. In the
near future, high speed transmission using Pc’s is expected to become a reality.

GPRS (General packet radio services)

It contains mobile access with Internet protocol (IP) based services using
packet data transmission that makes highly efficient use of radio spectrum
and enables high data speeds. It gives increased bandwidth to users making it
possible & cost effective to remain connected constantly.
Services Offered:
1. SMS messaging and broadcasting
2. Push-to-talk over cellular
3. Instant messaging
4. Multimedia messaging service
5. Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint services

Protocols supported:
1. Internet Protocol (IP)
2. Point-To-Point Protocol (PPP)

GSM (Global system for mobile communication)

GSM is an open and digital cellular technology used for mobile communication. It
uses 4 different frequency bands of 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz.
It uses the combination of FDMA and TDMA.

GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used:

 1. Macro: In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.
2. Micro: In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
3. Pico: Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
4. Umbrella: It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.

Features of GSM are:

1. Supports international roaming
2. Clear voice clarity
3. Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
4. Spectral/frequency efficiency
5. Low powered handheld devices.
6. International ISDN compatibility.

GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems.
1. BSS: BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling between
a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two
components BTS and BSC.

2. NSS: NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is to core network of
GSM. That carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone
present in network. NSS have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.

3. OSS: OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the
network operator monitors and controls the system. OMC is the part of OSS.

1. MS: MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software
needed for communication with a mobile network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile
Equipment (ME) + Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations
are connected to tower and that tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a
transceiver which comprises transmitter and receiver.
2. BTS: BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless
communication between user equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.
3. BSC: BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can
consider the BSC as a local exchange of your area which has multiple towers and
multiple towers have BTS.
 4. MSC: MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with
communication switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call
tracing, call forwarding all functions are performed at the MSC level.
MSC is having further components like VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR and PSTN.

 VLR: VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains the
exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of MSC. If
you are going from one state to another state then your entry is marked into the
database of VLR.
 HLR: HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing pertinent
data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network.. If you purchase SIM
card from in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like your ID proof.
etc.
 OMC: OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain the
performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.
 AUC: AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile subscriber
that wants to connect in the network.
 EIR: EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the
record of all allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the network them
you can’t enter the network, and you can’t make the calls.
 PSTN: PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with MSC.
PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems. The earlier landline
phone which places at our home is nothing but PSTN.
Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some interfaces.
Total three interfaces are there:
1. Air Interface: Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS and
BTS is called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of ISDN.
2. Abis Interface: It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.
3. A interface: It provides communication between BSS and MSC.
Hence, this is the complete architecture and functionalities of GSM components.

CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)

It was an innovative use of direct sequence spread spectrum technology used to provide
a multiple access scheme for telecommunication and other wireless systems.
In CDMA different users are allotted different codes rather than different slots, channels
etc.

 The band used in CDMA is 824 MHz to 894 MHz (50 MHz + 20 MHz separation).
 Frequency channel is divided into code channels.
 1.25 MHz of FDMA channel is divided into 64 code channels.

CDMA FEATURES
1. USE OF WIDE BANDWIDTH: CDMA, like other spread spectrum technologies uses a
wider bandwidth than would otherwise be needed for the transmission of data.
 This increases the immunity to interference or jamming.
2. SPREADING CODES USED: In order to achieve the increased bandwidth the data is
spread by use of a code which is independent of data.
3. LEVEL OF SECURITY: In order to receive the data, the receiver must have the
knowledge of the spreading code, as without this, it is not possible to decipher the
transmitted data, and this gives a measure of security.

ADVANTAGES OF CDMA
CDMA has a soft capacity. The greater the number of codes, the more the number of users.
It has the following advantages −
 CDMA requires a tight power control, as it suffers from near-far effect. In other
words, a user near the base station transmitting with the same power will drown the
signal latter. All signals must have more or less equal power at the receiver
 Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch without changing
operator. Two base stations receive mobile signal and the mobile receives signals
from the two base stations.
 Transmission Burst − reduces interference.

DISADVANTAGES OF CDMA
 The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can induce delay or
may cause interference.
 Time synchronization is required.
 Gradual transfer increases the use of radio resources and may reduce capacity.

ELEMENTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Satellite communication is the method of transporting information from one place to
another using a communication satellite in orbit around the Earth. A communication
satellite is an artificial satellite that transmits the signal via a transponder by creating a
channel between the transmitter and the receiver located at different locations on the
Earth.
Telephone, radio, television, internet, and military applications use satellite
communications. Believe it or not, more than 2000 artificial satellites are hurtling around
in space right above your heads.
NEED OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

We know that there are different ways to communicate, and the propagation of these
waves can take place in different ways.

