EXPERIMENT NO.

1 - STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION

AIM:
To study the process & pollen germination. in a slide
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Fresh flowers, Sucrose solution and microscope. cavity slide,
PROCEDURE:
 A few drops of sucrose cavity of the slide solution were added into the
 Pollen grains of the flowers are dusted on the slide.
 A cover slip may be placed on the cavity.
 The slide was observed under low power of the microscope at periodic intervals.
OBSERVATION:
 Pollen grains absorb sucrose solution and swell in size
 The Intine breathe at the out as the pollen tube germ pore and extends out as
the pollen tube.
 The pollen tube has the vegetative nucleus at the tube tip (tube nucleus)
followed by the two male gametes, Under normal condition, the pollen tube grows
through the style and reaches the micropyle carrying the male gamete
PRECAUTION:
 Freshly plucked flowers should be used.
 Care was taken to dust the pollen grains.
 Microscope should be handled carefully.
(LEFT SIDE)

EXPERIMENT NO. 2 - STUDY OF PLANT POPULATION DENSITY BY QUADRAT

METHOD
AIM:
Study plant population density by quadrat Method.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Nails, thread, meter scale, hammer, paper, pencil.
THEORY:
Population refers to total number of individuals of a species found in a given
geographical area, sharing similar resources and can interbreed. Population ecology
links ecology to population genetics and evolution. Size of population depends upon
Page 1 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
competition with another species, impact of predator or effect of use of pesticides.
Size of population keeps changing. It depends upon Predation, Food availability and
weather. Population density can be studied by laying quadrats of size 1 sq. m.
Quadrat is a sampling plot or area of size 1m x 1m. Chosen randomly as
representative of the given area species falling inside the quadrat, are recorded to find
out population density.
PROCEDURE:
 First, we will select a quadrat randomly in a uniform area.
 Using a meter scale, we will make a quadrat of 1m x 1m in the field. We will fix 4
nails at the corners of the quadrat & tie thread over the nails.
 We will count the number of plants of each species present in the quadrat.
 Now we will make another quadrat and note down number of plants in that
quadrat also.
CONCLUSION:
Population density of a plant species is the average number of individual plants of
the species occurring in an area.

POPULATION DENSITY = TOTAL NO. OF INDIVIDUALS IN 4 SQUARES (1m X 1m)

4

PRECAUTION:
 Measurements of the field should be done carefully.
 In quadrat consider the plant lying under the string if more than half of it lies
towards inside.
 Choose a field having uniform distribution of species.
 Count the individuals of one plant species at a time.
OBSERVATION: (LEFT SIDE)
Study plant population density by quadrat Method.
A)
NAME OF NO. OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE TOTAL NO.OF PLANTS IN AVERAGE
THE PLANT AREA (1m x 1m) 4 SQUARES
SPECIES
I II III IV
A 5 2 3 1 11 2.75

B 8 3 5 3 19 4.75

C 1 3 3 0 7 1.75

D 3 2 2 5 12 3

E 1 0 3 8 12 3

Page 2 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
EXPERIMENT NO. 3 - STUDY OF PLANT POPULATION FREQUENCY BY
QUADRAT METHOD
AIM:
Study plant population frequency by quadrat method.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Nails, thread, hammer, metre scale, pencil, paper.
THEORY:
Population frequency may be defined as the number of sampling units in which a
given species occurs and thus expresses the distribution or dispersion of various
species in a community. Population Frequency = No. of quadrats of occurrence of
species / Total no. of quadrats studied. Divide the quadrat of size 1m x 1m
into smaller units because in smaller unit’s individual of different species can be
counted more accurately.
PROCEDURE:
 Select a wide field.
 Measure 1m x 1m area in the field using a metre scale.
 Fix the nails and tie strings.
 Divide each quadrat into 16 small squares by tying strings at distance of 25 cm
each on either side. Smaller squares can also be marked with nails and strings.
 Note down the number of plants of each species in each small quadrat.
 Add all the plants of each species of smaller squares to get the total number of
plants in each quadrat.
 Select another quadrat randomly and repeat the steps.
 Determine the frequency and relative frequency as per the given formula.

