3311701 SEM: 1 BI

PRACTICAL-1

AIM: Identify various laboratory equipments viz. power supply, CRO, Function generator,
Multimeter etc.
APPARATUS: power supply
CRO
Function generator
Multimeter

THEORY:
1) POWER SUPPLY
A regulated power supply is an embedded circuit. It converts unregulated ac into a
constant dc, with the help of a rectifier. Its function is to supply a stable voltage (or less often
current), to a circuit or device that must be operated within certain power supply limits. The
output from the regulated power supply may be alternating or unidirectional, but is nearly
always DC.
The type of stabilization used may be restricted to ensuring that the output remains within
certain limits under various load conditions, or it may also include compensation for variations
in its own supply source.

The block diagram of an ordinary power supply is depicted in the figure. Usually, a small
dc voltage, in the range of 2—24 volts is required for the operation of different electronic
circuits, while in India, single-phase ac supply is available at 230 V. So a small step-down
transformer is used at the beginning which reduces the voltage level according to the needs.
Next block is a rectifier which converts the sinusoidal ac voltage into pulsating dc. In the
last there is. A filter block which reduces the ripples (ac components) from the rectifier output
voltage.
The filter is a device which passes dc component to the load and blocks ac components
of the rectifier output.

Applications of Power supply

1) Mobile Phone power adaptors
2) Regulated power supplies in appliances

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3) Various amplifiers and oscillators

2) CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides

accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose
laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig.
1.

The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode
(negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the
cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called
an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and
focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates - one
oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented ot give vertical
deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical
deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any
portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is
excited and light is emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy into light allows
us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.

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CRO Operation

A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In general, the

instrument is operated in the following manner.

The signal to be displayed is amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the
vertical deflection plates of the CRT. A portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to
the sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident
with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep
generator, initiating the saw tooth wave form. The saw tooth wave is amplified by the
horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional
provisions signal are made for applying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60 Hz line
for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external signal applied
directly to the horizontal amplifier.

CRO Controls

The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating

conditions and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these controls are
common to most oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.

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Cathode-ray tube

Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the graticule.

Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.

Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

Vertical amplifier section

Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.

Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.

Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the calibrated steps.
Normally the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is in the fully clockwise
position.

AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier,
or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier; selecting
ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus blocking any constant
component.

Horizontal-sweep section

Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external signal to
horizontal amplifier.

Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated position is
fully clockwise.

Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.

Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to horizontal

amplifier through Ext. Horiz. Connector.

Trigger

The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.

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Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-) portion of trigger
signal.

Coupling: Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or ac level.

Source: Selects the source of the triggering signal.

INT- (internal) -from signal on vertical amplifier

EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the EXT. TRIG. INPUT.
LINE - 60 cycle trigger

Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is triggered. It also
allows automatic (auto) triggering of allows sweep to run free (free run).

3) FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to

generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the
most common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square, triangular
and saw tooth shapes. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires
an internal or external trigger source). Integrated circuits used to generate waveforms may also
be described as function generator ICs.
Although function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies, they are usually not
suitable for applications that need low distortion or stable frequency signals. When those traits
are required, other signal generators would be more appropriate.
Some function generators can be phase-locked to an external signal source (which may
be a frequency reference) or another function generator.

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Function generators are used in the development, test and repair of electronic
equipment. For example, they may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce
an error signal into a control loop
Circuit elements
Waveform generator
An electronic circuit element used for generating waveforms within other apparatus that can be
used in communications and instrumentation circuits, and also in a function generator
instrument
Function generator
An electronic circuit element that provides an output proportional to some mathematical
function (such as the square root) of its input; such devices are used in feedback
control systems and in analog computers.

4) MULTIMETER
A multimeter or a multi tester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is
an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit.
A typical multimeter would include basic features such as the ability to
measure voltage, current, and resistance.

Analog multimeter use a micro ammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated
for all the different measurements that can be made.
Digital multimeter (DMM, DVOM) display the measured value in numerals, and may
also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured. Digital multimeter
are now far more common than analog ones, but analog multimeter are still preferable in some
cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly-varying value.

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A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service
work, or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be
used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices
such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring
systems.

Conclusion:

Question bank:
1) For which purpose power supply is used?
2) For which purpose CRO is used?
3) For which purpose function generator is used?
4) Which quantities are measured from multimeter?
5) Which waves are taken from function generator?

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