Air conditioning

Version 1 ME, KUET

1.1. Air conditioning:

It is a system by which the temperature, humidity, air velocity and air impurities of air are controlled as per
the requirements of a space to be air conditioned.

1.2. Classification of air conditioning system:

a. Air conditioning system is mainly classified into

(i) Unitary system and

(ii) Central-station system

b. Again, Unitary system is reclassified into

(i) Self-contained system and

(ii) Split system

c. Central-station system is reclassified into

(i) All-air system

(ii) Air-water system
(iii) All-water system

d. All-air system is again classified into

(i) Variable Air Volume(VAV) system

(ii) Constant Air Volume(CAV) system

e. Constant Air Volume(CAV) system is again classified into

(i) Single-zone system

(ii) Multi-zone system
(iii) Dual Duct system
(iv) Thermal reheat system

1.3 Applications of A/C system:

It is used for

(a) Comfort air conditioning in ground, water and air

(b) Preserving food stuff in cold storage
(c) Industrial purpose for production, chemical process and preserving
Machine/Equipments/Computers/Accessories etc.
(d) Research laboratories

Lecture 2
Psychrometry
1.1. Introduction:
Atmospheric air makes up the environment in almost every type of air conditioning system. Hence a
thorough understanding of the properties of atmospheric air and the ability to analyze various processes
involving air is fundamental to air conditioning design.
Psychrometry is the study of the properties of moist air i.e. mixtures of air and water vapor.

Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus water vapor and a number of pollutants (Fig.1.1). The
amount of water vapor and pollutants vary from place to place. The concentration of water vapor and
pollutants decrease with altitude, and above an altitude of about 10 km, atmospheric air consists of only dry
air. The pollutants have to be filtered out before processing the air. Hence, what we process is essentially a
mixture of various gases that constitute air and water vapor. This mixture is known as moist air.

The moist air can be thought of as a mixture of dry air and moisture. For all practical purposes, the
composition of dry air can be considered as constant. In 1949, a standard composition of dry air was fixed
by the International Joint Committee on Psychrometric data. It is given in Table 1.1.

Constituent Molecular weight Mol fraction

Oxygen 32.000 0.2095
Nitrogen 28.016 0.7809
Argon 39.944 0.0093
Carbon dioxide 44.010 0.0003
Table 1.1: Composition of standard air

Based on the above composition the molecular weight of dry air is found to be 28.966 and the gas constant
R is 287.035 J/kg.K.

As mentioned before the air to be processed in air conditioning systems is a mixture of dry air and water
vapour. While the composition of dry air is constant, the amount of water vapour present in the air may vary
from zero to a maximum depending upon the temperature and pressure of the mixture (dry air + water
vapour).

At a given temperature and pressure the dry air can only hold a certain maximum amount of moisture.
When the moisture content is maximum, then the air is known as saturated air, which is established by a
neutral equilibrium between the moist air and the liquid or solid phases of water.

For calculation purposes, the molecular weight of water vapour is taken as 18.015 and its gas constant is
461.52 J/kg.K.
 Fig.1.1: Atmospheric air

1.2. Methods for estimating properties of moist air:

In order to perform air conditioning calculations, it is essential first to estimate various properties of air. It
is difficult to estimate the exact property values of moist air as it is a mixture of several permanent gases and
water vapour. However, moist air upto 3 atm. pressure is found to obey perfect gas law with accuracy
sufficient for engineering calculations. For higher accuracy Goff and Gratch tables can be used for
estimating moist air properties. These tables are obtained using mixture models based on fundamental
principles of statistical mechanics that take into account the real gas behaviour of dry air and water vapour.
However, these tables are valid for a barometric pressure of 1 atm. only. Even though the calculation
procedure is quite complex, using the mixture models it is possible to estimate moist air properties at other
pressures also. However, since in most cases the pressures involved are low, one can apply the perfect
gas model to estimate psychrometric properties.
1.2.1. Basic gas laws for moist air:

According to the Gibbs-Dalton law for a mixture of perfect gases, the total pressure exerted by the mixture
is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the constituent gases. According to this law, for a homogeneous
perfect gas mixture occupying a volume V and at temperature T, each constituent gas behaves as though the
other gases are not present (i.e., there is no interaction between the gases). Each gas obeys perfect gas
equation. Hence, the partial pressures exerted by each gas, p1,p2,p3 … and the total pressure pt is given by:

pt = p1 + p2 +p3 ………………..……………………… (1.1)

where p1 = n1RT/V,…and n1,n2,n3,… are the number of moles of gases 1,2,3,…

Applying this equation to moist air.

p = pt = pa + pv …………………………………….. (1.2)

where p = pt = total barometric pressure

pa = partial pressure of dry air

pv = partial pressure of water vapour

1.2.2. Important psychrometric properties:

Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of the moist air as measured by a standard thermometer or
other temperature measuring instruments.

Saturated vapour pressure (psat) is the saturated partial pressure of water vapour at the dry bulb
temperature. This is readily available in thermodynamic tables and charts. ASHRAE suggests the following
regression equation for saturated vapour pressure of water, which is valid for 0 to 1000 C.

ln(psat) = c1/T + c2 + c3T +c4T2 +c5T3 +c6ln(T) ……………………………………………….. (1.3)

where psat = saturated vapor pressure of water in kilo-Pascals

T = temperature in K

The regression coefficients c1 to c6 are given by:

c1 = -5.80022006E+03, c2 = -5.516256E+00, c3 = -4.8640239E-02 c4 = 4.1764768E-05, c5 = -1.4452093E-

08, c6 = 6.5459673E+00

Relative humidity ( Φ ) is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor in moist air to mole
fraction of water vapor in saturated air at the same temperature and pressure. Using perfect gas equation we
can show that:

Φ = Partial pressure of water vapor/Saturation pressure of pure water vapour at same temperature =
pv/psat………………………………. ………………………………(1.4)

Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage. When Φ is 100 percent, the air is saturated.

Humidity ratio (w) or specific humidity is the mass of water vapor associated with 1kilogram of dry air.
Assuming both water vapour and dry air to be perfect gases, the humidity ratio is given by:

w = ( kg of water vapor)/(kg of dry air)

 = (pvV/RvT)/(paV/RaT) = (pv/Rv)/{(pt-pv)/Ra} ………………….. (1.5)

Substituting the values of gas constants of water vapor and air Rv and Ra in the above equation;

the humidity ratio is given by:

w = 0.622 { pv/(pt – pv)} ………………………………………..(1.6)

For a given barometric pressure pt, given the DBT, we can find the saturated vapour pressure p sat from the
thermodynamic property tables on steam. Then using the above equation, we can find the humidity ratio at
saturated conditions, wsat.

It is to be noted that, w is a function of both total barometric pressure and vapor pressure of water.

Dew-point temperature: If unsaturated moist air is cooled at constant pressure, then the temperature at
which the moisture in the air begins to condense is known as dew-point temperature (DPT) of air. An
approximate equation for dew-point temperature is given by:

DPT = {4030(DBT + 235)}/ {4030 - (DBT 235)ln φ} – 235…………….(1.7)

where Φ is the relative humidity (in fraction). DBT & DPT are in 0C. Of course, since from its definition, the
dew point temperature is the saturation temperature corresponding to the vapour pressure of water vapour, it
can be obtained from steam tables or using Eqn.(1.3).

Note:

1. Properties such as humidity ratio, enthalpy and specific volume are based on 1 kg of dry air. This is
useful as the total mass of moist air in a process varies by the addition/removal of water vapour, but
the mass of dry air remains constant.
2. Dry air is assumed to be a perfect gas as its temperature is high relative to its saturation temperature,
and water vapour is assumed to be a perfect gas because its pressure is low relative to its saturation
pressure. These assumptions result in accuracies, that are, sufficient for engineering calculations (less
than 0.7 percent as shown by Threlkeld). However, more accurate results can be obtained by using
the data developed by Goff and Gratch in 1945.

Degree of saturation μ: The degree of saturation is the ratio of the humidity ratio w to the humidity ratio of
a saturated mixture ws at the same temperature and pressure, i.e.,

Enthalpy: The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air and the enthalpy of the water
vapour. Enthalpy values are always based on some reference value. For moist air, the enthalpy of dry air is
given a zero value at 0oC, and for water vapour the enthalpy of saturated water is taken as zero at 0 oC. The
enthalpy of moist air is given by:

h = ha + whg = cpt + w(hfg + cpw t) ………………………. (1.9)

where cp = specific heat of dry air at constant pressure, kJ/kg.K

cpw = specific heat of water vapor, kJ/kg.K
t = Dry-bulb temperature of air-vapor mixture, oC
w = Humidity ratio, kg of water vapor/kg of dry air
ha = enthalpy of dry air at temperature t, kJ/kg
hg = enthalpy of water vapor3 at temperature t, kJ/kg
hfg = latent heat of vaporization at 0o C, kJ/kg
The unit of h is kJ/kg of dry air. Substituting the approximate values of cp and hg, we obtain:
 h = 1.005t +w(2501 + 1.88t)…………………………….. (1.10)

Humid specific heat: From the equation for enthalpy of moist air, the humid specific heat of moist air can be
written as:

cpm = cp + wcpw

Where, cpm = humid sp. Heat

cp = sp. Heat of dry air, and cpw = sp. Heat of water vapor

Specific volume: The specific volume is defined as the number of cubic meters of moist air per kilogram of
dry air. From perfect gas equation since the volumes occupied by the individual substances are the same, the
specific volume is also equal to the number of cubic meters of dry air per kilogram of dry air.

1.2.3. Psychrometric chart

A Psychrometric chart graphically represents the thermodynamic properties of moist air. Standard
psychrometric charts are bounded by the dry-bulb temperature line (abscissa) and the vapour pressure or
humidity ratio (ordinate). The Left Hand Side of the psychrometric chart is bounded by the saturation line.
Figure 1.2 shows the schematic of a psychrometric chart. Psychrometric charts are readily available for
standard barometric pressure of 101.325 kPa at sea level and for normal temperatures (0-50 oC). ASHRAE
has also developed psychrometric charts for other temperatures and barometric pressures (for low
temperatures: -40 to 10oC, high temperatures 10 to 120oC and very high temperatures 100 to 120oC)

1.3. Measurement of psychrometric properties:

Based on Gibbs’ phase rule, the thermodynamic state of moist air is uniquely fixed if the barometric
pressure and two other independent properties are known. This means that at a given barometric pressure,
the state of moist air can be determined by measuring any two independent properties. One of them could be
the dry-bulb temperature (DBT), as the measurement of this temperature is fairly simple and accurate. The
accurate measurement of other independent parameters such as humidity ratio is very difficult in practice.
Since measurement of temperatures is easier, it would be convenient if the other independent parameter is
also a temperature. Of course, this could be the dew-point temperature (DPT), but it is observed that
accurate measurement of dew-point temperature is difficult. In this context, a new independent temperature
parameter called the wet-bulb temperature (WBT) is defined. Compared to DPT, it is easier to measure the
wet-bulb temperature of moist air. Thus knowing the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures from
measurements, it is possible to find the other properties of moist air.

To understand the concept of wet-bulb temperature, it is essential to understand the process of combined
heat and mass transfer.

1.3.1. Combined heat and mass transfer; the straight line law

The straight line law states that “when air is transferring heat and mass (water) to or from a wetted surface,
the condition of air shown on a psychrometric chart drives towards the saturation line at the temperature of
the wetted surface”.

For example, as shown in Fig.1.3, when warm air passes over a wetted surface its temperature drops from 1
to 2. Also, since the vapor pressure of air at 1 is greater than the saturated vapor pressure at t w, there will be
moisture transfer from air to water, i.e., the warm air in contact with cold wetted surface cools and
dehumidifies. According to the straight line law, the final condition of air (i.e., 2) lies on a straight line
joining 1 with tw on the saturation line. This is due to the value of unity of the Lewis number, that was
discussed in an earlier chapter on analogy between heat and mass transfer.

1.3.2. Adiabatic saturation and thermodynamic wet bulb temperature:

Adiabatic saturation temperature is defined as that temperature at which water, by evaporating into air, can
bring the air to saturation at the same temperature adiabatically. An adiabatic saturator is a device using
which one can measure theoretically the adiabatic saturation temperature of air.

As shown in Fig.1.4, an adiabatic saturator is a device in which air flows through an infinitely long duct
containing water. As the air comes in contact with water in the duct, there will be heat and mass transfer
between water and air. If the duct is infinitely long, then at the exit, there would exist perfect equilibrium
between air and water at steady state. Air at the exit would be fully saturated and its temperature is equal to
that of water temperature. The device is adiabatic as the walls of the chamber are thermally insulated. In
order to continue the process, makeup water has to be provided to compensate for the amount of water
evaporated into the air. The temperature of the make-up water is controlled so that it is the same as that in
the duct.

After the adiabatic saturation has achieved a steady-state condition, the temperature indicated by the
thermometer immersed in the water is the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature. The
thermodynamic wet bulb temperature will be less than the entering air DBT but greater than the dew
point temperature.

Certain combinations of air conditions will result in a given sump temperature, and this can be defined by
writing the energy balance equation for the adiabatic saturator. Based on a unit mass flow rate of dry air, this
is given by:

h1 = h2 - (w2 – w1 )hf …………………………….(1.13)

where hf is the enthalpy of saturated liquid at the sump or thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature, h 1 and h2
are the enthalpies of air at the inlet and exit of the adiabatic saturator, and w 1 and w2 are the humidity ratio of
air at the inlet and exit of the adiabatic saturator, respectively.

It is to be observed that the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is a thermodynamic property, and is

independent of the path taken by air. Assuming the humid specific heat to be constant, from the enthalpy
balance, the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature can be written as:

T2 = T1 – hfg,2/cpm (w2 – w1 )……………………….(1.14)

where h fg,2 is the latent heat of vaporization at the saturated condition 2. Thus measuring the dry bulb
(T1 ) and wet bulb temperature (T 2 ) one can find the inlet humidity ratio (w 1) from the above expression as
the outlet saturated humidity ratio (w 2) and latent heat of vaporizations are functions of T 2 alone (at fixed
barometric pressure).

On the psychrometric chart as shown in Fig.1.4, point 1 lies below the line of constant enthalpy that passes
through the saturation point 2. T 2 = f(T1,w1) is not a unique function, in the sense that there can be several
combinations of t1 and w1 which can result in the same sump temperature in the adiabatic saturator. A line
passing through all these points is a constant wet bulb temperature line. Thus all inlet conditions that result
in the same sump temperature, for example point 1’ have the same wet bulb temperature. The line is a
straight line according to the straight line law. The straight-line joining 1 and 2 represents the path of the air
as it passes through the adiabatic saturator.

Normally lines of constant wet bulb temperature are shown on the psychrometric chart. The difference
between actual enthalpy and the enthalpy obtained by following constant wet-bulb temperature is equal to
(w2-w1)hf.
1.3.3. Wet-Bulb Thermometer:

In practice, it is not convenient to measure the wet-bulb temperature using an adiabatic saturator. In stead, a
thermometer with a wetted wick is used to measure the wet bulb temperature as shown in Fig.1.6. It can be
observed that since the area of the wet bulb is finite, the state of air at the exit of the wet bulb will not be
saturated, in stead it will be point 2 on the straight line joining 1 and i, provided the temperature of water on
the wet bulb is i. It has been shown by Carrier, that this is a valid assumption for air-water mixtures. Hence
for air-water mixtures, one can assume that the temperature measured by the wet-bulb thermometer is equal
to the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature4. For other gas-vapor mixtures, there can be appreciable
difference between the thermodynamic and actual wet-bulb temperatures.
Questions and answers:

5. On a particular day the weather forecast states that the dry bulb temperature is 37oC, while the relative
humidity is 50% and the barometric pressure is 101.325 kPa. Find the humidity ratio, dew point temperature
and enthalpy of moist air on this day.

Ans.:

At 37oC the saturation pressure (ps) of water vapour is obtained from steam tables as 6.2795 kPa.

Since the relative humidity is 50%, the vapour pressure of water in air (pv) is:

pv = 0.5 x ps = 0.5 x 6.2795 = 3.13975 kPa

the humidity ratio W is given by:

W = 0.622 x pv/(pt−pv) = 0.622 x 3.13975/(101.325−3.13975) = 0.01989 kgw/kgda

(Ans.)

The enthalpy of air (h) is given by the equation:

h = 1.005t+W(2501+1.88t) = 1.005 x 37+0.01989(2501+1.88 x 37) = 88.31 kJ/kgda

(Ans.)