FREQUENCY OF A SPECIES = NO. OF QUADRAT IN WHICH SPECIES OCCUR

TOTAL NO. OF QUADRATS SAMPLED

RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF A SPECIES = FREQUENCY OF A SPECIES

TOTAL FREQUENCY VALUES FOR ALL SPECIES

PRECAUTIONS:
 The string (or) cord wed should not be very thick.
 Quadrates marked in one field should not be very far from each other
 Quadrates should not overlap each other
 Measurement of the fields should be done carefully
 Duly the individuals of one species should be considered at one time.
(LEFT SIDE)
NAME OF NO. OF NO. OF QUADRANTS IN TOTAL NO. OF FREQUENCY = [
THE INDIVIDUALS IN WHICH THE SPECIES
QUADRATE (B) A/ B ]
PLANT THE AREA (1m x
OCCUR (A)
SPECIES 1m)

I II III IV
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I

Page 3 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
NAME OF THE NO. OF INDIVIDUALS IN NO. OF TOTAL NO. OF FREQUENCY
PLANT SPECIES THE AREA (1m x 1m) QUADRANTS IN QUADRATE
WHICH THE
=[ A/ B ]
(B )
SPECIES OCCUR
(A )
I II III IV
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I

NAME OF THE NO. OF INDIVIDUALS IN NO. OF TOTAL NO. OF FREQUENCY

PLANT SPECIES THE AREA (1m x 1m) QUADRANTS IN QUADRATE
WHICH THE
=[ A/ B ]
(B )
SPECIES OCCUR
(A )

I II III IV

NAME OF THE NO. OF INDIVIDUALS IN NO. OF TOTAL NO. OF FREQUENCY

PLANT SPECIES THE AREA (1m x 1m) QUADRANTS IN QUADRATE
WHICH THE
=[ A/ B ]
(B )
SPECIES OCCUR
(A )
I II III IV

EXPERIMENT NO. 4 - STUDY OF MITOSIS

AIM:
To prepare root tip (squash) temporary to study mitosis.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Onion root tip, dil. HCl, glass slide, cover slip, Safranin stain, microscope,
needle
PROCEDURE:
 Young onion root tips were taken and placed in dilute HCl for 20 minutes.
 After draining the acid completely, few drops of Safranin stain were added.
Page 4 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
 After staining for 20 mins, the softened stained root tips were mounted on a
glass slide and a cover slip was placed on it. Care was taken to avoid air bubbles.
 The cover slip was gently squeezed and squashed to seperate the cells clearly.
 Excess stain and water were removed.
 The slide was observed under low power and then under high power to observe
various stages of mitosis.
OBSERVATION:
Interphase: These cells are in most active stage in the cell cycle and are in
preparation for cell division. The nucleus is large, distinct and occupy most of the
space of the cell.
Prophase: Chromatin material condenser into definite number of chromosomes.
The nuclear membrane also starts disappearing.
Metaphase: The chromosomes are short, thick, deeply stained, clearly visible and
arranged in the equatorial plane. The chromosomes acquire specific shape. The
chromosomes are held in the position by spindle fibres [not visible under compound
microscope].
Anaphase: The centromere divides and each chromosome divides into two
chromatids with their own fraction of their centromeres. Since the daughter cells
receive the same number of chromosomes, mitosis is said to be equational division.
Telophase: Nuclear membrane reappears, nucleolus and chromatin reticulum are
once again formed. There are two nuclei cell on both the poles of the cell.
Cytoxinesis: In plant cell, cytokinesis starts by the formation of middle lamella,
primary cell wall and plasma membrane for both the daughter cells is formed on
either side of the middle lamella.

STAGES IN MITOSIS

PRECAUTIONS:
Page 5 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
 Overstaining and under staining should be avoided.
 Cover slip was carefully dropped to avoid air bubbles.
 Clean, neat apparatus should always be used.
 Microscope should be handled very carefully.