Ground wave and sky wave propagation are the two ways in which communication take
place for a certain distance, but the maximum distance covered by these two is 1500 km,
and this was overcome by the introduction of satellite communication.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION BLOCK DIAGRAM

WORKING OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

The communication satellites are similar to the space mirrors that help us in bouncing the
signals such as radio, internet data, and television from one side of the earth to another.
There are three stages that are involved which explain the working of satellite
communications. These are:

 Uplink
 Transponders
 Downlink
Let’s consider an example of signals from a television. In the first stage, the signal from the
television broadcast on the other side of the earth is first beamed up to the satellite from
the ground station on the earth. This process is known as uplink.
The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers, amplifiers, and
transmitters. These transponders are used for boosting the incoming signal and to change
their frequency so that the outgoing signals are not altered. Depending on the incoming
signal sources, the transponders vary.
The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the other end of the
receiver on the earth. It is important to understand that usually there is one uplink and
multiple downlinks.
Satellite Communication Services
There are two categories in which the satellite communication services can be classified:

 One-way satellite communication

 Two- way satellite communication

One-way satellite communication

In one-way satellite communication, the communication usually takes place between
either one or multiple earth stations through the help of a satellite. The communication
takes place between the transmitter on the first earth satellite to the receiver which is the
second earth satellite. The transmission of the signal is unidirectional. Some common one-
way satellite communication is:

 Position location services are provided by the radio

 Tracking is a part of space operations services
 Internet services take place with broadcasting satellites

Two-way Satellite Communication

In two-way satellite communication, the information is exchanged between any two earth
stations. It can be said that there is a point to point connectivity.
The signal is transmitted from the first earth station to the second earth station such that
there are two uplinks and two downlinks happening between the earth stations and the
satellite.
Following is the figures of the one way and two-way satellite communication:

Advantages of Satellite Communication

 Installments of circuits are easy.

 With the help of satellite communication, every corner of the earth can be covered.
 The user fully controls the network.
Disadvantages of Satellite Communication

 Initial expenditure is expensive.

 There are chances of blockage of frequencies.
 Propagation and interference.

Applications of Satellite Communication

Telephone, Television, Digital cinema, Radio broadcasting, Amateur radio, Internet

access, Military, Disaster Management
RADAR
An electromagnetic sensor used for detecting, locating, tracking, and recognizing
objects of various kinds at considerable distances. It operates by transmitting
electromagnetic energy toward objects, commonly referred to as targets, and observing
the echoes returned from them. The targets may be aircraft, ships, spacecraft,
automotive vehicles, and astronomical bodies, or even birds, insects, and rain. Besides
determining the presence, location, and velocity of such objects, radar can sometimes
obtain their size and shape as well. What distinguishes radar from optical and infrared
sensing devices is its ability to detect faraway objects under adverse weather conditions
and to determine their range, or distance, with precision.

Radar consists of a transmitter and receiver, each connected to a directional antenna. The
transmitter radiates or transmits electromagnetic radiations generated by a magnetron
oscillator. The receiver antenna collects the returned echo signal and delivers it to the
receiver where it is processed to detect the presence of the target and to extract its relative
velocity with respect to radar station if the target is moving.

 A Transmitter: It can be a power amplifier like a Klystron, Travelling Wave Tube, or a

power Oscillator like a Magnetron. The signal is first generated using a waveform
generator and then amplified in the power amplifier.
 Waveguides: The waveguides are transmission lines for transmission of the RADAR
signals.
 Antenna: The antenna used can be a parabolic reflector, planar arrays, or electronically
steered phased arrays.
 Duplexer: A duplexer allows the antenna to be used as a transmitter or a receiver. It can
be a gaseous device that would produce a short circuit at the input to the receiver when
the transmitter is working.
 Receiver: It can be a super heterodyne receiver or any other receiver which consists of
a processor to process the signal and detect it.
 Threshold Decision: The output of the receiver is compared with a threshold to detect
the presence of any object. If the output is below any threshold, the presence of noise is
assumed.
Applications
The applications of radar include the following.
Military Applications

 In air defense, it is used for target detection, target recognition, and weapon control
(directing the weapon to the tracked targets).
 In a missile system to guide the weapon.
 Identifying enemy locations on the map.
Air Traffic Control

 To control air traffic near airports. The Air Surveillance RADAR is used to detect and
display the aircraft’s position in the airport terminals.
 To guide the aircraft to land in bad weather using Precision Approach RADAR.
 To scan the airport surface for aircraft and ground vehicle positions
Remote Sensing

It can be used for observing whether or observing planetary positions and monitoring sea
ice to ensure a smooth route for ships.

Ground Traffic Control

It can also be used by traffic police to determine the speed of the vehicle, controlling the
movement of vehicles by giving warnings about the presence of other vehicles or any other
obstacles behind them.

Space

 To guide the space vehicle for a safe landing on the moon

 To observe the planetary systems
 To detect and track satellites