6. Will the moisture in the above air condense when it comes in contact with a cold surface whose surface
temperature is 24oC?

Ans.: Moisture in condense when it is cooled below its dew point temperature.

The dew point temperature of the air at 37oC and 50 % relative humidity is equal to the saturation
temperature of water at a vapour pressure of 3.13975 kPa.

Lecture 03
Evaporative, Winter and All Year Air Conditioning Systems

5.1. Introduction to evaporative air conditioning systems:

Summer air conditioning systems capable of maintaining exactly the required conditions in the conditioned
space are expensive to own and operate. Sometimes, partially effective systems may yield the best results in
terms of comfort and cost. Evaporative air conditioning systems are inexpensive and offer an attractive
alternative to the conventional summer air conditioning systems in places, which are hot and dry.
Evaporative air conditioning systems also find applications in hot industrial environments where the use of
conventional air conditioning systems becomes prohibitively expensive.

Evaporative cooling has been in use for many centuries in countries such as India for cooling water and for
providing thermal comfort in hot and dry regions. This system is based on the principle that when moist but
unsaturated air comes in contact with a wetted surface whose temperature is higher than the dew point
temperature of air, some water from the wetted surface evaporates into air. The latent heat of evaporation is
taken from water, air or both of them. In this process, the air loses sensible heat but gains latent heat due to
transfer of water vapour. Thus the air gets cooled and humidified. The cooled and humidified air can be used
for providing thermal comfort.
5.2. Classification of evaporative cooling systems:

The principle of evaporative cooling can be used in several ways. Cooling can be provided by:

1. Direct evaporation process

2. Indirect evaporation process,

3. A combination or multi-stage systems

5.2.1. Direct evaporative cooling systems:

In direct evaporative cooling, the process or conditioned air comes in direct contact with the wetted surface,
and gets cooled and humidified. Fig.5.1 shows the schematic diagram of an elementary direct, evaporative
cooling system and the process on a psychrometric chart. As shown in the figure, hot and dry outdoor air is
first filtered and then is brought in contact with the wetted surface or spray of water droplets in the air
washer. The air gets cooled and dehumidified due to simultaneous transfer of sensible and latent heats
between air and water (process o-s). The cooled and humidified air is supplied to the conditioned space,
where it extracts the sensible and latent heat from the conditioned space (process s-i). Finally the air is
exhausted at state i. In an ideal case when the air washer is perfectly insulated and an infinite amount of
contact area is available between air and the wetted surface, then the cooling and humidification process
follows the constant wet bulb temperature line and the temperature at the exit of the air washer is equal to
the wet bulb temperature of the entering air (T o,WBT), i.e., the process becomes an adiabatic saturation
process. However, in an actual system the temperature at the exit of the air washer will be higher than the
inlet wet bulb temperature due to heat leaks from the surroundings and also due to finite contact area. One
can define the saturation efficiency or effectiveness of the evaporative cooling system ε as:

ε = (To – Ts)/(To – To, WBT) (5.1)

Depending upon the design aspects of the evaporative cooling system, the effectiveness may vary from 50%
(for simple drip type) to about 90% (for efficient spray pads or air washers).

The amount of supply air required m s can be obtained by writing energy balance equation for the
conditioned space, i.e.,

ms = Qt/(hi – hs) (5.2)

where Qt is the total heat transfer rate (sensible + latent) to the building, h i and hs are the specific enthalpies
of return air and supply air, respectively.

Compared to the conventional refrigeration based air conditioning systems, the amount of airflow rate
required for a given amount of cooling is much larger in case of evaporative cooling systems. As shown by
the above equation and also from Fig.5.1, it is clear that for a given outdoor dry bulb temperature, as the
moisture content of outdoor air increases, the required amount of supply air flow rate increases rapidly. And
at a threshold moisture content value, the evaporative coolers cannot provide comfort as the cooling and
humidification line lies above the conditioned space condition ‘i’. Thus evaporative coolers are very useful
essentially in dry climates, whereas the conventional refrigeration based air conditioning systems can be
used in any type of climate.

5.2.2. Indirect evaporative cooling system:

Fig.5.2 shows the schematic diagram of a basic, indirect evaporative cooling system and the process on a
psychrometric chart. As shown in the figure, in an indirect evaporative cooling process, two streams of air -
primary and secondary are used. The primary air stream becomes cooled and humidified by coming in direct
contact with the wetted surface (o-o’), while the secondary stream which is used as supply air to the
conditioned space, decreases its temperature by exchanging only sensible heat with the cooled and
humidified air stream (o-s). Thus the moisture content of the supply air remains constant in an indirect
evaporative cooling system, while its temperature drops. Obviously, everything else remaining constant, the
temperature drop obtained in a direct evaporative cooling system is larger compared to that obtained in an
indirect system, in addition, the direct evaporative cooling system is also simpler and hence, relatively
inexpensive. However, since the moisture content of supply air remains constant in an indirect evaporation
process, this may provide greater degree of comfort in regions with higher humidity ratio. In modern day
indirect evaporative coolers, the conditioned air flows through tubes or plates made of non-corroding plastic
materials such as polystyrene (PS) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). On the outside of the plastic tubes or plates
thin film of water is maintained. Water from the liquid film on the outside of the tubes or plates evaporates
into the air blowing over it (primary air) and cools the conditioned air flowing through the tubes or plates
sensibly. Even though the plastic materials used in these coolers have low thermal conductivity, the high
external heat transfer coefficient due to evaporation of water more than makes up for this. The commercially
available indirect evaporative coolers have saturation efficiency as high as 80%.
5.2.3: Multi-stage evaporative cooling systems:

Several modifications are possible which improve efficiency of the evaporative cooling systems
significantly. One simple improvement is to sensibly cool the outdoor air before sending it to the
evaporative cooler by exchanging heat with the exhaust air from the conditioned space. This is possible
since the temperature of the outdoor air will be much higher than the exhaust air. It is also possible to mix
outdoor and return air in some proportion so that the temperature at the inlet to the evaporative cooler can be
reduced, thereby improving the performance. Several other schemes of increasing complexity have been
suggested to get the maximum possible benefit from the evaporative cooling systems. For example, one can
use multistage evaporative cooling systems and obtain supply air temperatures lower than the wet bulb
temperature of the outdoor air. Thus multistage systems can be used even in locations where the humidity
levels are high.

Figure 4.3 shows a typical two-stage evaporative cooling system and the process on a psychrometric chart.
As shown in the figure, in the first stage the primary air cooled and humidified (o -o’) due to direct contact
with a wet surface cools the secondary air sensibly (o -1) in a heat exchanger. In the second stage, the
secondary air stream is further cooled by a direct evaporation process (1-2). Thus in an ideal case, the final
exit temperature of the supply air (T 2) is several degrees lower than the wet bulb temperature of the inlet air
to the system (To’).

5.3. Advantages and disadvantages of evaporative cooling systems:

Compared to the conventional refrigeration based air conditioning systems, the evaporative cooling systems
offer the following advantages:

1. Lower equipment and installation costs

2. Substantially lower operating and power costs. Energy savings can be as high as 75 %
3. Ease of fabrication and installation
4. Lower maintenance costs
5. Ensures a very good ventilation due to the large air flow rates involved, hence, are very good especially in
100 % outdoor air applications
6. Better air distribution in the conditioned space due to higher flow rates
7. The fans/blowers create positive pressures in the conditioned space, so that infiltration of outside air is
prevented
8. Very environment friendly as no harmful chemicals are used
Compared to the conventional systems, the evaporative cooling systems suffer from the following
disadvantages:
1. The moisture level in the conditioned space could be higher, hence, direct evaporative coolers are not
good when low humidity levels in the conditioned space is required. However, the indirect evaporative
cooler can be used without increasing humidity
2. Since the required air flow rates are much larger, this may create draft and/or high noise levels in the
conditioned space
3. Precise control of temperature and humidity in the conditioned space is not possible
4. May lead to health problems due to micro-organisms if the water used is not clean or the wetted surfaces
are not maintained properly.
5.4. Applicability of evaporative cooling systems:

As mentioned before, evaporative cooling systems are ideal in hot and dry places, i.e., in places where the
dry bulb temperature is high and the coincident wet bulb temperature is low. However, there are no clear-cut
rules as to where these systems can or cannot be used. Evaporative cooling can provide some measure of
comfort in any location. However, in many locations where the humidity levels are very high, stand-alone
evaporative cooling systems cannot be used for providing thermal comfort especially in residences, office
buildings etc. One of the older rules-of-thumb used in USA specifies that evaporative cooling systems can
be used wherever the average noon relative humidity during July is less than 40%. However, experience
shows that evaporative coolers can be used even in locations where the relative humidity is higher than 40%.
A more recent guideline suggests that evaporative cooling can be used in locations where the summer design
wet bulb temperatures are less than about 24 oC (75oF). It is generally observed that evaporative coolers can
compete with conventional systems when the noon relative humidity during July is less than 40%, hence
should definitely be considered as a viable alternative, whereas these systems can be used in places where
the noon relative humidity is higher than 40% but the design WBT is lower than 24 oC, with a greater
sacrifice of comfort. It should be mentioned that both these guidelines have been developed for direct
evaporative cooling systems. Indirect evaporative coolers can be used over a slightly broader range.
Evaporative air conditioning systems can also be used over a broader range of outdoor conditions in
factories, industries and commercial buildings, where the comfort criteria is not so rigid (temperatures as
high as 30oC in the conditioned space are acceptable). Evaporative air conditioning systems are highly
suitable in applications requiring large amounts of ventilation and/or high humidity in the conditioned space
such as textile mills, foundries, dry cleaning plants etc.

Evaporative cooling can be combined with a conventional refrigeration based air conditioning systems
leading to substantial savings in energy consumption, if the outside conditions are favorable. Again, a
number of possibilities exist. For example, the outdoor air can be first cooled in an evaporative cooler and
then mixed with the re-circulating air from the conditioned space and then cooled further in the conventional
refrigerant or chilled water coil.

5.5. Winter/Summer Air Conditioning Systems

In winter the outside conditions are cold and dry. As a result, there will be a continuous transfer of sensible
heat as well as moisture (latent heat) from the buildings to the outside. Hence, in order to maintain required
comfort conditions in the occupied space an air conditioning system is required which can offset the sensible
and latent heat losses from the building. Air supplied to the conditioned space is heated and humidified in
the winter air conditioning system to the required level of temperature and moisture content depending upon
the sensible and latent heat losses from the building. In winter the heat losses from the conditioned space are
partially offset by solar and internal heat gains. Thus in a conservative design of winter A/C systems, the
effects of solar radiation and internal heat gain are not considered.

Heating and humidification of air can be achieved by different schemes. Fig.5.4 shows one such scheme
along with the cycle on psychrometric chart. As shown in the figure, the mixed air (mixture of return and
outdoor air) is first pre-heated (m-1) in the pre-heater, then humidified using a humidifier or an air washer
(1-2) and then finally reheated in the reheater (2-s). The reheated air at state ‘s’ is supplied to the
conditioned space. The flow rate of supply air should be such that when released into the conditioned space
at state ‘s’, it should be able to maintain the conditioned space at state I and offset the sensible and latent
heat losses (Q and Qs l). Pre-heating of air is advantageous as it ensures that water in the humidifier/air
washer does not freeze. In addition, by controlling the heat supplied in the pre-heater one can control the
moisture content in the conditioned space.
The humidification of air can be achieved in several ways, e.g. by bringing the air in contact with a wetted
surface, or with droplets of water as in an air washer, by adding aerosol sized water droplets directly to air or
by direct addition of dry saturated or superheated steam. Humidification by direct contact with a wetted
surface or by using an air washer are not recommended for comfort applications or for other applications
where people are present in the conditioned space due to potential health hazards by the presence of micro-
organisms in water. The most common method of humidifying air for these applications is by direct addition
of dry steam to air. When air is humidified by contact with wetted surface as in an air washer, then
temperature of air decreases as its humidity increases due to simultaneous transfer of sensible and latent
heat. If the air washer functions as an adiabatic saturator, then humidification proceeds along the constant
wet bulb temperature line. However, when air is humidified by directly adding dry, saturated steam, then the
humidification proceeds close to the constant dry bulb temperature line. The final state of air is always
obtained by applying conservation of mass (water) and conservation of energy equations to the
humidification process.

By applying energy balance across the conditioned space, at steady state, the sensible and latent heat losses
from the building can be written as:
 Qs = ms cpm (Ts - Ti) (31.3)

Ql = ms hfg (ωs - ωi) (31.4)

where ms is the mass flow rate of supply air, c pm is the specific heat of air, hfg is the latent heat of
vapourization of water, ωs and ωi are the supply and return air humidity ratios and T s , Ti are the supply and
return temperatures of air. By applying mass and/or energy balance equations across individual components,
the amount of sensible heat transfer rate to the pre-heater and re-heater and the amount of moisture to be
added in the humidifier can easily be calculated.

Fig.5.5 shows another scheme that can also be used for heating and humidification of air as required in a
winter air conditioning system. As shown in the figure, this system does not consist of a pre-heater. The
mixed air is directly humidified using an air washer (m-1) and is then reheated (1-s) before supplying it to
the conditioned space. Though this system is simpler compared to the previous one, it suffers from
disadvantages such as possibility of water freezing in the air washer when large amount of cold outdoor air
is used and also from health hazards to the occupants if the water used in the air washer is not clean. Hence
this system is not recommended for comfort conditioning but can be used in applications where the air
temperatures at the inlet to the air washer are above 0 oC and the conditioned space is used for products or
processes, but not for providing personnel comfort.

Actual winter air conditioning systems, in addition to the basic components shown above, consist of fans or
blowers for air circulation and filters for purifying air. The fan or blower introduces sensible heat into the air
stream as all the electrical power input to the fan is finally dissipated in the form of heat.
5.6. All year (complete) air conditioning systems:

Fig.5.6 shows a complete air conditioning system that can be used for providing air conditioning throughout
the year, i.e., during summer as well as winter. As shown in the figure, the system consists of a filter, a
heating coil, a cooling & dehumidifying coil, a re-heating coil, a humidifier and a blower. In addition to
these, actual systems consist of several other accessories such as dampers for controlling flow rates of re-
circulated and outdoor (OD) air, control systems for controlling the space conditions, safety devices etc.
Large air conditioning systems use blowers in the return air stream also. Generally, during summer the
heating and humidifying coils remain inactive, while during winter the cooling and dehumidifying coil
remains inactive. However, in some applications for precise control of conditions in the conditioned space
all the coils may have to be made active. The blowers will remain active throughout the year, as air has to be
circulated during summer as well as during winter. When the outdoor conditions are favourable, it is
possible to maintain comfort conditions by using filtered outdoor air alone, in which case only the blowers
will be running and all the coils will be inactive leading to significant savings in energy consumption. A
control system is required which changes-over the system from winter operation to summer operation or
vice versa depending upon the outdoor conditions.

Questions and answers:

Q9. A large warehouse located at an altitude of 1500 m has to be maintained at a DBT of 27 oC and a relative
humidity of 50% using a direct evaporative cooling system. The outdoor conditions are 33 oC (DBT) and
15oC (WBT). The cooling load on the warehouse is 352 kW. A supply fan located in the downstream of the
evaporative cooler adds 15 kW of heat. Find the required mass flow rate of air. Assume the process in
evaporative cooler to follow a constant WBT.

Ans.:

At 1500 m, the barometric pressure is equal to 84.436 kPa.

Inlet conditions to the evaporative cooling system are the outdoor conditions:

To = 33oC, WBTo = 15oC

At these conditions and a barometric pressure of 84.436 kPa, the enthalpy of outdoor air is obtained using
psychrometric equations1 as:

ho = 46.67 kJ/kgda

The above system is shown on psychrometric chart in Fig.5.7

Assuming the evaporative process to follow a constant WBT and hence nearly a constant enthalpy line,

ho =ho’= 46.67 kJ/kgda

1 Standard psychrometric chart cannot be used here as the barometric pressure is nit 1 atm.

Applying energy balance for the sensible heating process in the fan (process o’-s) and heating and
humidification process through the conditioned space (process s-i), we obtain:

ms (hs – ho’) = 15 = sensible heat added due to fan (E.1)

ms (hi – hs) = 352 = cooling load on the room (E.2)

From psychrometric equations, for the inside condition of the warehouse (DBT=27 oC and RH = 50%), the
enthalpy hi is found from psychrometric equations as:

hi = 61.38 kJ/kgda

We have two unknowns (ms and hs) and two equations (E.1 and E.2), hence solving the equations
simultaneously yields:

ms = 24.94 kJ/kg and hs = 47.27 kJ/kgda (Ans.)