EXPERIMENT NO. 5 – EXTRACTION OF DNA

AIM:
To extract DNA from the given plant materials.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Slices of fruits, Soap solution, Chilled Ethanol, non-iodized sodium
chloride solution, distilled water, test tubes, mortar and pestle.
PROCEDURE:
 Few slices of fruits were mashed in the mortar and an extract was prepared.
 This extract was transferred to a test tube to which equal quantity of salt
solution ware added.
 Few drops of Soap solution were also added.
 The solution was mixed well to precipitate the proteins.
 The solution in the test stand for a tube war made to yow minutes and Chilled
Ethanol was added through the sides slowly.
 The DNA, being less dense, moves to the surface and forms a layer on the top.
 It can be spooled out using a capillary tube (wire) or a toothpick.
 This is a crude extract of the genetic material
RESULT:
Genetic material (DNA) was the plant material extracted from the plant
material.
INFERENCE:
DNA is the genetic material in all living organisms except a few. In eukaryotes, it is
often associated with histone and non-histone proteins and forms the chromatid
material seen inside the nucleus.
In prokaryotes, it is seen freely in the cytoplasm nucleoid DNA. The DNA is the
master molecule as it controls the entire activity of the cell and in turn, the entire
organism.
PRECAUTIONS:
 Handle chilled ethanol carefully
 Use clean and neat apparatus
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 6 - STUDY OF ADAPTATION OF FLOWERS TO VARIOUS
POLLINATING AGENTS.
AIM: To study the various adaptations of flowers to pollinating agents like wind,
insects and birds.
OBSERVATIONS:
a) Anemophilous flowers:
1. Flowers are small, colourless, odourless and nectar less.
2. The flowers are produced above the foliage and placed in a hanging position.
3. Both stigma and anthers are outside the petals.
4. Pollen grains are lightweight, small and dusty.
5. Pollen graine are produced in large numbers to compensate the loss.
6. Stigma is hairy, feathery or branched to catch air-borne pollen grain.
b) Entomophilous flowers:
1. These insect pollinated flowers are strong, brightly coloured to attract insects.
2. Flowers secrete nectar to attract variety of insects.
Page 6 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
3. Nectar glands are placed deep inside the flower in such a way that the body of
the insert comes in contact with anther and stigma.
4. The flowers also provide landing platform for insects.
5. Some flowers also provide edible pollen grains to the insects.
6. Night blooming flowers produce strong odour to attract insects.
c) Ornithophilous flowers:
1. The bird pollinated flowers are also brightly coloured like red and yellow. As the
birds visit the flowers mainly for nectar, these flowers have a sugary nectar with
little or no odour. Birds like humming birds which feeds on nectar consumes about
half of its body weight of sugar in a single day.
2. Some characteristic features of these plants are:
 Flowers have large amount of nectar.
 The corollas are tubular or funnel shaped to enable the birds to sip the nectar.
 Strong colours of the petal like yellow and blue attracts the birds from a long
distance.
 The stigmas are sticky to trap the pollen.

Page 7 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 7 -EXERCISE ON CONTROLLED POLLINATION

AIM:
To study exercise on controlled pollination -emasculation, bagging and tagging.
EMASCULATION: Emasculation is the process of artificial hybridization in which
the stamens from the female flowers are removed from bisexual flowers in order to
prevent self-fertilization. This process is carried out long before the anthers mature.
Removal of anther from the bisexual flowers before the anthers mature is known as
emasculation. The emasculated flower is then bagged to prevent any unwanted
pollination.
BAGIGING: . The emasculated flower or inflorescence must be isolated. It should be
immediately bagged to avoid pollination by any foreign pollen. The bags may be
made of paper, butter paper, or fine cloth. The bags are tied to the base of the
inflorescence or to the stalk of the flower with the help of thread, wire or pins. The
bagging is done with the emasculation in bisexual plants and before the stigma
Page 8 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
receptivity and dehiscence of the anthers in unisexual plants. Both male and female
flowers are bagged separately to prevent contamination in male flowers and cross-
pollination in female flowers. The bags are kept till seed setting is completed in
plant.
TAGIGING: Naming of plant with necessary information. It is a technique used for
hybridisation in plant breeding. Tagging is done for proper labelling of flowers /
plants. It has the name of female plant and male plant, record number, and date of
emasculation.

Showing cross pollination on an

emasculated flower

EXPERIMENT NO. 8 - STUDY OF GAMETOGENESIS – T.S. OF TESTIS AND T.S.