Q10. A winter air conditioning system maintains a building at 21 o C and 40% RH. The outdoor conditions
are 0oC (DBT) and 100% RH. The sensible load load on the building is 100 kW, while the latent heating
load is 25 kW. In the air conditioning system, 50% of the outdoor air (by mass) is mixed with 50% of the
room air. The mixed air is heated in a pre-heater to 25 oC and then required amount of dry saturated steam at
1 atm. pressure is added to the pre-heated air in a humidifier. The humidified air is then heated to supply
temperature of 45oC and is then supplied to the room. Find a) The required mass flow rate of supply air, b)
Required amount of steam to be added, and c) Required heat input in pre-heater and re-heater. Barometric
pressure = 1atm.

Ans.: From psychrometric chart the following properties are obtained:

Outdoor conditions: 0oC (DBT) and 100% RH

ωo = 0.00377 kgw/kgda, ho = 9.439 kJ/kgda

oIndoor conditions: 21o C (DBT) and 40% RH

ωi = 0.00617 kgw/kgda, hi = 36.66 kJ/kgda

Since equal amounts of outdoor and indoor air are mixed:

Tm = 10.5oC, ωm = 0.00497 kgw/kgda, hm = 23.05 kJ/kgda

From sensible energy balance across the room (Process s-i) in Fig.5.8:

a) Required mass flow rate of supply air is:

ms = Qs/{cpm (Ts – Ti)} = 100/{1.0216(45 – 21)} = 4.08 kg/s (Ans.)

From latent energy balance for process s-i, the humidity ratio of supply air is found to be:

ωs = ωi + Ql /(hfg.ms) = 0.00617 + 25/(2501 x 4.08) = 0.00862 kgw/kgda

b) Required amount of steam to be added mw is obtained from mass balance across the humidifier (process
r-h) as:

mw = ms(ωs – ωm) = 4.08 x (0.00862 – 0.00497) = 0.0149 kg/s (Ans.)

c) Heat input to the pre-heater (process m-r) is obtained as:

Qph = ms.cpm(Tr – Tm) = 60.44 kW (Ans.)

Heat input to the re-heater (process h-s) is obtained as:

Qrh = ms.cpm(Ts –Tr) = 83.36 kW (Ans.)

In the above example, it is assumed that during addition of steam, the dry bulb temperature of air remains
constant. A simple check by using energy balance across the humidifier shows that this assumption is valid.

Lecture 04
Psychrometric Processes of Air Conditioning Systems

2.1. Introduction:

In the design and analysis of air conditioning plants, the fundamental requirement is to identify the various
processes being performed on air. Once identified, the processes can be analyzed by applying the laws of
conservation of mass and energy. All these processes can be plotted easily on a psychrometric chart. This is
very useful for quick visualization and also for identifying the changes taking place in important properties
such as temperature, humidity ratio, enthalpy etc. The important processes that air undergoes in a typical air
conditioning plant are discussed below.

2.2. Psychrometric processes:

Basic Psychrometric processes:
1. Sensible cooling, 2. Sensible heating, 3. Latent cooling, 4. Latent heating, 5. Heating and humidification,
6. Heating and dehumidification, 7. Cooling and humidification, 8. Cooling and dehumidification processes.
a) Sensible cooling (process O-A):

During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant but its temperature decreases as it flows
over a cooling coil. For moisture content to remain constant, the surface of the cooling coil should be dry
and its surface temperature should be greater than the dew point temperature of air. If the cooling coil is
100% effective, then the exit temperature of air will be equal to the coil temperature. However, in practice,
the exit air temperature will be higher than the cooling coil temperature. Fig. 2.1 shows the sensible cooling
process O-A on a psychrometric chart. The heat transfer rate during this process is given by:

Qs = ma(ho – hA ) = ma cp (To – TA) ……………………………………….. (2.1)

b) Sensible heating (Process O-B):

During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant and its temperature increases as it flows
over a heating coil. The heat transfer rate during this process is given by:
 Qs = ma(hB – ho ) = ma cp (TB – To )…………………………………………. (2.2)

= ma cpa (TB – To ) + maω cpv (TB – To ) = ma (1.005 + 1.88ω) (TB – To )

where cp is the humid specific heat (≈1.0216 kJ/kg dry air) and ma is the mass flow rate of dry air (kg/s).

ma = ρQv = ρ.cmm/60 kg d.a./sec

For the purpose of air conditioning calculation, standard air is considered at 20 oC and 50% RH. Density for
standard air is 1.2 kg/m3d.a. and humid specific heat is 1.0216 kJ/kg d.a. K

Qs = (cmm)(1.2)(1.0216). ΔT/60

= 0.0204(cmm) ΔT kW……………………………………………………….(2.3)

c) Latent Heating or Cooling processes:

QL = ma(hB – ho) = ma{(cpTB + hfgoωB) - (cpTo + hfgoωo)}

= mahfgo(ωB –ωo)

or, QL = (cmm)(1.2)(2500) Δω/60 as latent heat of vaporization hfgo = 2500 kJ/kg d.a. for standard air

= 50(cmm) Δω kW………………………………………………………..(2.4)

c) Cooling and dehumidification (Process O-C):

When moist air is cooled below its dew-point by bringing it in contact with a cold surface as shown in
Fig.2.3, some of the water vapor in the air condenses and leaves the air stream as liquid, as a result both the
temperature and humidity ratio of air decreases as shown. This is the process air undergoes in a typical air
conditioning system. Although the actual process path will vary depending upon the type of cold surface, the
surface temperature, and flow conditions, for simplicity the process line is assumed to be a straight line. The
heat and mass transfer rates can be expressed in terms of the initial and final conditions by applying the
conservation of mass and conservation of energy equations as given below:
By applying mass balance for the water:

ma.ωo = ma. ωc + mw ……………………………………………………… (2.3)

By applying energy balance:

ma.ho = Qt + mw.hw + ma.hc …………………………………………………(2.4)

from the above two equations, the load on the cooling coil, Qt is given by:

Qt = ma (ho – hc) - ma (ωo – ωc )hw ………………………………….. (2.5)

The 2nd term on the RHS of the above equation is normally small compared to the other term, so it can be
neglected. Hence,

Qt = ma(ho – hc) ……………………………………………………..……… (2.6)

It can be observed that the cooling and de-humidification process involves both latent and sensible heat
transfer processes, hence, the total, latent, and sensible heat transfer rates (Qt, Ql and Qs) can be written as:

Qt = Ql + QS

where Ql = ma (ho – hw) = ma. hfg (ωo – ωc )

Qs = ma (hw – hc) = ma .cp(To – Tc)………………………………. (2.7)

By separating the total heat transfer rate from the cooling coil into sensible and latent heat transfer rates, a
useful parameter called Sensible Heat Factor (SHF) is defined. SHF is defined as the ratio of sensible to total
heat transfer rate, i.e.,

SHF = Qs /Qt = Qs /(Qs + Ql )…………………………………….. (2.8)

 From the above equation, one can deduce that a SHF of 1.0 corresponds to no latent heat transfer and a SHF
of 0 corresponds to no sensible heat transfer. A SHF of 0.75 to 0.80 is quite common in air conditioning
systems in a normal dry-climate.

A lower value of SHF, say 0.6, implies a high latent heat load such as that occurs in a humid climate.

tan c = Δω/ΔT = 1/2451{(1 – SHF)/SHF}…………………………………(2.9)

As (1 – SHF)/SHF = Ql/Qs = 2501x Δω/1.0216x ΔT = 2451(Δω/ ΔT)

It may be observed from Fig. that point B divides the total enthalpy change (h o – hc) in the ratio of SHF and
(1 – SHF). The sensible heat transfer taking place along CB is proportional to SHF and the latent heat
transfer along BO is proportional to (1 – SHF). The process line OC or CO is called sensible heat factor or
process or condition line.

We can see that the slope of the cooling and de-humidification or heating and humidification line is purely a
function of the sensible heat factor, SHF. Hence, we can draw the cooling and dehumidification or heating
and humidification line on psychrometric chart if the initial state and the SHF are known. In some standard
psychrometric charts, a protractor with different values of SHF is provided. The process line is drawn
through the initial state point and in parallel to the given SHF line from the protractor as shown in Fig. 2.4.

In Fig.2.3, the temperature Ts is the effective surface temperature of the cooling coil, and is known as
apparatus dew-point (ADP) temperature. In an ideal situation, when all the air comes in perfect contact with
the cooling coil surface, then the exit temperature of air will be same as ADP of the coil. However, in actual
case the exit temperature of air will always be greater than the apparatus dew-point temperature due to
boundary layer development as air flows over the cooling coil surface and also due to temperature variation
along the fins etc. Hence, we can define a by-pass factor (BPF) as:

BPF = ( TC – TS)/(TO – TS) similarly it may also be expressed as

= (hC –hS)/(hO – hS)

= (ωC – ωS)/(ωO – ωS)

It can be easily seen that, higher the by-pass factor larger will be the difference between air outlet
temperature and the cooling coil temperature. When BPF is 1.0, all the air by-passes the coil and there will
not be any cooling or de-humidification. In practice, the by-pass factor can be decreased by increasing the
number of rows in a cooling coil or by decreasing the air velocity or by reducing the fin pitch.
Coversely, a contact factor(CF) can be defined which is given by:

CF = (1 - BPF)

d) Heating and Humidification (Process O-D):

During winter it is essential to heat and humidify the room air for comfort. As shown in Fig.2.5, this is
normally done by first sensibly heating the air and then adding water vapour to the air stream through steam
nozzles as shown in the figure.

Mass balance of water vapor for the control volume yields the rate at which steam has to be added, i.e., m w:

mw = ma (ωD – ωO)

where ma is the mass flow rate of dry air

From energy balance,

Qh= ma (hD – hO) - mwhw

where Qh is the heat supplied through the heating coil and hw is the enthalpy of steam.

Since this process also involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer, we can define a sensible heat factor for
the process in a way similar to that of a cooling and dehumidification process.

e) Cooling & humidification (Process O-E):

As the name implies, during this process, the air temperature drops and its humidity increases. This process
is shown in Fig.2.6, this can be achieved by spraying cool water in the air stream. The temperature of water
should be lower than the dry-bulb temperature of air but higher than its dew-point temperature to avoid
condensation. It can be seen that during this process there is sensible heat transfer from air to water and
latent heat transfer from water to air. Hence, the total heat transfer depends upon the water temperature. If
the temperature of the water sprayed is equal to the wet bulb temperature of air, then the net transfer rate
will be zero as the sensible heat transfer from air to water will be equal to latent heat transfer from water to
air. If the water temperature is greater than WBT, then there will be a net heat transfer from water to air.

If the water temperature is less than WBT, then the net heat transfer will be from air to water. Under a
special case when the spray water is entirely recirculated and is neither heated nor cooled, the system is
perfectly insulated and the make-up water is supplied at WBT, then at steady-state, the air undergoes an
adiabatic saturation process, during which its WBT remains constant. This is the process of adiabatic
saturation discussed in Chapter 1. The process of cooling and humidification is encountered in a wide
variety of devices such as evaporative coolers, cooling towers etc.

f) Heating and de-humidification or Chemical dehumification (Process O-F):

This process can be achieved by using a hygroscopic material, which absorbs or adsorbs the water vapor
from the moisture. If this process is thermally isolated, then the enthalpy of air remains constant, as a result
the temperature of air increases as its moisture content decreases as shown in Fig.2.7. This hygroscopic
material can be a solid or a liquid. In general, the absorption of water by the hygroscopic material is an
exothermic reaction, as a result heat is released during this process, which is transferred to air and the
enthalpy of air increases.
g) Mixing of air streams:

Mixing of air streams at different states is commonly encountered in many processes, including in air
conditioning. Depending upon the state of the individual streams, the mixing process can take place with or
without condensation of moisture.

i) Without condensation: Fig.2.8 shows an adiabatic mixing of two moist air streams during which no
condensation of moisture takes place. As shown in the figure, when two air streams at state points 1 and 2
mix, the resulting mixture condition 3 can be obtained from mass and energy balance.

From the mass balance of dry air and water vapor:

ma,3 ω3 = (ma,1 ω1 + ma,2 ω2)

or, ω3 = (ma,1 ω1 + ma,2 ω2)/ma,3

Similarly from energy balance, h3 = (ma,1 h1 + ma,2 h2)/ma,3 where ma,3 = (ma,1 + ma,2)
From the above equations, it can be observed that the final enthalpy and humidity ratio of mixture are
weighted averages of inlet enthalpies and humidity ratios. A generally valid approximation is that the final
temperature of the mixture is the weighted average of the inlet temperatures. With this approximation, the
point on the psychrometric chart representing the mixture lies on a straight line connecting the two inlet
states. Hence, the ratio of distances on the line, i.e., (1-3)/(2-3) is equal to the ratio of flow rates m a,2 /ma,1.
The resulting error (due to the assumption that the humid specific heats being constant) is usually less than 1
percent.

ii) Mixing with condensation:

As shown in Fig.2.9, when very cold and dry air mixes with warm air at high relative humidity, the resulting
mixture condition may lie in the two-phase region, as a result there will be condensation of water vapor and
some amount of water will leave the system as liquid water. Due to this, the humidity ratio of the resulting
mixture (point 3) will be less than that at point 4. Corresponding to this will be an increase in temperature of
air due to the release of latent heat of condensation. This process rarely occurs in an air conditioning system,
but this is the phenomenon which results in the formation of fog or frost (if the mixture temperature is below
0o C). This happens in winter when the cold air near the earth mixes with the humid and warm air, which
develops towards the evening or after rains.

2.3. Air Washers:

An air washer is a device for conditioning air. As shown in Fig.2.10, in an air washer air comes in direct
contact with a spray of water and there will be an exchange of heat and mass (water vapour) between air and
water. The outlet condition of air depends upon the temperature of water sprayed in the air washer. Hence,
by controlling the water temperature externally, it is possible to control the outlet conditions of air, which
then can be used for air conditioning purposes.
In the air washer, the mean temperature of water droplets in contact with air decides the direction of heat and
mass transfer. As a consequence of the 2nd law, the heat transfer between air and water droplets will be in the
direction of decreasing temperature gradient. Similarly, the mass transfer will be in the direction of
decreasing vapor pressure gradient. For example,

a) Cooling and dehumidification: Tw < TDPT. Since the exit enthalpy of air is less than its inlet value, from
energy balance it can be shown that there is a transfer of total energy from air to water. Hence to continue
the process, water has to be externally cooled. Here both latent and sensible heat transfers are from air to
water. This is shown by Process O-A in Fig.2.11.

b) Adiabatic saturation: Tw = TWBT. Here the sensible heat transfer from air to water is exactly equal to latent
heat transfer from water to air. Hence, no external cooling or heating of water is required. That is this is a
case of pure water recirculation. This is shown by Process O-B in Fig.2.11. This is the process that takes
place in a perfectly insulated evaporative cooler.

c) Cooling and humidification: TDPT < Tw < TWBT. Here the sensible heat transfer is from air to water and
latent heat transfer is from water to air, but the total heat transfer is from air to water, hence, water has to be
cooled externally. This is shown by Process O-C in Fig.2.11.

d) Cooling and humidification: TWBT < Tw < TDBT. Here the sensible heat transfer is from air to water and
latent heat transfer is from water to air, but the total heat transfer is from water to air, hence, water has to be
heated externally. This is shown by Process O-D in Fig.2.11. This is the process that takes place in a cooling
tower. The air stream extracts heat from the hot water coming from the condenser, and the cooled water is
sent back to the condenser.

e) Heating and humidification: Tw > TDBT. Here both sensible and latent heat transfers are from water to air,
hence, water has to be heated externally. This is shown by Process O-E in Fig.2.11.

Thus, it can be seen that an air washer works as a year-round air conditioning system. Though air washer is
an extremely useful simple device, it is not commonly used for comfort air conditioning applications due to
concerns about health resulting from bacterial or fungal growth on the wetted surfaces. However, it can be
used in industrial applications.

2.4.1. Calculation for Summer and Winter Air conditioning:

Generally from the building specifications, inside and outside design conditions; the latent and sensible
cooling or heating loads on a building can be estimated. Normally, depending on the ventilation
requirements of the building, the required outdoor air (fresh air) is specified. The topic of load estimation
will be discussed in a later chapter. From known loads on the building and design inside and outside
conditions, psychrometric calculations are performed to find:

1. Supply air conditions (air flow rate, DBT, humidity ratio & enthalpy)

2. Coil specifications (Latent and sensible loads on coil, coil ADP & BPF)

In this chapter fixing of supply air conditions and coil specifications for summer air conditioning systems
are discussed. Since the procedure is similar for winter air conditioning system, the winter air conditioning
systems are not discussed here.

2.4.2. Summer air conditioning systems:

2.4.2.1. Simple system with 100 % re-circulated air:

In this simple system, there is no outside air and the same air is recirculated as shown in Fig.2.12 & Fig.
2.13 also shows the process on a psychrometric chart. It can be seen that cold and dry air is supplied to the
room and the air that leaves the condition space is assumed to be at the same conditions as that of the
conditioned space. The supply air condition should be such that as it flows through the conditioned space it
can counteract the sensible and latent heat transfers taking place from the outside to the conditioned space,
so that the space can be maintained at required low temperature and humidity. Assuming no heat gains in the
supply and return ducts and no energy addition due to fans, and applying energy balance across the room;
the Room Sensible Cooling load (Qs,r), Room Latent Cooling Load (Ql,r) and Room Total Cooling load (Qt,r)
are given by:

Qs,r = ms cpm (Ti - Ts ) ……………………………………………..(2.10)

Ql,r = ms hfg (ωi – ωs ) ……………………………………………..(2.11)

Qt,r = Qs,r + Ql,r = ms ( hi + hs ) ……………………………………..(2.12) where i is inside s is supply

con.

From cooling load calculations, the sensible, latent and total cooling loads on the room are obtained. Hence
one can find the Room Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF) from the equation:

Qs , r Q
RSHF= = s ,r
Ql ,r +Q
s ,r
Qt ,r

From the RSHF value one can calculate the slope of the process undergone by the air as it flows through
the conditioned space (process s-i) as:

Slope of the process line ( s−i ) , tanθ= (

1 1−RSHF
2451 RSHF ) ……….. (2.13) from eqn. 2.10

Since the condition i is known say, from thermal comfort criteria, knowing the slope, one can draw the
process line s-i through i. The intersection of this line with the saturation curve gives the ADP of the cooling
coil as shown in Fig.2.12. It should be noted that for the given room sensible and latent cooling loads, the
supply condition must always lie on this line so that it can extract the sensible and latent loads on the
conditioned space in the required proportions.

Since the case being considered is one of 100 % re-circulation, the process that the air undergoes as it flows
through the cooling coil (i.e. process i-s) will be exactly opposite to the process undergone by air as it flows
through the room (process s-i). Thus, the temperature and humidity ratio of air decrease as it flows through
the cooling coil and temperature and humidity ratio increase as air flows through the conditioned space.
Assuming no heat transfer due to the ducts and fans, the sensible and latent heat transfer rates at the cooling
coil are exactly equal to the sensible and latent heat transfer rates to the conditioned space; i.e.,

Qs,r = Q s,c & Q l,r = Q l,c ………………………………………… (2.15)

Fixing of supply condition:

The supply condition has to be fixed using Eqns.(2.10) to (2.12). However, since there are 4 unknowns (m s,
Ts , ωs, and hs ) and 3 equations, (Eqns.(2.10) to (2.12), one parameter has to be fixed to find the other three
unknown parameters from the three equations.

If the by-pass factor (X) of the cooling coil is known, then, from room conditions, coil ADP and by-pass
factor, the supply air temperature Ts is obtained using the definition of by-pass factor as:

T s −T ADP
X=
T i−T ADP

or, Ts = TADP + X( Ti – TADP ) …………………………………………….(2.15)

Once the supply temperature Ts is known, then the mass flow rate of supply air is obtained from Eqn.(2.10)
as:

Q s ,r Qs ,r
m= = …………… (2.16)
C pm ( T i−T s ) C pm ( T i −T ADP ) ( 1− X )

From the mass flow rate of air and condition i, the supply air humidity ratio and enthalpy are obtained using
Eqns.(2.11) and (2.12) as:

Ql , r
ω s=ωi− ……………………………………………..(2.17)
ms hfg

Qt ,r
h s=hi − ………………………………………………….(2.18)
ms

From Eqn.(2.16), it is clear that the required mass flow rate of supply air decreases as the by-pass factor X
decreases. In the limiting case when the by-pass factor is zero, the minimum amount of supply air flow rate
required is:
 Q s ,r
m s , min= ……………………………………(2.19)
C pm ( T i−T ADP )

Thus with 100 % re-circulated air, the room ADP is equal to coil ADP and the load on the coil is equal to
the load on the room.

2.4.2.2 System with outdoor air for ventilation:

In actual air conditioning systems, some amount of outdoor (fresh) air is added to take care of the
ventilation requirements. Normally, the required outdoor air for ventilation purposes is known from the
occupancy data and the type of the building (e.g. operation theatres require 100% outdoor air). Normally
either the quantity of outdoor air required is specified in absolute values or it is specified as a fraction of the
re-circulated air.

Fixing of supply condition:

Case i) By-pass factor of the cooling coil is zero:

Fig.2.13 shows the schematic diagram of the summer air conditioning system with outdoor air and the
corresponding process on psychrometric chart, when the by-pass factor X is zero. Since the sensible and
latent cooling loads on the conditioned space are assumed to be known from cooling load calculations,
similar to the earlier case, one can draw the process line s-i, from the RSHF and state i. The intersection of
this line with the saturation curve gives the room ADP. As shown on the psychrometric chart, when the by-
pass factor is zero, the room ADP is equal to coil ADP, which in turn is equal to the temperature of the
supply air. Hence from the supply temperature one can calculate the required supply air mass flow rate
(which is the minimum required as X is zero) using the equation:

Qs , r Q s ,r
ms = = …………………………………………(2.20)
C pm ( T i−T s ) C pm ( T i−T ADP )

From the supply mass flow rate, one can find the supply air humidity ratio and enthalpy using Eqns.(2.17)
and (2.18).

ms = mrc + mo ……………………………………………………….(2.21)

where, mrc is the re-circulated air mass flow rate and m o is the outdoor air mass flow rate. Since either m o or
the ratio mo:mrc are specified, one can calculate the amount of recirculated air from Eqn.(2.21).
Calculation of Coil Loads:

From energy balance across the cooling coil; the sensible, latent and total heat transfer rates, Q s,c , Ql,c

and Qt,c at the cooling coil are given by:

Qs,c = mscpm(Tm – Ts)

Ql,c = mshfg(ωm – ωs)

Qt,c = Qs,c + Ql,c = ms(hm – hs) …………………………………….(2.22)

Where ‘m’ refers to the mixing condition which is a result of the mixing of the recirculated air with outdoor
air. Applying mass and energy balance to the mixing process one can obtain the state of the mixed air from
the equation:

mo ω m−ωi hm−h i T m−T i

= = ≈ ……………………………(2.23)
ms ω o−ωi ho−hi T o−T i

Since (mo/ms) > 0, from the above eqn. it is clear that ω m >ωi , hm > hi and Tm > Ti. This implies that ms(hm -
hs) > ms(hi - hs), or the load on the cooling coil is greater than the load on the conditioned space. This is of
course due to the fact that during mixing, some amount of hot and humid air is added and the same amount
of relative cool and dry air is exhausted (mo = me).

From Eqn.(2.10) to (2.12) and (2.22), the difference between the cooling load on the coil and cooling load
on the conditioned space can be shown to be equal to:

Qs,c – Qs,r = mo cpm (To - Ti )

Ql,c – Ql,r = mo hfg(ωo – ωi)

QT,c – QT,r = mo (ho – hi ) ……………………………………….. (2.24)

From the above equation it is clear that the difference between cooling coil and conditioned space increases
as the amount of outdoor air (mo) increases and/or the outdoor air becomes hotter and more humid.
The line joining the mixed condition ‘m’ with the coil ADP is the process line undergone by the air as it
flows through the cooling coil. The slope of this line depends on the Coil Sensible Heat Factor (CSHF)
given by:

Qsc Qsc
CSHF= = ……………………………..(2.25)
Qsc + Qlc Qtc

Case ii: Coil by-pass factor, X > 0:

For actual cooling coils, the by-pass factor will be greater than zero, as a result the air temperature at the exit
of the cooling coil will be higher than that of the coil ADP. This is shown in Fig.2.14 along with the process
on psychrometric chart. It can be seen from the figure that when X > 0, the room ADP will be different
from the coil ADP. The system shown in Fig.2.14 is adequate when the RSHF is high ( > 0.75).
 Normally in actual systems, either the supply temperature (T s) or the temperature rise of air as it
flows through the conditioned space (Ti-Ts) will be specified. Then the step-wise procedure for finding the
supply air conditions and the coil loads are as follows:

i. Since the supply temperature is specified, one can calculate the required supply air flow rate and supply
conditions using Eqns. (2.16) to (2.18).

ii. Since conditions ‘i’, supply air temperature T s and RSHF are known, one can draw the line i-s. The
intersection of this line with the saturation curve gives the room ADP.

iii. Condition of air after mixing (point ‘m’) is obtained from known values of ms and mo using Eqn.(2.23).

iv. Now joining points ‘m’ and ‘s’ gives the process line of air as it flows through the cooling coil. The
intersection of this line with the saturation curve gives the coil ADP. It can be seen that the coil ADP is
lower than the room ADP.

v. The capacity of the cooling coil is obtained from Eqn.(2.22).

vi. From points ‘m’, ‘s’ and coil ADP, the by-pass factor of the cooling coil can be calculated.

If the coil ADP and coil by-pass factor are given instead of the supply air temperature, then a trial-and-error
method has to be employed to obtain the supply air condition.

2.4.2.3. High latent cooling load applications (low RSHF):

When the latent load on the building is high due either too high outside humidity or due to large ventilation
requirements (e.g. hospitals) or due to high internal latent loads (e.g. presence of kitchen or laundry), then
the simple system discussed above leads to very low coil ADP. A low coil ADP indicates operation of the
refrigeration system at low evaporator temperatures. Operating the system at low evaporator temperatures
decreases the COP of the refrigeration system leading to higher costs. Hence a reheat coil is sometimes used
so that the cooling coil can be operated at relatively high ADP, and at the same time the high latent load can
also be taken care of. Fig.2.15 shows an air conditioning system with reheat coil along with the
psychrometric representation of the process. As shown in the figure, in a system with reheat coil, air is first
cooled and dehumidified from point ‘m’ to point ’c’ in the cooling coil and is then reheated sensibly to the
required supply temperature Ts using the reheat coil. If the supply temperature is specified, then the mass
flow rate and state of the supply air and condition of the air after mixing can be obtained using equations
given above. Since the heating process in the reheat coil is sensible, the process line c-s will be horizontal.
Thus if the coil ADP is known, then one can draw the coil condition line and the intersection of this line
with the horizontal line drawn from supply state ‘s’ gives the condition of the air at the exit of the cooling
coil. From this condition, one can calculate the load on the cooling coil using the supply mass flow rate and
state of air after mixing. The capacity of the reheat coil is then obtained from energy balance across it.
Advantages and disadvantages of reheat coil:

a) Refrigeration system can be operated at reasonably high evaporator temperatures leading to high COP and
low running cost.

b) However, mass flow rate of supply air increases due to reduced temperature rise (T i-Ts ) across the
conditioned space.
c) Wasteful use of energy as air is first cooled to a lower temperature and then heated. Energy is required for
both cooling as well as reheating coils. However, this can be partially offset by using waste heat such as heat
rejected at the condenser for reheating of air.

Thus the actual benefit of reheat coil may vary from system to system.

2.5 Guidelines for selection of supply state and cooling coil state:

i. As much as possible the supply air quantity should be minimized so that smaller ducts and fans can be
used leading savings in cost of space, material and power. However, the minimum amount should be
sufficient to prevent the feeling of stagnation. If the required air flow rate through the cooling coil is
insufficient, then it is possible to mix some amount of re-circulated air with this air so that amount of air
supplied to the conditioned space increases. This merely increases the supply air flow rate, but does not
affect sensible and cooling loads on the conditioned space. Generally, the temperature rise (T i-Ts) will be in
the range of 8 to 15oC.

ii. The cooling coil should have 2 to 6 rows for moderate climate and 6 to 8 rows in hot and humid climate.
The by-pass factor of the coil varies from 0.05 to 0.2. The bypass factor decreases as the number of rows
increases and vice versa. The fin pitch and air velocity should be suitable.

iii. If chilled water is used for cooling and dehumidification, then the coil ADP will be about 4 oC higher than
other.

Prob.1. What is the required wattage of an electrical heater that heats 0.1 m 3/s of air from 15o C and 80% RH
to 55o C? The barometric pressure is 101.325 kPa.

Soln. Air undergoes sensible heating as it flows through the electrical heater

From energy balance, the required heater wattage (W) is given by:

W = ma(he−hi) ≈ (Va /νa).cpm(Te−Ti)

Where Va is the volumetric flow rate of air in m 3/s and νa is the specific volume of dry air. T e and Ti are the
exit and inlet temperatures of air and cpm is the average specific heat of moist air (≈1021.6 J/kg.K).
Using perfect gas model, the specific volume of dry air is found to be:

νa = (Ra.T/pa) = (Ra.T/( pt −pv)) At 15oC and 80% RH, the vapour pressure pv is found to be 1.364 kPa using
psychrometric chart or equations.

Substituting the values of R , T, p and p a Tv in the equation for specific volume, we find the value of specific
volume to be 0.8274 m3/kg

∴ Heater wattage, W ≈ (Va /νa).cpm(Te−Ti)=(0.1/0.8274)x1021.6(55-15) = 4938.8 W (Ans.)

Prob.2. 0.2 kg/s of moist air at 45 oC (DBT) and 10% RH is mixed with 0.3 kg/s of moist air at 25 oC and a
humidity ratio of 0.018 kgw/kgda in an adiabatic mixing chamber. After mixing, the mixed air is heated to a
final temperature of 40oC using a heater. Find the temperature and relative humidity of air after mixing. Find
the heat transfer rate in the heater and relative humidity of air at the exit of heater. Assume the barometric
pressure to be 1 atm.

Soln. Given: Stream 1: mass flow rate, ma,1 = 0.2 kg/s; T1 = 45oC and RH = 10%.

Using psychrometric equations or psychrometric chart, the humidity ratio and enthalpy of stream 1 are found
to be:

w1 = 0.006 kgw/kgda & h1 = 61.0 kJ/kgda

Stream 2: mass flow rate, ma,2 = 0.3 kg/s; T2 = 25oC and w2 = 0.018 kgw/kgda

Using psychrometric equations or psychrometric chart, enthalpy of stream 2 is found to be:

h2 = 71.0 kJ/kgda

For the adiabatic mixing process, from mass balance:

w3 = (ma,1.w1 + ma,2.w2)/( ma,1 + ma,2)=(0.2.0.006 + 0.3.0.018)/(o.2 + 0.3)= 0.0132 kgwv /kgda

From energy balance (assuming the specific heat of moist air to remain constant):

T3 =(ma,1.T1 + ma,2.T2)/( ma,1 + ma,2)=(0.2.45 + 0.3,25)/(0.2+0.3) = 33oC

From T3 and w3 , the relative humidity of air after mixing is found to be(from chart): RH = 41.8% (Ans.)

For the sensible heating process in the heater:

Qs = ma(he−hi) ≈ ma.cpm(Te−Ti) = 0.5x1.0216(40-33) = 3.5756 kW (Ans.)

The relative humidity at the exit of heater is obtained from the values of DBT (40 oC) and humidity ratio
(0.0132 kgw/kgda) using psychrometric chart/equations. This is found to be: RH at 40 oC and humidity ratio
0.0132 kgw/kgda = 28.5 % (Ans.)

Prob.3. A cooling tower is used for cooling the condenser water of a refrigeration system having a heat
rejection rate of 100 kW. In the cooling tower air enters at 35 oC (DBT) and 24oC (WBT) and leaves the
cooling tower at a DBT of 26 oC relative humidity of 95%. What is the required flow rate of air at the inlet to
the cooling tower in m3/s. What is the amount of make-up water to be supplied? The temperature of make-up
water is at 30oC, at which its enthalpy (hw) may be taken as 125.4 kJ/kg. Assume the barometric pressure to
be 1 atm.