OF OVARY

Page 9 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
A) T.S. OF TESTIS:
AIM:
To identify, study and comment on rages a spermatogenesis from T.S of Testis
(mammalian)
THEORY:
The main feature of stages of spermatogenesis are observed from T.S. of Testis:
1. Testis shows a large number of lang convoluted seminiferous tubules (in section
they look round in shape)
2. Each seminiferous tubule is lined by geminal epithelium, the cells of which
divide mitotically to form Spermatogonia.
3. There are various stages in the development of sperms like Primary
Spermatocytes, Secondary Spermatocytes, spermatids and spermatozoa.
4. Large and prominent Sertoli cells are present in seminiferous tubules which
provide surface and nourishment to developing spermatozoa.
5. Interstitial cells or Leydig cells are present in between the tubules secrete the
male sex of hormone – Testosterone.
6. All stages of spermatogenesis can be seen at any time in a seminiferous tubule.
B) T.S. OF OVARY:
AIM:
To Identify, study and comment on oogenesis from T.S. of Ovary (mammalian)
THEORY:
The main features of stages of oogenesis from T.S of ovary are:
1. A mammalian ovary in a solid structure bounded by germinal epithelium or
surface epithelium.
2. Inside the ovary, stroma is made of connective tissues, blood vessels and nerve
fibres.
3. In the stroma, Graafian follicle in various stages a development, like many other
follicles in various stages of development with primary oocyte and secondary oocyte
are formed.
4. A Graafian follicle consists of an ovum (in the secondary oocyte stage)
surrounded by a group of follicular cells.
5. A mature follicle ruptures and releases the ovum out of the ovary. At the point of
rupture, Corpus Luteum is formed which secretes progesterone.

T.S. OF TESTIS

Page 10 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
 T.S. OF OVARY

GRAAFIAN FOLLICLE
PRIMARY FOLLICLE

OVULATION

CORPUS LUTEUM

EXPERIMENT NO. 9 - STUDY OF T.S. OF A BLASTULA

AIM: To study T.S. of a blastula thorough permanent slide

INTRODUCTION:
Soon after fertilisation, the zygote undergoes repeated divisions called cleavage.
Cleavage includes a series of successive and rapid mitotic divisions which
transforms single celled zygote to a multicellular structure called blastula
(blastocyst). Cleavage starts in the upper portion of the fallopian tube. It results into
a solid mass of cells called Morula. At the next stage of development, it produces an
embryo with about sixty-four cells called blastula (blastocyst).
OBSERVATION:
It is a spherical mass of about sixty-four cells. It is composed of an outer
envelope of cells, the trophoblast or trophoectoderm and inner mass of cells (INNER
CELL MASS). Within the envelope, there is a fluid filled cavity called blastocoel. The
inner cell mass is the precursor of the embryo.

T.S. OF BLASTULA

EXPERIMENT NO. 10A - ANALYSIS OF SEED SAMPLE TO STUDY MENDELIAN

RATIO
AIM: To analyse read sample for a pea for mendelian monohybrid ratio 3:1
REQUIREMENTS: Pea seed sample, enamel tray petridien.
Page 11 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
PROCEDURE:
 Take about 250 pea seeds in an enamel tray.
 Seperate out yellow round, yellow winkled, green round and green wrinkled
seeds in a petri dish.
 White down the number of seeds in each plate and fied out their approximate
ratio.
OBSERVATIONS:
The table gives the data related to the ratior of round and convikled green and
yellow seeds.
CONCLUSION:
The contrasting forms of both the traits of seeds shape and colour shows an
approximate ratio of 3:1. The ratio is same as that Mendel obtained for monohybrid
cross and indicates that the dominant and reecesive forms of seeds of pea plant &
colour and shape of the seed exists in the ratio 3:1 in the population of seeds. A
large amount of sample of pea seeds is taken to arrive at this condusion.
(LEFT SIDE)
SNO. CHARACTERISTICS OF SEED TOTAL NO. OF SEED NO. OF SEEDS APRROXIMATE
COUNTED SHOWING TRAITS RATIO

1. SHAPE OF THE SEED 166 ROUND : 128 3:1

WRINKLED : 38

2. COLOUR OF THE SEED 112 YELLOW : 86 3:1

GREEN : 28

EXPERIMENT NO. 10B - VERIFICATION OF MENDAL'S LAW

AIM: To verify Mendel's law of segregation.

REQUIREMENTS:
64 yellow and 64 green beads all of exactly sarve shape and size CA (Any other
contrasting colours can also be taken)
PROCEDURE:
 Students work in pairs to perform the experiment
 The following steps are strictly followed in sequence.
 64 yellow beads are placed in a beaker and by green beads are placed in
another. They represent the male and female gamete. Take a bead from each
container and place them on table. The 64 pairs of beads represent the 64
heterogenous F1 progeny. Place 32 F1 progeny in one petri dish and remaining
32 in other. They represent F1 males and females. Beads are mixed and by
taking care that no beads falls off. To obtain F2 generation, one student would
withdrew one bead from beaker labelled male and one from beaker female and
put together and arranged as pairs. This is continued till all are paired. Thus 64
offsprings of F2 are obtained
 Genotype of each pair and their possible phenotype are noted. This experiment
repeated at least six times and the data are tabulated.
INFERENCE:
From the above experiment we can conclude that each diploid individual contain
two copies of every gene. The two copies may be similar, homozygous or
heterozygous. The experiment was started with pure live parents who are
homozygous and F1 progeny were heterozygous. When F1 individuals were crossed,
in F2 generation, the dominant phenotype and the recessive phenotype were
expressed ratio of 3:1. This ratio suggested that in F1 heterozygous condition the
Page 12 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
recessive allele is not expressed but is masked by the dominant allele and in the F2
generation, the recessive alleles once again emerges in the homozygous condition.
This is called laws of segregation of alleles.
S.NO. TOTAL NO. OF GENOTYPE RATIO PHENOTYPE RATIO
INDIVIDUAL
1 64 14:36:14 3:1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 10C - TO VERIFY MENDAL’S LAW OF THE INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT
AIM:
To verify Mendel's law of independent assortment.
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Beaker, 64 beads of yellow, green, red and white each are taken while yellow
and green represent seed coat, read and white represents flower colours.
PROCEDURE:
The following steps are followed sequentially.
 Place 64 beads of each colour in 4 separate beakers.
 Place the beakers containing yellow and red on the left side and the other two on
right side.
 The left side leakers represent yellow seed and red flowers (Dominant). While the
right side represents green seed and white flowers (Recessive). The 2 beakers on
either side represent true breed parents.
 The beakers are stirred and one bead of each colour are placed together on
table.
 Thus 64 such four bead clusters are obtained which represents the F1
individuals who are heterozygous. Their genotype and phenotype are noted.
 Now 32 four bead clusters are separated and collected in a beaker. The
remaining 32 clusters are kept in another beaker. They represent
 Now put 32 red and 32 whites together. Similarly put 32 yellow and 32 greens
together in beaker 2. These 2 beakers represent F1 females. Similarly, remaining
32 red + 32 white beads in the beaker represent F1 males.
 The beakers are stirred well and one bead is taken from beaker 1 and 3 and
placed on the table. Now pick one from 2 and 4 and add it to the already placed
beads. Now four beads present together shows the F2 individual. This process is
continued till all beads are utilized. At the end, 64 individuals of F2 are noted
down.
 Yellow seed is dominant over green and red-flowers are dominant ones white.
 The procedure is repeated to verify the results
INFERENCE:
The four phenotype classes in F2 generation are in ratio 9:3:3:1 is expected from
the law of independent assortment.
S.NO TOTAL NO. OF INDIVIDUALS PHENOTYPE RATIO
1 64 36:12:12:4
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
EXPERIMENT NO. 11 - ANALYSIS OF GENETIC CHARECTER PEDIGREE
CHARTS USING PEDIGREE CHARTS

A - TO STUDY AND TO ANALYSE THE INHERITANCE OF BLOOD GROUP USING

THE PEDIGREE CHARTS
Pedigree chart is a record & occurrence of a trait in Several generations q a family. A
given pedigree chart shows the inheritance of blood group in a family. In the given
pedigree chart, male members are represented by a square and female by a circle.
Page 13 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
Parents are joined by a horizontal line and their offspring through a vertical line
below the parents in order of their birth. Solid symbol represents traits under
investigation that in blood group A as given in the chart and open Symbol denote
normal individual for any other blood group.
CASE I:
Of the given pedigree chart shows the male parent with blood group A and
female parent without blood group A. They have for children & which one is a
female with blood group A.
CASE II:
Parents chart shows a marriage between 2 individuals with blood group A.
They have three sons and one daughter and none of the offsprings have blood group
A. The following conclusion can be drawn from the pedigree chart.
Inheritance of blood group A is not related to the sex of the individual. The
male parent in Case I is heterozygous and genotype is IAi.
B - STUPY THE INHERITANCE OF COLOUR BLINDNESS USING A PEDIGREE
CHART
CASE I:
The given pedigree chart shows phenotypically normal parents who have four
children, of which three are daughters who are normal and one son who is
colourblind.
CASE II:
The marriage between a colourblind male and a normal female is given in the
pedigree. chart. Out of the four children, none of them exhibit colour blindness. The
following conclusions can be drawn from pedigree chart:
Colour-blindness is related to the sex of the individual and is due to X-linked
recessive gene. Women suffer with colour blindness only in homozygous condition
(XcXc). They can be normal (XX), or they can be carrier (XXc).
Males are normal (XY) but they cannot be carriers. The male gives X-
chromosome to the daughter, Y-chromosome to use son. Hence, any recessive gene
on x-chromosome will be inherited only by daughter.
C - STUPY THE INHERITANCE OF TONGUE ROLLING USING A PEDIGREE
CHART
CASE I:
The given pedigree chart shows a tongue rolling male who has married a woman,
who is a non-roller. They have four children, three males and one female, of which
the daughter is a tongue roller.