Soln.
At the inlet to cooling tower: DBT = 35oC and WBT = 24oC

From psychrometric chart/equations the following values are obtained for the inlet:

Humidity ratio, wi = 0.01426 kgw/kgda

Enthalpy, hi = 71.565 kJ/kgda

Sp. volume, νi = 0.89284 m3/kgda

At the outlet to cooling tower: DBT = 26oC and RH = 95%

From psychrometric chart/equations the following values are obtained for the outlet:

Humidity ratio, wo = 0.02025 kgw/kgda

Enthalpy, ho = 77.588 kJ/kgda

From mass and energy balance across the cooling tower:

Qc = ma{(ho−hi) − (wo−wi)hw } = 100 kW

Substituting the values of enthalpy and humidity ratio at the inlet and outlet of cooling tower and enthalpy of
make-up water in the above expression, we obtain:

ma = 18.97 kg/s, hence, the volumetric flow rate, vi = ma x νi = 16.94 m3/s (Ans.)

Amount of make-up water required mw is obtained from mass balance as:

mw = ma(wo - wi) = 18.97(0.02025 − 0.01426) = 0.1136 kg/s = 113.6 gm/s (Ans.)

Prob.4. In an air conditioning system air at a flow rate of 2 kg/s enters the cooling coil at 25 oC and 50% RH
and leaves the cooling coil at 11oC and 90% RH. The apparatus dew point of the cooling coil is 7 oC. Find a)
The required cooling capacity of the coil, b) Sensible Heat Factor for the process, and c) By-pass factor of
the cooling coil. Assume the barometric pressure to be 1 atm. Assume the condensate water to leave the coil
at ADP (hw = 29.26 kJ/kg)

Soln. At the inlet to the cooling coil; Ti = 25oC and RH = 50%

From psychrometric chart; wi = 0.00988 kgw/kgda and hi = 50.155 kJ/kgda

At the outlet of the cooling coil; To = 11oC and RH = 90%

From psychrometric chart; wo = 0.00734 kgw/kgda and ho = 29.496 kJ/kgda

a) From mass balance across the cooling coil, the condesate rate, mw is:

mw = ma(wi − wo) = 2.0(0.00988 − 0.00734) = 0.00508 kg/s

From energy balance across the cooling tower, the required capacity of the cooling coil, Qc is given by:;

Qc = ma (hi -ho) – mw.hw = 2.0(50.155 − 29.496) − 0.00508 x 29.26 = 41.17 kW (Ans.)

b) The sensible heat transfer rate, Qs is given by:

 Q s = macpm(Ti – To) = 2.0 x 1.0216 x (25 − 11) = 28.605 kW

The latent heat transfer rate, Ql is given by:

Ql = mahfg(wi – wo) = 2.0 x 2501.0 x (0.00988 − 0.00734) = 12.705 kW

The Sensible Heat Factor (SHF) is given by:

SHF = Qs /(Qs + Ql ) = 28.605/(28.605 + 12.705) = 0.692 (Ans.)

c) From its definition, the by-pass factor of the coil, BPF is given by:

BPF = (To −T ADP)/(Ti − TADP) = (11 − 7)/(25 − 7) = 0.222 (Ans.)

The small difference between Q c and (Qs + Ql ) is due to the use of average values for specific
heat, cpm and latent heat of vaporization, hfg.

Prob.5. 40 cmm of a mixture of recirculated room air and outdoor air enter a cooling coli at 31 oC DB and
18.5oC WB temperatures. The effective surface temperature of the coil is 4.5 oC. The surface of the coil is
such as would give 12 kW of refrigeration with the given entering air state. Determine the dry and wet bulb
temperatures of the air leaving the coil and the coil bypass factor.

Soln.

At the apparatus dew point,

ws = 5.28 gm/kgda, hs = 17.8 kJ/kgda

At the state of entering air,

w1 = 8.2 gm/kgda, v1 = 0.872 m3/kgda, h1 = 52.5 kJ/kgda

Mass flow rate of dry air, ma = Qv/v = 40/0.872 = 44.45 kgda/min

Cooling load per kg of dry air,

h1 – h2 = Q/ma = 12x60/44.45 = 16.57 kJ/kgda

Enthalpy of air leaving the coil, h2 = 52.5 – 16.57 = 35.93 kJ/kgda

Equation for the condition line, (h1 –h2)/(h1 –hs) = (w1 –w2)/ (w1 –ws)

w2 = 6.76 gmwv/kgda

For h2 and w2 from Chart we could get dry and wet bulb temperatures as

TD = 18.6oC and TW = 12.5oC Ans.

Coil bypass factor, BF = (h2 – hs)/( h1 – hs) = 0.51 Ans.

Prob.6. Moist air enters a chamber at 5 oC DB and 2.5oC WB at a rate of 90 cmm. The barometric pressure is
1.01325 bar. While passing through the chamber, the air absorbs sensible heat at the rate of 40.7 kW and
picks up 40 kg/hr of saturated steam at 110 oC. Determine the dry and wet bulb temperatures of the leaving
air.

Soln.
This is the case of simple heating and humidification of air by the addition of steam.

At state 1, h1 = 13.82 kJ/kgda, v1 = 0.792 m3/kgda, w1 = 0.0036 kgwv/kgda

The air mass flow rate is ma = cmm.60/v1 = 90.60/0.792 = 6820 kgda/hr.

By moisture balance, ma ( w2 – w1) = 40

or, w2 = 0.0036 + 40/6820 = 0.00947 kgwv/kgda

Now by energy balance, ma ( h2 – h1) = 40.7x3600 +40.hsteam where hsteam = 2691.3 kJ/kg at 110oC

h2 = 51.1 kJ/kgda

For h2 and w2 from psychrometric chart, TD = 26.5oC and TW = 18oC. Ans.

Prob.7. The air handling unit of an air conditioning plant supplies a total of 4500 cmm of dry air which
comprises by weight 20% fresh air at 40 oC DB and 27 oC WB and 80% recirculated air at 25 oC DB and
50% RH. The air leaves the cooling coil at 13 oC saturated state. Calculate the total cooling load, and room
heat gain.

Soln.

Condition DB WB RH(%) w(gmwv/kgda) h(kJ/kgda)

Outside 40 27 17.2 85
Inside 25 50 10.0 50.8
ADP 13 100 9.4 37.0
Condition of air entering the cooling coil,

w1= 0.2(17.2) + 0.8(10.0) = 11.44 gmwv/kgda

h1= 0.2(85) + 0.8(50.8) = 57.64 kJ/kgda

T1= 0.2(40) + 0.8(25) = 28 C

v1 = 0.869 m3/kgda from above values

Mass flow rate of air entering the coil, ma = 4500/60x0.869 = 86.31 kgda/sec

Total cooling load, Q = ma( h1 – h2 )= 86.31(57.64 – 37.0) = 1781.4 kW.

Fresh air load, Qo = mao(ho – hi) = 0.2(86.31)(85 – 50.8) = 590.4 kW.

Room heat gain, RTH = 1781.4 – 590.4 = 1191 kW. Ans.

Prob.8. An air conditioned space is maintained at 27 oC DB and 50% RH. The ambient conditions are 40 oC
DB and 27 oC WB. The space has a sensible heat gain of 14 kW. Air is supplied to the space at 7 oC
saturated. Calculate (i) Mass of moist air supplied to the space in kg/hr, (ii) Latent heat gain of space in kW,
and (iii) Cooling load of the air washer in kW if 30% of the air supplied to the space is fresh and the
remaining being recirculated.

Soln.

Condition DB WB RH(%) w(gmwv/kgda) h(kJ/kgda)

Outside 40 27 17.2 85.0

Inside 27 50 11.2 56.1
Supply 7 100 6.2 23.0
(i)Mass of dry air supplied to the space, ma= Qs/cpm ΔT=14(3600)/1.0216(27–7) = 2467 kgda/hr

Ratio of moist air to dry air in supply air = (1+ w2) = 1.0062

Mass of moist air supplied to the space, m = (1+ w2).ma = 1.0062x2467 = 2482 kg/hr

(ii) Latent heat gain by space, QL = ma(w1 – w2).hfg = 2467(0.0112 – 0.0062)x2500/3600= 8.57 kW

(iii)For point 1, T1 = 0.7x27 + 0.3x40 = 30.9 oC

On the line joining o to i in the psychrometric chart locate point 1 at 30.9C, then from chart

h1 = 64.9 kJ/kgda

Therefore the cooling load of the air washer, Q = ma(h1 – h2) = 2467/3600(64.9 – 23.0)

=28.72 kW. Ans.

Prob.9. A building has the calculated cooling loads such as RSH = 310kW and RLH = 100kW. The space is
maintained at 25 oC DB and 50% RH. Outdoor air is at 28C DB and 50% RH. and 10% by mass of air
supplied to the building is outdoor air. If the air supplied to the space is not to be at a temperature lower than
18 oC, find (i) Minimum amount of air supplied to the space in m 3/sec, (ii) Volume flow rate of return air,
exhaust air, and outdoor air, (iii) State and volume flow rate of air entering the cooling coil, and (iv)
Capacity, ADP, BPF and SHF of the cooling coil.

Soln.

Here room SHF = 310/410 = 0.756. Now draw a room SHF line on psychrometric chart. Its intersection with
T = 18 oC vertical line gives supply air state point ‘s’ which is the same as coil leaving air state point 2.
From chart we have

hi = 50.5 kJ/kgda, ho = 92.0 kJ/kgda, h2= hs = 41.2 kJ/kgda, and vs = 0.836 m3/kgda

(i)Supply air quantity and volume flow rate(minimum), m a,s = RTH/(hi – hs ) = 410/(50.5-41.2) = 44.09
kg/sec

Qv,s = ma,s.vs = 44.09x0.836 = 36.86 m3/sec

(ii)Quantity and volume flow rate of outdoor/exhaust air

ma,o = 0.1xma,s = 0.1x44.09 = 4.41 kg/sec

Qv,o = ma,o.vo = 4.41x0.91 = 4.01 m3/sec

Quantity and volume flow rate of return air

 ma,I = ma,s – ma,o = 44.09 – 4.41 = 39.68 kg/sec

Qv,I = ma,i.vi = 39.68x0.86 = 34.05 m3/sec where vo = 0.91 and vi = 0.86 m3/kgda

(iii)State of air entering cooling coil, T1 = 0.9xTi + 0.1xTo = 0.9x25 + 0.1x38 = 26.3 oC

T1/ = 19.2 oC at 26.3 oC DB on the line joining I to o.

v1 = 0.865 m3/kgda and h1 = 54.6 kJ/kgda

Volume flow rate of air entering the cooling coil, Qv,1= ma,s.v1 = 44.09x0.865 = 38.14 m3/sec

(iv)Refrigerating capacity of the coil, Qcoil = GTH = ma,s(h1 – h2) = 44.09(54.6 – 41.2) = 591 kW

Coil ADP is obtained by the intersection of the line joining 1 to 2 with the saturation curve. Thus T ADP= 9C

BPF = (T2-TADP)/(T1-TADP) = (18-9)/(26.3-9) = 0.52

GSHF = TSHF/GTH = {ma,s.cp(T1 – T2)}/591 = 44.09x1.0216(25-18)/591 = 0.533 Ans.

Prob.10. Given for conditioned space:

RSH = 20 kW, RLH = 5kW, Inside conditions: 25C DB and 50% RH, Outside design conditions: 43C DB
and 27.5C WB, Bypass factor of the cooling coil = 0.1. The return air from the space is mixed with the
outside air before entering the cooling coil in the ratio of 4:1 by weight. Determine (i) Apparatus dew point,
(ii) condition of air leaving the cooling coil, (iii) dehumidified air quantity, (iv) ventilation air mass and
volume flow rates, and (v) Total refrigeration load on the air conditioning plant.

Soln.

Condition DB WB RH(%) w(gmwv/kgda) h(kJ/kgda) Sp. Vol(m3/kgda)

Outside 43 27.5 17.0 87.5 0.922

Inside 25 50 10.0 50.8

Supply 7 100 6.2 23.0

Condition of air entering the cooling coil, w1 = 0.8xwi + 0.2xwo = 0.8.10 + 0.2.17= 11.4 gmwv/kgda

h1 = 0.8x50.8 + 0.2x87.5 = 58.1 kJ/kgda, and T1 = 0.8x25 + 0.2x43 = 28.6C

(i)and (ii). Both parts have to be worked out together. There are two methods. One method is to draw the
RSHF line and then draw a line from 1 to S on the saturation curve so that (S-2)/(1-2) are in the ratio of 1:9.
Another method is to do the same thing using calculations as given below.

RSH/RLH = 0.0204(25-T2)/50(0.01-w2) = 20/5……………………………………….(1)

BPF = (T2 – TADP)/(t1 – TADP)= (t2 – TADP)/(28.6 – TADP) = 0.1……………………..(2)

BPF = (w2 – wADP)/(0.0114 – wADP) = 0.1………………………………………………….(3)

Solving eqns.(1),(2), and (3) by iteration for TADP, T2, and w2, we obtain

TADP = 11.8C corresponding to wADP = 8.6 gmwv/kgda, and T2 = 13.5C and w2 = 0.0089 kgwv/kgda

(iii) Dehumidified air quantity, (cmm)d = RSH/0.0204(Ti – T2)= 20/0.0204(25 – 13.5) = 85.25
(iv)Specific volume of supply air, v2 = 0.822 m3/kgda

Mass flow rate of supply air, ma,s = (cmm)d/60.v2= 85.25/60x0.822 = 1.729 kgda/sec

Mass flow rate of fresh air, ma,o = 0.2xma,s = 0.2x1.729 = 0.346 kgda/sec

Volume flow rate of fresh air, Qv,o = ma,o.vo.60 = 0.346x0.922x60 = 19.12 cmm

(v) Outside air total heat, OATH = ma,o(ho – hi)= 0.346(87.5 – 50.8) = 12.7 kW

Total refrigeration load on the air conditioning plant, GTH = RTH + OATH = (20+5) + 12.7= 37.7 kW

Lecture 05
Inside and Outside Design Conditions
3.1. Introduction:

Design and analysis of air conditioning systems involves selection of suitable inside and outside design
conditions, estimation of the required capacity of cooling or heating equipment, selection of suitable
cooling/heating system, selecting supply conditions, design of air transmission and distribution systems etc.
Generally, the inputs are the building specifications and its usage pattern and any other special requirements.
Figure 3.1 shows the schematic arrangement of a basic summer air conditioning system. As shown in the
figure, under a typical summer condition, the building gains sensible and latent heats from the surroundings
and also RSH and RLH due to internal heat sources. The supply air to the building extracts the building heat
gains from the conditioned space. These heat gains along with other heat gains due to ventilation, return
ducts etc. have to be extracted from the space by air stream coming from the cooling coil, so that air at
required cold and dry condition can be supplied to the building to complete the cycle. In general, the
sensible and latent heat transfer rates (GSH and GLH) on the cooling coil are larger than the building heat
gains due to the need for ventilation and return duct losses. To estimate the required cooling capacity of the
cooling coil (GTH), it is essential to estimate the building and other heat gains. The building heat gains
depend on the type of the building, outside conditions and the required inside conditions. Hence selection of
suitable inside and outside design conditions is an important step in the design and analysis of air
conditioning systems.
3.2. Selection of inside design conditions:

The required inside design conditions depend on the intended use of the building. Air conditioning is
required

i) for providing suitable comfort conditions for the occupants (e.g. comfort air conditioning), or
ii) for providing suitable conditions for storage of perishable products (e.g. in cold storages) or
iii) for maintaining conditions for a process to take place or for products to be manufactured
(e.g. industrial air conditioning).

The required inside conditions for cold storage and industrial air conditioning applications vary widely
depending on the specific requirement. However, the required inside conditions for comfort air conditioning
systems remain practically same irrespective of the size, type, location, use of the air conditioning building
etc., as this is related to the thermal comfort of the human beings.

3.3. Thermal comfort:

Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment”. This condition is also sometimes called as “neutral condition”, though in a strict sense, they
are not necessarily same. A living human body may be likened to a heat engine in which the chemical
energy contained in the food it consumes is continuously converted into work and heat. The process of
conversion of chemical energy contained in food into heat and work is called as “metabolism”. The rate at
which the chemical energy is converted into heat and work is called as “metabolic rate”. Knowledge of
metabolic rate of the occupants is required as this forms a part of the cooling load of the air conditioned
building. Similar to a heat engine, one can define thermal efficiency of a human being as the ratio of useful
work output to the energy input. The thermal efficiency of a human being can vary from 0% to as high as
15-20% for a short duration. By the manner in which the work is defined, for most of the light activities the
useful work output of human beings is zero, indicating a thermal efficiency of 0%. Irrespective of the work
output, a human body continuously generates heat at a rate varying from about 100 W (e.g. for a sedentary
person) to as high as 2000 W (e.g. a person doing strenuous exercise). Continuous heat generation is
essential, as the temperature of the human body has to be maintained within a narrow range of temperature,
irrespective of the external surroundings.