CASE II:
Marriage between roller female and non-roller male who have four children, none
of them are tongue rollers. The following conclusion can be drawn from the above
chart.
Inheritance of tongue rolling cannot be related to the sex of the individual. The
male parent who is a tongue roller is heterozygous (Rr) and who is non roller is a
homozygous recessive (rr).
LEFT SIDE

Page 14 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
 Page 15 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
EXPERIMENT NO. 11- STUDY OF COMMON DISEASE CAUSING MICROBES

AIM:
To identify common disease-causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba,
Plasmodium, Ringworm through permanent slides or specimens. Comment on
symptoms of diseases caused by these organisms.

ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES (ROUND WORM):

 Ascaris lumbricoides (round worm) is an endoparasite of human intestine an
 Children are more susceptible to infections of this worm. The infections of
ascaris are called Ascariasis.
 The symptoms of this disease are:
a. Constipation, diarrhoea and anaemia
b. The patient turns anaemic and pale, becomes weak.
c. The patient may even die in severe case of infection.
ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA:
 Entamoeba histolytica is an endo parasitic protozoan of human intestine.
 Most of the people and children get affected by this parasite hygiene due to
improper sanitation, and eating of raw, unwashed/uncooked food.
 The infection of this parasite leads to Amoebic Dysentery / Amoebiasis.
 Symptoms of this disease are:
Page 16 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
a. Patient discharge mucus. In severe cases blood in their stools.
b. Recurrent diarrhoea accompanied with abdominal pain, headache, nausea,
weakness, etc.
c. Sometimes intermittent pain also felt by the patient.

PLASMODIUM:
 Plasmodium, a protozoan which is found in red blood cells of humans.
 The infection of this endoparasite causes Malaria.
 The symptoms of this disease are:
a. The person shows rapidly rising body temperature unto 103-105°F. Patient also
suffers from shivering and chills, has intense headache, nausea, muscular pain,
etc.
b. The fever subsides after sweating and body temperature drops to 98.4°F.
c. It is a recurring bout of fever and it repeats itself after few hours till it is treated
/ cured. Each malarial cycle attack lasts for 6-10 hours. It has 3 stages:
(i) cold stages
(ii) Hot stage
(iii) Sweating stage.
RINGWORM:
 It is the ectoparasite of human skin.
 The infection of the ectoparasite on humane causes a particular type of
symptom on skin.
 The fine mycelium of fungus occurs beneath the dermis. It infects hair, where
hyphae emerge from sheath. The hyphae put out fine filaments where spores are
borne. Spores are small, produced in large numbers and spread quickly.

(LEFT SIDE)
Sporozoites of Plasmodium vivax
Entamoeba histolytica

LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM

REFER HEALTH AND DISEASE CHAPTER FROM NCERT

Page 17 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
 Ascaris lumbricoides