A human body is very sensitive to temperature. The body temperature must be maintained within a narrow
range to avoid discomfort, and within a somewhat wider range, to avoid danger from heat or cold stress.
Studies show that at neutral condition, the temperatures should be:

Skin temperature, Tskin ≈ 33.7o C

Core temperature, Tcore ≈ 36.8o C
At other temperatures, the body will feel discomfort or it may even become lethal. It is observed that when
the core temperature is between 35 to 39 oC, the body experiences only a mild discomfort. When the
temperature is lower than 35 oC or higher than 39oC, then people suffer major loss in efficiency. It becomes
lethal when the temperature falls below 31oC or rises above 43oC. This is shown in Fig. 3.2.
3.4. Heat balance equation for a human being:

The temperature of human body depends upon the energy balance between itself and the surrounding
thermal environment. Taking the human body as the control volume, one can write the thermal energy (heat)
balance equation for the human body as:

Qgen = Qsk + Qres + Qst ……………………………………………………… (3.1)

where Qgen = Rate at which heat is generated inside the body
Qsk = Total heat transfer rate from the skin
Qres = Heat transfer rate due to respiration, and
Qst = Rate at which heat is stored inside the body
The heat generation rate Qgen is given by:

Qgen = M (1−η) ≈ M ……(3.2) where M=Metabolic rate, η = Thermal efficiency≈ 0 for most of the
activities

The metabolic rate depends on the activity. It is normally measured in the unit “met”. A met is defined as the
metabolic rate per unit area of a sedentary person and is found to be equal to about 58.2 W/m 2. This is also
known as “basal metabolic rate”. Table 3.1 shows typical metabolic rates for different activities:

Table 3.1 Typical metabolic rates

Activity Specifications Metabolic rate

Resting Sleeping 0.7 met
Reclining 0.8 met
Seated, quiet 1.0 met
Standing, relaxed 1.2 met
 Walking 0.89 m/s 2.0 met
1.79 m/s 3.8 met
Office activity Typing 1.1 met
Driving Car 1.0 to 2.0 met
Heavy vehicles 3.2 met
Domestic activities Cooking 1.6 to 2.0 met
Washing dishes 1.6 met
House cleaning 2.0 to 3.4 met
Dancing - 2.4 to 4.4 met
Teaching - 1.6 met
Games and sports Tennis, singles 3.6 to 4.0 met
Gymnastics 4.0 met
Basket ball 5.0 to 7.6 met
Wrestling 7.0 to 8.7 met
Studies show that the metabolic rate can be correlated to the rate of respiratory oxygen consumption and
carbon dioxide production. Based on this empirical equations have been developed which relate metabolic
rate to O2 consumption and CO2 production.

Since the metabolic rate is specified per unit area of the human body (naked body), it is essential to estimate
this area to calculate the total metabolic rate. Even though the metabolic rate and heat dissipation are not
uniform throughout the body, for calculation purposes they are assumed to be uniform.

The human body is considered to be a cylinder with uniform heat generation and dissipation. The surface
area over which the heat dissipation takes place is given by an empirical equation, called as Du Bois
Equation. This equation expresses the surface area as a function of the mass and height of the human being.
It is given by:

ADu = 0.202m 0.425 h 0.725 ……………………………………………(3.3)

where ADu = Surface area of the naked body,
m = Mass of the human being, kg
h = Height of the human being, m
Since the area given by Du Bois equation refers to a naked body, a correction factor must be applied to take
the clothing into account. This correction factor, defined as the “ratio of surface area with clothes to surface
area without clothes” has been determined for different types of clothing. These values are available in
ASHRAE handbooks. Thus from the metabolic rate and the surface area, one can calculate the amount of
heat generation, Qgen.

The total heat transfer rate from the skin Qsk is given by:

Qsk = ±Qconv ± Qrad + Q evp …………………………………………. (3.4)

where Qconv = Heat transfer rate due to convection (sensible heat)
Qrad = Heat transfer rate due to radiation (sensible heat), and
Qevp = Heat transfer rate due to evaporation (latent heat)
The convective and radiative heat transfers can be positive or negative, i.e., a body may lose or gain heat by
convection and radiation, while the evaporation heat transfer is always positive, i.e., a body always looses
heat by evaporation. Using the principles of heat and mass transfer, expressions have been derived for
estimating the convective, radiative and evaporative heat transfer rates from a human body. As it can be
expected, these heat transfer rates depend on several factors that influence each of the heat transfer
mechanism.
According to Belding and Hatch, the convective, radiative and evaporative heat transfer rates from the naked
body of an average adult , Qc, Qr and Qe, respectively, are given by:

Qc = 14.8V 0.5 (Tb - T)

Qr = 11.603 (Tb – Ts )
Qe = 181.76V 0.4 (ps,b – pv ) ……………………………………………..(3.5)
In the above equation all the heat transfer rates are in watts, temperatures are in oC and velocity is in m/s; ps,b
and pv are the saturated pressure of water vapour at surface temperature of the body and partial pressure of
water vapour in air, respectively, in kPa. From the above equations it is clear that the convective heat
transfer from the skin can be increased either by increasing the surrounding air velocity (V) and/or by
reducing the surrounding air DBT (t). The radiative heat transfer rate can be increased by reducing the
temperature of the surrounding surfaces with which the body exchanges radiation. The evaporative heat
transfer rate can be increased by increasing the surrounding air velocity and/or by reducing the moisture
content of surrounding air.

The heat transfer rate due to respiration Qres is given by:

Qres = Cres + Eres ………………………………………………………. (3.5)

where Cres = Dry heat loss from respiration (sensible, positive or negative)
Eres = Evaporative heat loss from respiration (latent, always positive)
The air inspired by a human being is at ambient conditions, while air expired is considered to be saturated
and at a temperature equal to the core temperature. Significant heat transfer can occur due to respiration.
Correlations have been obtained for dry and evaporative heat losses due to respiration in terms of metabolic
rate, ambient conditions etc.

For comfort, the rate of heat stored in the body Qst should be zero, i.e.,

Qst = 0 at neutral condition …………………………………………… (3.6)

However, it is observed that a human body is rarely at steady state, as a result the rate of heat stored in the
body is non-zero most of the time. Depending upon the surroundings and factors such as activity level etc.,
the heat stored is either positive or negative. However, the body cannot sustain long periods of heat storage
with a consequent change in body temperatures as discussed before.

Since the body temperature depends on the heat balance, which in turn depends on the conditions in the
surroundings, it is important that the surrounding conditions should be such that the body is able to maintain
the thermal equilibrium with minimum regulatory effort. All living beings have in-built body regulatory
processes against cold and heat, which to some extent maintains the body temperatures when the external
conditions are not favorable. For example, human beings consist of a thermoregulatory system, which tries
to maintain the body temperature by initiating certain body regulatory processes against cold and heat.

When the environment is colder than the neutral zone, then body loses more heat than is generated. Then the
regulatory processes occur in the following order.

1. Zone of vaso-motor regulation against cold (vaso-constriction): Blood vessels adjacent to the skin
constrict, reducing flow of blood and transport of heat to the immediate outer surface. The outer skin tissues
act as insulators.

2. Zone of metabolic regulation: If environmental temperature drops further, then vaso-motor regulation
does not provide enough protection. Hence, through a spontaneous increase of activity and by shivering,
body heat generation is increased to take care of the increased heat losses.
3. Zone of inevitable body cooling: If the environmental temperature drops further, then the body is not able
to combat cooling of its tissues. Hence the body temperature drops, which could prove to be disastrous. This
is called as zone of inevitable body cooling.

When the environment is hotter than the neutral zone, then body loses less heat than is generated. Then the
regulatory processes occur in the following order.

1. Zone of vaso-motor regulation against heat (vaso-dilation): Here the blood vessels adjacent to the skin
dilate, increasing the flow of blood and transport of heat to the immediate outer surface. The outer skin
temperature increases providing a greater temperature for heat transfer by convection and radiation.

2. Zone of evaporative regulation: If environmental temperature increases further, the sweat glands become
highly active drenching the body surface with perspiration. If the surrounding air humidity and air velocity
permit, then increase in body temperature is prevented by increased evaporation from the skin.

3. Zone of inevitable body heating: If the environmental temperature increases further, then body
temperature increases leading to the zone of inevitable body heating. The internal body temperature
increases leading several ill effects such as heat exhaustion (with symptoms of fatigue, headache, dizziness,
irritability etc.), heat cramps (resulting in loss of body salts due to increased perspiration) and finally heat
stroke. Heat stroke could cause permanent damage to the brain or could even be lethal if the body
temperature exceeds 43oC.

Thus it is seen that even though human body possesses a regulatory mechanism, beyond certain conditions
it becomes ineffective. Hence it is essential to ensure that surrounding conditions are conducive for
comfortable and safe living. The purpose of a comfort air conditioning system is to provide suitable
conditions in the occupied space so that it is thermally comfortable to the occupants.

A sedentary person at neutral condition loses about 40% of heat by evaporation, about 30% by convection
and 30% by radiation. However, this proportion may change with other factors. For example, the heat loss
by evaporation increases when the DBT of the environment increases and/or the activity level increases

3.5. Factors affecting thermal comfort:

Thermal comfort is affected by several factors. These are:

1. Physiological factors such as age, activity, sex and health. These factors influence the metabolic rate. It is
observed that of these factors, the most important is activity. Other factors are found to have negligible
effect on thermal comfort.

2. Insulating factor due to clothing. The type of clothing has strong influence on the rate of heat transfer
from the human body. The unit for measuring the resistance offered by clothes is called as “clo”. 1 clo is
equal to a resistance of about 0.155 m2.oK/W. Typical clo values for different types of clothing have been
estimated and are available in the form of tables. For example, a typical business suit has a clo value of 1.0,
while a pair of shorts has a clo value of about 0.05.

3. Environmental factors. Important factors are the dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, air motion and
surrounding surface temperature. Of these the dry bulb temperature affects heat transfer by convection and
evaporation, the relative humidity affects heat loss by evaporation, air velocity influences both convective
and evaporative heat transfer and the surrounding surface temperature affects the radiative heat transfer.

Apart from the above, other factors such as drafts, asymmetrical cooling or heating, cold or hot floors etc.
also affect the thermal comfort. The objective of a comfort air conditioning system is to control the
environmental factors so that comfort conditions prevail in the occupied space. It has no control on the
physiological and insulating factors. However, wearing suitable clothing may help in reducing the cost of
the air conditioning system.

3.6. Indices for thermal comfort:

It is seen that important factors which affect thermal comfort are the activity, clothing, air DBT, RH, air
velocity and surrounding temperature. It should be noted that since so many factors are involved, many
combinations of the above conditions provide comfort. Hence to evaluate the effectiveness of the
conditioned space, several comfort indices have been suggested. These indices can be divided into direct and
derived indices. The direct indices are the dry bulb temperature, humidity ratio, air velocity and the mean
radiant temperature (Tmrt).

The mean radiant temperature Tmrt affects the radiative heat transfer and is defined (in K) as:

Tmrt4 = Tg4 CV1/2 (Tg – Ta ) ……………………………………….. (3.7)

where Tg = Globe temperature measured at steady state by a thermocouple placed at the center of a black
painted hollow cylinder (6” dia) kept in the conditioned space, oK. The reading of thermocouple results from
a balance of convective and radiative heat exchanges between the surroundings and the globe

Ta = Ambient DBT, oK
V = Air velocity in m/s, and
C = A constant, 0.247 X 109
The derived indices combine two or more direct indices into a single factor. Important derived indices are
the effective temperature, operative temperature, heat stress index, Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), Percent of
People Dissatisfied (PPD) etc.

Effective temperature (ET): This factor combines the effects of dry bulb temperature and air humidity into a
single factor. It is defined as the temperature of the environment at 50% RH which results in the same total
loss from the skin as in the actual environment. Since this value depends on other factors such as activity,
clothing, air velocity and Tmrt, a Standard Effective Temperature (SET) is defined for the following
conditions:

Clothing = 0.6 clo

Activity = 1.0 met
Air velocity = 0.1 m/s
Tmrt = DBT (in K)
Operative temperature (Top): This factor is a weighted average of air DBT and T mrt into a single factor. It is
given by:

Top = ( hr.Tmrt + hc.Tamb)/( hr + hc ) ≈ ( Tmrt + Tamb )/2…………………………………(3.8)

where hr and hc are the radiative and convective heat transfer coefficients and Tamb is the ambient DBT of air.

ASHRAE has defined a comfort chart based on the effective and operative temperatures. Figure 3.3 shows
the ASHRAE comfort chart with comfort zones for summer and winter conditions. It can be seen from the
chart that the comfort zones are bounded by effective temperature lines, a constant RH line of 60% and dew
point temperature of 2oC. The upper and lower limits of humidity (i.e. 60 % RH and 2 oC DPT, respectively)
are based on the moisture content related considerations of dry skin, eye irritation, respiratory health and
microbial growth. The comfort chart is based on statistical sampling of a large number of occupants with
activity levels less than 1.2 met. On the chart, the region where summer and winter comfort zones overlap,
people in winter clothing feel slightly warm and people in summer clothing feel slightly cool. Based on the
chart ASHARE makes the following recommendations:

Inside design conditions for Winter:

Top between 20.0 to 23.5oC at a RH of 60%
Top between 20.5 to 24.5oC at a DPT of 2oC
Inside design conditions for Summer:
Top between 22.5 to 26oC at 60% RH
Top between 23.5 to 27oC at a DPT 2oC

Table 3.2 shows the recommended comfort conditions for different seasons and clothing suitable at 50 %
RH, air velocity of 0.15 m/s and an activity level of ≤ 1.2 met.

Season Clothing lcl Top, opt Top range for

90% acceptance
Winter Heavy slacks(trousers), 0.9 clo 22oC 20 to 23.5oC
long sleeve shirt, and
sweater
Summer Light slacks and short 0.5 clo 24.5oC 23 to 26oC
sleeve shirt
Minimal shorts 0.05 clo 27oC 26 to 29oC
Table 3.2: Optimum and recommended operative temperatures for comfort

The above values may be considered as recommended inside design conditions for comfort air conditioning.
It will be shown later that the cost of air conditioning (initial plus running) increases as the required inside
temperature increases in case of winter and as the required inside condition decreases in case of summer.
Hence, air conditioning systems should be operated at as low a temperature as acceptable in winter and as
high a temperature as acceptable in summer. Use of suitable clothing and maintaining suitable air velocities
in the conditioned space can lead to reduced cost of air conditioning. For example, in summer the clothing
should be minimal at a socially acceptable level, so that the occupied space can be maintained at higher
temperatures. Similarly, by increasing air velocity without causing draft, one can maintain the occupied
space at a higher temperature in summer. Similarly, the inside temperatures can be higher for places closer
to the equator (1oC rise in ET is allowed for each 5o reduction in latitude). Of course, the above
recommendations are for normal activities. The required conditions change if the activity levels are
different. For example, when the activity level is high (e.g. in gymnasium), then the required indoor
temperatures will be lower. These special considerations must be kept in mind while fixing the inside design
conditions. Prof. P.O. Fanger of Denmark has carried out pioneering and detailed studies on thermal comfort
and suggested comfort conditions for a wide variety of situations.

Comfort A/C and Effective temperature:

Extensive tests have been conducted with people on the effects of temp., humidity, and air velocity. But the
results are not in complete agreement. Also, there is the problem of measuring comfort in terms of a single
parameter which could include all three parameters like temp., humidity, and velocity of air. Often, a single
parameter called the effective temperature, is used as an index of comfort. The term Effective
Temperature(ET) is defined as the temperature of saturated air at which the subject/human being would
experience the same feeling of comfort as experienced in the actual unsaturated environment. The figure
below shows, for example, a line of ET = 21.7 oC. At lower humidities, the DBTs of air can be higher for the
same ET i.e. for the same feeling of comfort. Thus at higher DBT, the body would loss more heat in the
form of latent heat due to evaporation of perspiration. Again an increase in DBT can also be compensated by
an increase in velocity. For example, an increase of 2 to 3 oC DBT can be compensated by increasing the air
velocity from 0.1 to 0.3 m/sec.

Fig.3.3(a) Effective Temperature Lines

Based on the concept of effective temp., some comfort charts(Fanger’s comfort chart) have been developed.
According to Malhotra, the effective temps. and also the range of DBT at 50 % RH for comfort are as
follows:

Climate ET in oC Corresponding DBT at 50% RH in oC

Hot and Dry 21.1 to 26.7 23.9 to

Hot and humid 22 to 25.6 26.7

The general practice is to recommend the following optimum inside design conditions for comfort for
summer A/C:

ET = 21.7oC
DBT = 25 ± 1oC
RH = 50%
Velocity = 0.4 m/sec
For winter, the body gets acclimatized to withstand lower temp. Consequently
DBT = 21oC
RH = 50%
Velocity = 0.15 to 0.2 m/sec
3.6.1. Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Percent People Dissatisfied (PPD):

Based on the studies of Fanger and subsequent sampling studies, ASHRAE has defined a thermal sensation
scale, which considers the air temperature, humidity, sex of the occupants and length of exposure. The scale
is based on empirical equations relating the above comfort factors. The scale varies

from +3 (hot) to –3 (cold) with 0 being the neutral condition. Then a Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) that
predicts the mean response of a large number of occupants is defined based on the thermal sensation scale.

The PMV is defined by Fanger as:

PMV = [0.303exp( - 0.036M) + 0.028] L ………………………………….. (3.9)

where M is the metabolic rate and L is the thermal load on the body that is the difference between the
internal heat generation and heat loss to the actual environment of a person experiencing thermal comfort.
The thermal load has to be obtained by solving the heat balance equation for the human body.

Fanger related the PMV to Percent of People Dissatisfied (PPD) by the following equation:

PPD = 100 - 95exp[- (0.03353 42 PMV4 + 0.2179 PMV4 )]…………. (3.10)

where dissatisfied refers to anybody not voting for –1, 0 or +1. It can be seen from the above equation that
even when the PMV is zero (i.e., no thermal load on body) 5 % of the people are dissatisfied! When PMV is
within ± 0.5, then PPD is less than 10 %.

Of late, several studies have been carried out on adaptive thermal comfort. These studies show that human
beings adapt to their natural surroundings so as to feel thermally comfortable. The adaptation consists of
changing their clothing, activity level and schedule, dietary habits etc. according to the surrounding
conditions. Due to this human tendency, it is observed that human beings feel comfortable that are higher or
lower than those suggested by the heat balance equation as outlined by Fanger. It is observed that there is
correlation between the outside temperatures and the required inside temperatures at which human beings
feel comfortable, or at least do not feel uncomfortable. For example, a study by Humphrey on adaptive
thermal comfort in tropical countries suggests the following correlation for comfort temperature in free-
running (non-air conditioned) buildings:

Ti = 0.534 To + 12.9 ………………………………………. (3.11)

Where To and Ti are the outdoor and indoor comfort temperature in oC, respectively. According to the above
correlation, higher the outdoor temperature, higher can be the indoor temperature. This is very important
from energy conservation point-of-view as air conditioning systems are very energy intensive, and the load
on an air conditioning plant can be reduced by maintaining the indoor temperatures at as high a value as is
allowed from thermal comfort point-of-view.

3.7. Selection of outside design conditions:

The ambient temperature and moisture content vary from hour-to-hour and from day-to-day and from place-
to-place. For example, in summer the ambient temperature increases from sunrise, reaches a maximum in
the afternoon and again decreases towards the evening. On a given day, the relative humidity also varies
with temperature and generally reaches a minimum value when the ambient temperature is maximum. For
most of the major locations of the world, meteorological data is available in the form of mean daily or
monthly maximum and minimum temperatures and corresponding relative humidity or wet bulb
temperature. As mentioned before, to estimate the required cooling capacity of an air conditioning plant, it is
essential to fix the outside design conditions in addition to the inside conditions. It is obvious that the
selected design conditions may prevail only for a short duration, and most of the time the actual outside
conditions will be different from the design values. As a result, for most of the time the plant will be running
at off-design conditions.

The design outside conditions also depend on the following factors:

a) Type of the structure, i.e., whether it is of heavy construction, medium or light

b) Insulation characteristics of the building
c) Area of glass or other transparent surfaces
d) Type of usage
e) Nature of occupancy
f) Daily range (difference between maximum and minimum temperatures in a given day)
3.7.1. Outdoor design conditions for summer:

Selection of maximum dry and wet bulb temperatures at a particular location leads to excessively large
cooling capacities as the maximum temperature generally persists for only a few hours in a year. Hence it is
recommended that the outdoor design conditions for summer be chosen based on the values of dry bulb and
mean coincident wet bulb temperature that is equaled or exceeded 0.4, 1.0 or 2.0 % of total hours in a year.
These values for major locations in the world are available in data books, such as ASHRAE handbooks.
Whether to choose the 0.4 % value or 1.0 % value or 2.0 % value depends on specific requirements. In the
absence of any special requirements, the 1.0% or 2% value may be considered for summer outdoor design
conditions.

3.7.2. Outdoor design conditions for winter:

Similar to summer, it is not economical to design a winter air conditioning for the worst condition on record
as this would give rise to very high heating capacities. Hence it is recommended that the outdoor design
conditions for winter be chosen based on the values of dry bulb temperature that is equaled or exceeded 99.6
or 99.0 % of total hours in a year. Similar to summer design conditions, these values for major locations in
the world are available in data books, such as ASHRAE handbooks. Generally the 99.0% value is adequate,
but if the building is made of light-weight materials, poorly insulated or has considerable glass or space
temperature is critical, then the 99.6% value is recommended.

Questions and answers:

10. A 1.8 meter tall human being with a body mass of 60 kg performs light work (activity = 1.2 met) in an
indoor environment. The indoor conditions are: DBT of 30oC, mean radiant temperature of 32oC, air
velocity of 0.2 m/s. Assuming an average surface temperature of 34oC for the surface of the human being
and light clothing, find the amount of evaporative heat transfer required so that the human being is at neutral
equilibrium.

Ans.: Using Du Bois equation, the surface area of the human being As is:

20.7250.4250.425 0.725

Du A 0.202m h 0.202x60 x1.8 1.7625 m ===

Hence the total heat generation rate from the body, Qg is:

Qg = As x (Activity level in met) x 58.2 = 1.7625 x 1.2 x 58.2 = 123.1 W

Using Belding & Hatch equations, the convective and radiative heat losses from the surface of the body are
found as:

Q 11.603 (t t ) 11.603(34 32) 23.2W Q 14.8V (t t) 14.8x0.2 (34 30) 26.48W b sr 0.5 b 0.5 c − =− == − =−
==

For neutral equilibrium,

Qg = Qc + Qr + Qe = ⇒ Qe = Qg – (Qc + Qr)

Substituting the values of Qg, Qc and Qr in the above expression, we find that the required amount of
evaporative heat transfer Qe is equal to:

Qe = 123.1 – (26.48+23.2) = 73.42 W (Ans.)

Lecture 06
Cooling & Heating Load Calculations -Estimation of Solar Radiation

6.1. Solar radiation:

Solar radiation forms the greatest single factor of cooling load in building. It is, therefore, necessary to study
the subject not only for the purpose of load calculation, but also from the point of view of load reduction. In
the present world the solar energy is utilized for heating as well as cooling(in solar refrigerator). In the study
of air conditioning systems it is important to understand the various aspects of solar radiation because:

1. A major part of building heat gain is due to solar radiation, hence an estimate of the amount of solar
radiation coming into the building is essential for estimating the cooling and heating loads on the buildings.

2. By proper design and orientation of the building, selection of suitable materials and landscaping it is
possible to harness solar energy beneficially. This can reduce the overall cost (initial and operating) of the
air conditioning system considerably by reducing the required capacity of the cooling and heating
equipment.

3. It is possible, at least in certain instances to build heating and cooling systems that require only solar
energy as the input. Since solar energy is available and is renewable, use of solar energy for applications
such as cooling and heating is highly desirable.

For calculation purposes, the sun may be treated as a radiant energy source with surface temperature that is
approximately equal to that of a blackbody at 6000 K. The spectrum of wavelength of solar radiation
stretches from 0.29 μm to about 4.75 μm, with the peak occurring at about 0.45 μm (the green portion of
visible spectrum).

6.1.1. Solar constant:

This is the flux of solar radiation on a surface normal to the sun’s rays beyond the earth’s atmosphere at the
mean earth-sun distance. The currently accepted value of solar constant is 1370 W/m2. Since the earth’s orbit
is slightly elliptical, the extra-terrestrial radiant flux varies from a maximum of 1418 W/m 2 on January 3rd to
a minimum of 1325 W/m2 on July 4th .

6.1.2. Direct and Diffuse solar radiation: The total radiation reaches any part of the earth’s surface from
the sun in two ways. One is Direct radiation and the other is Diffuse radiation. The part of sun’s radiation
travels through the atmosphere and reaches the earth surface directly is called direct or beam radiation. It is
specular in nature and incident on a surface at an angle and its magnitude is changed with the orientation of
the surface is changed.

A major part of the sun’s radiation is scattered, and reflected back into space and absorbed by the earth’s
atmosphere. A part of this radiation is reradiated and reaches the earth’s surface uniformly from all
directions is called diffuse or sky radiation. It is diffuse in nature and does not normally change with the
orientation of the surface. The sky radiation is usually a very small part of the total radiation in a clear sky.
But with a hazy or cloudy sky, the sky radiation increases while direct radiation is depleted considerably.

6.1.3. Depletion of solar radiation due to earth’s atmosphere:

When solar radiation passes through the earth’s atmosphere, the solar radiation gets depleted due to
reflection, scattering and absorption by the dust particles, various gas molecules and water vapour present in
the atmosphere. The absorption occurs particularly by ozone in upper atmosphere and water vapour in the
atmosphere near the earth. To some extent it is also absorbed by oxygen and carbon dioxide. Thus the
depletion of direct solar radiation is quite a large even on a clear day. The extent of this depletion at any
given time depends on the atmospheric composition and length of travel of sun’s rays through the
atmosphere.

6.1.4. Total solar irradiation:

In order to calculate the building heat gain due to solar radiation, one has to know the amount of solar
radiation incident on various surfaces of the building. The rate at which solar radiation is striking a surface
per unit area of the surface is called as the total solar irradiation on the surface. This is given by:

Iiθ = IDN cosθ +Idθ +Irθ ………………………………………………………. (6.1)

where Iiθ = Total solar irradiation of a surface, W/m2

IDN = Direct radiation from sun, W/m2

Idθ = Diffuse radiation from sky, W/m2

Irθ = Short wave radiation reflected from other surfaces, W/m2

θ = Angle of incidence, degrees (Figure 6.2)

The first term on the RHS, i.e., IDN cos θ, is the contribution of direct normal radiation to total irradiation. On
a clear, cloudless day, it constitutes about 85 percent of the total solar radiation incident on a surface.
However, on cloudy days the percentage of diffuse and reflected radiation components is higher. The
objective of solar radiation calculations is to estimate the direct, diffuse and reflected radiations incident on
a given surface. These radiations and the angle of incidence are affected by solar geometry.

Figure 6.4 shows the position of a point P on the northern hemisphere of the earth, whose center is at point
O. Since the distance between earth and sun is very large, for all practical purposes it can be considered that
the sun’s rays are parallel to each other when they reach the earth.
6.1.5. Fundamental of Earth-Sun Angles:

The position of any point on the earth’s surface in relation to the sun’s ray is described at any instant by
latitude of the place l, hour angle h, and sun’s declination d.

With reference to Fig.6.4, the various solar angles are defined as follows:

Latitude, l: It is the angle between the lines joining O and P and the projection of OP on the equatorial
plane, i.e.,

latitude,l = angle ∠POA

Thus the latitude along with the longitude indicates the position of any point on earth and it varies from 0 o at
equator to 90o at the poles.

Hour angle, h: It is the angle between the projection of OP on the equatorial plane i.e., the line OA and the
projection of the line joining the center of the earth to the center of the sun, i.e., the line OB. Therefore,

Hour angle, h = angle ∠AOB

The hour angle is a measure of the time of the day with respect to solar noon. Solar noon occurs when the
sun is at the highest point in the sky, and hour angles are symmetrical with respect to solar noon. This
implies that the hour angles of sunrise and sunset on any given day are identical. The hour angle is 0 o at
solar noon and varies from 0o to 360o in one rotation. Since it takes 24 clock hours for one rotation, each
clock hour of time is equal to 15 o of hour angle. For example, at 10 A.M. (solar time) the hour angle is 330 o,
while at 4 P.M. it is 60o.

Declination, d: The declination is the angle between the line joining the center of the earth and sun and its
projection on the equatorial plane, the angle between line OO/ and line OB;

Declination, d = angle ∠O'OB

For northern hemisphere, the declination varies from about +23.5 o on June 21st to -23.5o on December 21st .
At equinoxes, i.e., on March 21st and September 21st the declination is 0o for northern hemisphere. The
declination varies approximately in a sinusoidal form, and on any particular day the declination can be
calculated approximately using following equation:

360 ( 284 + N )
Declination ,d =23.47 sin …………………………..(6.2)
365

where, N is the day of the year numbered from January 1 st. Thus on March 6th, N is 65 (65th day of the year)
and from the above equation, declination on March 6 is equal to –6.4o.

6.1.6. Derived solar angles:

In addition to the three basic solar angles, i.e., the latitude, hour angle, and declination, several other angles
have been defined (in terms of the basic angles), which are required in the solar radiation calculations.
Fig.6.6 shows a schematic arrangement of one apparent solar path and defines the altitude angle (β), zenith
angle (ψ) and solar azimuth angle (γ). It can be shown by analytical geometry that these angles are given by:

Altitude angle, β: It is the angle between the sun’s rays and the projection of sun’s rays onto a horizontal
plane as shown in Fig.6.6. The expression for altitude angle is given by:

Altitude angle, β = sin-1(cos l.cos h.cos d + sin l.sin d) …………………..(6.3)

Zenith angle, ψ: It is the angle between sun’s rays and the surface normal to the horizontal plane at the
position of the observer. It can be seen from Fig.6.6 that:

Zenith angle, ψ = π/2 - β …………………………………………………..(6.4)

The altitude angle β is maximum at solar noon. Since the hour angle, h is 0 o at solar noon, the maximum
altitude angle βmax (solar noon) on any particular day for any particular location is given by substituting the
value of h = 0o in the eqn.(6.6)), thus it can be easily shown that:

βmax = π/2 - ⎟ (l-d) ⎟ ……………………………………………. (6.5)

where ⎟ (l - d)⎟ is the absolute value of (l-d).

Solar azimuth angle ϒ: As shown in Fig.6.6, the solar azimuth angle is the angle in the horizontal plane
measured from north to the horizontal projection of the sun’s rays. It can be shown that the solar azimuth
angle is given by:

γ =cos−1 ( cos l . sin d−cos d . cos h. sin l

cos β ❑ )
−1
=sin (
cos β )
cos d . sin h
……………..(6.6)
Wall solar azimuth angle, α: This is the angle between normal to the wall and the projection of sun’s rays
on to a horizontal plane.

Surface azimuth angle, ξ: This is the angle between the normal to the wall and south. Thus when the wall
is facing south, then the surface azimuth angle is zero and when it faces west, then the surface azimuth angle
is 90o and so on. The angle is taken as +ve if the normal to the surface is to the west of south and –ve if it is
to the east of south.

From Fig.6.8 it can be seen that the wall solar azimuth angle, is given by:

α= [ π−( γ + ξ ) ].F ……………………………………….. (6.7)

The factor F is -1 for forenoon and +1 for afternoon.

Now it can be shown that the angle of incidence on the vertical surface, θver is given by:

θver = cos-1 (cos β.cos α) ……………………………….….(6.8)

6.1.7. Solar time:

Solar radiation calculations are made in terms of the solar time. We will now relate the solar time to the
local time in a particular locality. First we introduce the Greenwich mean time which is the time at
Greenwich meridian taken at zero longitude. Midnight at Greenwich is 0h and noon is 12h. Then we have
the local civil time(LCT). On a particular longitude, LCT is more advanced towards the east, and less
advanced towards the west. The difference amounts to four minutes for each degree of difference in
longitude. The local solar time(LST) is the time that would be shown by a sundial. It is worth noting here
that a civil day is exactly equal to 24 hours, whereas a solar day is approximately equal to 24 hours due to
earth’s orbital velocity varies throughout the year, obliquity of the earth’s orbit and other factors. The
difference between LST and LCT is called the Equation of Time (EOT) and is available as average values
for different months of the year. The actual official time in a locality may be different from the civil time. It
may be based on the mean longitude of a country. This time is called the central standard time(CST).