EXPERIMENT NO. 12 - STUDY OF MEIOSIS

AIM:
To study meiosis in onion bud through permanent slide
THEORY:
Under the high power of microscope, the following stages of meiosis are distinctly
observed.
MEIOSIS: I
PROPHASE I:
 It is the first stage of meiotic cell division.
 It is of longest duration and has five sub stages.
a. Leptotene:
 chromatin fibres condense to form thick threadlike strictures called
chromosomes.
 It is a shortest duration in prophase I
 Nuclear envelope and nucleolus are distinct
b. Zygotene:
 Homologous chromosomes form pairs called bivalent. This pairing is called
synapsis.
 The individual of a pairs is similar in length and in position a centromere
c. Pachytene
 The two chromatids of each chromosome become visible so that a bivalent
becomes tetrad.
 Crossing over (exchange of chromated segments between homologous
chromosomes) takes place between non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosomes.
Page 18 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
d. Diplotene:
e. The two chromosomes of each bivalent move away and homologous
chromosomes are held together at one or more points called chiasmata.
f. Diakinesis:
 The homologous chromosomes appear thick.
 Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear and spindle begins to form
METAPHASE I:
 The bivalents (homologous chromosomes) arrange themselves at the equator
 The spindle gets attached to the centromere of chromosome
ANAPHASE I:
 The two chromosomes of each bivalent move to the a opposite poles.
 Each pore has half the number of chromosomes with. two chromatids each.
TELOPHASE I:
 The chromosome at each pole recoil and the nuclear and nuclear membrane
reappears.
 Cytokinesis occurs to form two haploid daughter cells.
INTER KINESIS: Short period between the two meiotic divisions where
chromosomes partially uncoil
MEIOSIS II
PROPHASE II:
 The chromosomes of all daughter cells begin to condense and become thick.
 Nuclear envelope and nucleolus begin to disappear.
METAPHASE II:
 The chromosomes are arranged on the equator a cell.
 Each centromere is held by spindle to both the poles
ANAPHASE II
 The sister chromatids (daughter chromosomes) of each. chromosomes separate
and migrate towards opposite poles.
TELOPHASE II:
 Four daughter cells are formed of which two are recombinants and two are
parental varieties.

EXPERIMENT NO. 13 - STUDY OF HOMOLOGOUS AND ANALOGOUS ORGANS

AIM: Study of homologous and analogous organs through flash cards/models and
them.
I HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS:
 The organs which have the same fundamental structure but are different in
functions are called homologous organs.
 These organs follow the same basic plan of organisation during their
development, but in the adult condition these organs are modified to perform
different functions as an adaption to different environment.
 The homologous organs are a result of divergent evolution.
 Homology indicates common ancestry.
Ex 1 - Vertebrate Forelimbs
a) The fore limbs of man, cheetah, whale and bat have the same basic structural
plan. In each case, the forelimb consists of humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals, digits.
b) The skeletal part of the forelimbs of these vertebrates are similar in structure
and arrangement but have different shapes and function.
Page 19 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
c) In man it is for grasping, in cheetah for running, in whale for swimming and in
bat for flying.
Ex 2 - Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of cucurbits
a) In plants, thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Passiflora or cucurbits are
homologous organs.
b) They look different and perform different functions, but both arise in axillary
position and are modified branches.
Ex 3 - Leaves of different plants
a) The leaves of higher plants arise from nodes and possess axillary buds.
b) In forms they may be single (Hibiscus) or compound (e.g. Rose), reduced to
scales (e.g. Asparagus), modified into spine (e.g. barberry) for protection, and
tendrils (e.g. wild pea) for climbing.
c) The modifications indicate the evolution of the organ to suit different functions.
II ANALOGOUS ORGANS:
1. The organs which have similar functions, but are different in their structural
details are called analogous organs.
2. The analogous organs are the result of convergent evolution.
Ex 1 – Wings of insects and wings of bird insects
a) The wings of insects and wings of birds are analogous organs
b) Both these organs are used for flying in the air, but they are very different in
structure.
c) An insect wing is an extension of the integument, whereas wings of the birds
are modified forelimbs covered with flesh, skin and feathers.
d) The superficial similarity of these organs is due to adaptation to flying rather
than an inheritance from a common ancestor.
Ex 2 – Tendrils of different origin in plants
a) The plant tendrils are meant for climbing.
b) They can be derived from stem branches (e.g. Passiflora) or leaves (e.g. pea)
c) These tendrils are thus analogous organs.
d) The presence of analogous organs indicates a similar adaptation by unrelated
groups through modification or evolution of different parts.
e) It is called convergent evolution.

Page 20 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
Draw only the bone structure like below diagram and
Label using the ABOVE PICTURE
Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of cucurbits

HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS – VERTEBRATE

FORE LIMBS

HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS- FORE LIMBS OF VERTEBRATES

Page 21 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
 Analogous Organs – Wing of a Bird and
Insect

Page 22 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman
 Draw Meiosis I & II in separate pages

Page 23 of 23
Mrs Gayathri Sundararaman