6.2. Calculation of direct, diffuse and reflected radiations:

6.2.1. Direct radiation from sun(IDN):

Several solar radiation models are available for calculation of direct radiation from sun. One of the
commonly used models for air conditioning calculations is the one suggested by ASHRAE. According to
this model, the direct radiation IDN is given by:

IDN = A.exp( -B/sinβ) (W/m2 ) ………………………………………. (6.9)

where A is the apparent solar irradiation which is taken as 1230 W/m 2 for the months of December and
January and 1080 W/m2 for mid-summer. Constant B is called as atmospheric extinction coefficient, which
takes a value of 0.14 in winter and 0.21 in summer. The values of A and B for 21 st day of each month have
been computed are available either in the form of tables and empirical equations.

6.2.2. Diffuse radiation from sky, Id:

According to the ASHRAE model, the diffuse radiation from a cloudless sky is given by:

Id = C.IDN .FWS W/m2 ………………………………………… (6.10)

The value of C is assumed to be constant for a cloudless sky for an average day of a month. Its average
monthly values have been computed and are available in tabular form. The value of C can be taken as 0.135
for mid-summer and as 0.058 for winter. The factor F WS is called as view factor or configuration factor and
is equal to the fraction of the diffuse radiation that is incident on the surface. For diffuse radiation, F WS is a
function of the orientation of the surface only. It can be easily shown that this is equal to:

FWS = (1 + cos Σ)/2 …………………………………………….. (6.11)

where Σ is the tilt angle. Obviously for horizontal surfaces (Σ = 0 o) the factor FWS is equal to 1, whereas it is
equal to 0.5 for a vertical surface (Σ = 90o). The above model is strictly true for a cloudless sky only as it
assumes that the diffuse radiation from the sky falls uniformly on the surface. The diffuse radiation will not
be uniform when the sky is cloudy.

6.2.3. Reflected, short-wave (solar) radiation, Ir:

The amount of solar radiation reflected from the ground onto a surface is given by:

Ir = (IDN + Id) ρg F WG ……………………….…………….. (6.12)

where ρg is the reflectivity of the ground or a horizontal surface from where the solar radiation is reflected
on to a given surface and FWG is view factor from ground to the surface. The value of reflectivity obviously
depends on the surface property of the ground. The value of the angle factor F WG in terms of the tilt angle is
given by:

FWG =(1 - cos Σ)/2 …………………………………………… (6.13)

Thus for horizontal surfaces (Σ = 0 o) the factor FWG is equal to 0, whereas it is equal to 0.5 for a vertical
surface (Σ = 90o).

Though the ASHRAE clear sky model is widely used for solar radiation calculations in air conditioning,
more accurate, but more involved models have also been proposed for various solar energy applications.

6.3. Heat Gain Through Glass:

Glass construction forms a significant part of modern building structure. It is, therefore, important to study
how a space gains heat through glass.
Both direct and diffuse radiation incident upon a glass surface and then it is partially transmitted, reflected
and absorbed. The direct radiation enters the space only if the glass is receiving the direct rays of the sun
whereas the diffuse radiation enters the space even when the glass is not facing the sun.

The absorbed radiation raises the temperature of glass, and the glass then transmits this heat partly to the
outside and partly to the inside. If Tg represents the temperature of glass, then the heat gain of the space is
given by

Q = AsunτD.ID + A τd.Id + fiA(Tg – Ti)………………………….6.14

Where, fi is the inside film coefficient of heat transfer, subscript D and d denote the terms of direct and
diffuse radiation respectively, Asun is the glass area directly exposed to the sun and A is the total glass area.

6.3.1 Tables for Solar Heat Gain Through Ordinary Glass:

The factors affecting the solar heat gain through ordinary glass

i. Location of the point on earth’s surface given by the latitude of the place
ii. Time of the day, and
iii. Day of the year
iv. Facing direction of window

The above first three parameters are defined in terms of latitude, hour angle and declination, respectively.

The planet earth makes one rotation about its axis every 24 hours and one revolution about the sun in a
period of about 365q days. The earth’s equatorial plane is tilted at an angle of about 23.5 o with respect to its
orbital plane. The earth’s rotation is responsible for day and night, while its tilt is responsible for change of
seasons. Fig.6.3 shows the position of the earth at the start of each season as it revolves in its orbit around
the sun. As shown in Fig.6.4, during summer solstice (June 21st) the sun’s rays strike the northern
hemisphere more directly than they do the southern hemisphere. As a result, the northern hemisphere
experiences summer while the southern hemisphere experiences winter during this time. The reverse
happens during winter solstice (December 21st).

To simplify air conditioning calculations of the solar heat gain through ordinary glass, Tables have been
prepared by Carrier2 Air Conditioning Co. Table 17.9(a) to (f) in the book of C.P. Arrora provide this data in
SI units for latitudes from 0 to 50 o from January to December and for each hour of the day. The heat gain
includes the direct and diffuse radiation plus the portion of the heat absorbed by the glass which enters the
room. It is to be noted that the transfer of heat across the glass because of the temperature difference
between the outside and inside is not included. The data are based on some conditions described in the
book.

6.4. Estimation of solar radiation through fenestration:

Fig.7.1 shows an unshaded window made of clear plastic glass. As shown in the figure, the properties of
this glass for solar radiation are: transmissivity (τ) = 0.80, reflectivity (ρ) = 0.08 and absorptivity (α) = 0.12.
Thus out of 100% of solar radiation incident on the glass, 80% is directly transmitted to the indoors, 12% is
absorbed by the glass (which increases the temperature of the glass) and the remaining 8% is reflected back.
Of the 12% absorbed by the glass which leads to increase in its temperature, about 4% is transferred to the
indoors by convection heat transfer and the remaining 8% is lost to the outdoors by convection and
radiation. Thus out of 100% radiation, 84% is transmitted to the interiors of the building. Of course, these
figures are for a clear plate glass only. For other types of glass, the values will be different.
Assuming the transmissivity and absorptivity of the surface same for direct, diffuse and reflected
components of solar radiation, the amount of solar radiation passing through a transparent surface can be
written as:

Qsg = A(τ.It +N. α.It ) ………………………………………(7.1)

where,
A = Area of the surface exposed to radiation
It = Total radiation incident on the surface
τ = Transmissivity of glass for direct, diffuse and reflected radiations
α = Absorptivity of glass for direct, diffuse and reflected radiations
N = Fraction of absorbed radiation transferred to the indoors by conduction and convection

In the above equation, the total incident radiation consists of direct, diffuse and reflected radiation, and it is
assumed that the values of transmissivity and absorptivity are same for all the three types of radiation. Under
steady state conditions it can be shown that the fraction of absorbed radiation transferred to the indoors, i.e.,
N is equal to:

N = U / ho ……………………………………………(7.2)

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, which takes into account the external heat transfer
coefficient, the conduction resistance offered by the glass and the internal heat transfer coefficient, and ho is
the external heat transfer coefficient.

From the above two equations, we can write:

Qsg = A[ It (τ + αU/ho )] ……………………………… (7.3)

The term in square brackets for a single sheet, clear window glass (reference) is called as Solar Heat Gain
Factor (SHGF), i.e.,

SHGF = [ It (τ + αU/ho )]ss …………………………………….. (7.4)

Thus SHGF is the heat flux due to solar radiation through the reference glass(SS). The maximum SHGF
values for different latitudes, months and orientations have been obtained and are available in the form of
Tables in ASHRAE handbooks. For example, Table 7.1 taken from ASHRAE Fundamentals shows the
maximum SHGF values in W/m2 for 32o N latitude for different months and orientations (direction a glass is
facing).

Month Orientation of the surface

N/shade NE/NW E/W SE/SW S Horizontal
December 69 69 510 775 795 500
Jan, Nov 75 90 550 785 775 555
Feb, Oct 85 205 645 780 700 685
Mar, Sept 100 330 695 700 545 780
April, Aug 115 450 700 580 355 845
May, July 120 530 685 480 230 865
June 140 555 675 440 190 870
Table 7.1: Maximum SHGF factor for sunlit glass located at 32 N (W/m2)
o

The first column in the table gives the maximum SHGF values of a north facing glass or a glass shaded from
solar radiation and oriented in any direction. Again it can be observed that, a glass facing south is desirable
from cooling and heating loads points of view as it allows maximum heat transfer in winter (reduces
required heating capacity) and minimum heat transfer in summer (reduces required cooling capacity).
Similar tables are available for other latitudes also in ASHRAE Handbooks.

For fenestrations other than the reference SS glass, a Shading Coefficient (SC) is defined such that the heat
transfer due to solar radiation is given by:

Qsg = A.(SHGFmax).(SC) ……………………………………………. (7.5)

The shading coefficient depends upon the type of the glass and the type of internal shading devices. Typical
values of SC for different types of glass with different types of internal shading devices have been measured
and are tabulated in ASHRAE Handbooks. Table 7.2 taken from ASHRAE Fundamentals shows typical
values of shading coefficients.

Table 7.2: Shading coefficients for different types of glass and internal shading

Shading Coefficient, SC
Type of glass Thickness No Venetian blinds Roller shades
mm internal
shading Medium Light Dark Light
Single glass 3 1.00 0.64 0.55 0.59 0.25
Regular

Single glass 6-12 0.95 0.64 0.55 0.59 0.25

Plate

Single glass 6 0.70 0.57 0.53 0.40 0.30

Heat
absorbing

Double glass 3 0.90 0.57 0.51 0.60 0.25

Regular

Double glass 6 0.83 0.57 0.51 0.60 0.25

Plate

Double glass 6 0.2-0.4 0.2 - - - -

Reflective 0.33

It can be inferred from the above table that the heat transferred through the glass due to solar radiation can
be reduced considerably using suitable internal shadings, however, this will also reduce the amount of
sunlight entering into the interior space. Values of SC for different types of curtains have also been
evaluated and are available in ASHRAE handbooks. Thus from the type of the sunlit glass, its location and
orientation and the type of internal shading one can calculate the maximum heat transfer rate due to solar
radiation.

6.5. Shading from Reveals, Overhangs and Fins:

Most glass areas in buildings are provided with reveals, overhangs and fins in the form of vertical and
horizontal projections from walls. Thus some portions of glass are shaded to cut down the direct solar
radiation. The shading, however, does not eliminate the diffuse radiation.
Consider, now, a vertical projection of depth D x on a glass window of width X and height Y as shown in
Fig.6.7. Then the shading x on the width is given by the tangent of the wall solar azimuth angle

x = Dx tnaα……………………………………..6.15

Again, consider a horizontal projection of overhang D y(it need not be equal to the depth of vertical
projection) causing a shading y on the height. Then the shading y is given by

y = Q/Q// = QQ/tanβ but QQ/ = Dy/cosα = Dy secα……………….6.16

Hence y = Dy secα tanβ

The sunlit area of the glass is

Asun = (X - x)(Y- y) = (X - Dx tnaα)(Y - Dy secα tanβ)…………..6.17

6.4.1 Effect of Shading Device:

The effect of the shading device is to further curtail the heat gain of the conditioned space. The effectiveness
is more if the shading device is outside the space than when it is inside. This is because the inside shading
devices dissipate all of their absorbed heat into the conditioned space. They must also reflect the solar heat
pack to the glass which absorbs some of it. On the other hand, the outside shading devices dissipate all their
absorbed as well as reflected radiation into the surroundings.

6.5. Effect of Clouds:

It is mentioned earlier that on a clear day, almost 85% of the incident radiation is due to direct radiation and
the contribution of diffuse radiation is much smaller. However, when the sky is cloudy, the contribution of
diffuse radiation increases significantly. Though it is frequently assumed that the diffuse radiation from the
sky reaches the earth uniformly on clear days, but studies show that this is far from true. The diffuse
radiation is even more non-uniform on cloudy days. Due to the presence of the clouds (which is extremely
difficult to predict), the available radiation in an actual situation is highly variable. Clouds not only block the
short wave radiation from the sun, but they also block the long-wave radiation from earth. Thus it is very
difficult to accurately account for the effect of clouds on solar and terrestrial radiation. Sometimes, in solar
energy calculations, clearness index is used to take into account the effect of clouds. Arbitrarily a value of
1.0 is assigned for clearness index for a perfectly clear and cloudless sky. A clearness index value of less
than 1.0 indicates the presence of clouds. Data on the value of the clearness index are available for a few
select countries.

Lecture 07
Cooling & Heating Load Calculations -Solar Radiation Through – Ventilation and Infiltration
7.1. Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality (IAQ):

The quality of air inside the conditioned space should be such that it provides a healthy and comfortable
indoor environment. Air inside the conditioned space is polluted by both internal as well as external sources.
The pollutants consist of odours, various gases, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter.
The internal sources of pollution include the occupants (who consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide
and also emit odors), furniture, appliances etc, while the external sources are due to impure outdoor air.
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) can be controlled by the removal of the contaminants in the air or by diluting the
air. The purpose of ventilation is to dilute the air inside the conditioned space. Ventilation may be defined
as the “supply of fresh air to the conditioned space either by natural or by mechanical means for the purpose
of maintaining acceptable indoor air quality”. Generally ventilation air consists of fresh outdoor air plus any
re-circulated air that has been treated. If the outdoor air itself is not pure, then it also has to be treated before
supplying it to the conditioned space.

Though the minimum amount of air required for breathing purposes is small (about 0.2 litres per second per
person), the actual ventilation air required is much larger as in addition to supplying oxygen to the
occupants, the ventilation air must:

a) Dilute the odours inside the occupied space to a socially acceptable level

b) Maintain carbon dioxide concentration at a satisfactory level

c) Pressurizing the escape routes in the event of fire

7.1.1. Estimation of minimum outdoor air required for ventilation:

Ventilation is one of the major contributors to total cooling and heating load on the system. From energy
conservation point of view, it is important to select the ventilation requirements suitably. The amount of air
required for ventilation purposes depends on several factors such as: application, activity level, extent of
cigarette smoking, presence of combustion sources etc. After several studies stretched over several years,
standards for minimum ventilation requirements have been formulated. For example, ASHRAE standard 62-
1989 provides a guideline for minimum ventilation requirements. Table 7.3 provides typical outdoor (OD)
air requirement for the purpose of ventilation: The same is given in Table 16.2 in the book of C.P.Arrora.
 Table7.3: Typical outdoor air requirements for ventilation

Function Occupancy per OD air requirement per person (L/s)

100 m2 floor Smoking Non-smoking
area
Offices 7 10 2.5
Operation theatres 20 - 15
Lobbies 30 7.5 2.5
Class rooms 50 - 8.0
Meeting places 60 17.5 3.5

It can be observed from the above table that the ventilation requirement increases with the occupancy. It can
also be seen that the required amount of OD air increases significantly if smoking is permitted in the
conditioned space.

7.1.2 Purpose of ventilation:

Ventilation in any comfort A/c is must and the purposes are as follows-

i) To provide oxygen-The oxygen concentration in atmospheric air is 21% by volume . It should not
be allowed to fall below 15% under any circumstances whatsoever.
ii) To remove Carbon dioxide-The Carbon dioxide concentration in atmospheric air is 0.03% by
volume. It should not be allowed to rise above 5% under any circumstances whatsoever
iii) To remove odours- 0.42 cmm of fresh air per person is required to remove body odours. The actual
air requirement depends on room size and level of activity.
iv) To remove heat and humidity- Removal of body heat and moisture addition by ventilation is the
controlling factor. If this is accomplished, all other requirements will be met.
v) To dilute toxicity- This is required when toxic and hazardous fumes/particles are being generated in
the space. Sometimes dilution by ventilation is not very effective then an outright removal by
exhaust ventilation is recommended.

7.5. Infiltration or natural ventilation:

Infiltration may be defined as the uncontrolled entry of untreated, outdoor air directly into the conditioned
space or it is the name given to the leakage of outside air through door openings, through cracks around
window and door into the conditioned space. Eventhough the air inside is slightly pressurized, the leakage
does take place which is principally due to the following factors.

(i) Stack effect

(ii) Wind pressure
(iii) Entry and exit

It must be pointed out here that corresponding to every infiltration there is an equivalent amount of
exfiltration. I effect, infiltration involves an exchange between the outside and inside air.

Stack Effect: Due to the higher temperatures in lower level as human being stays there the air of lower
density comes up and the air of higher density goes down by buoyancy effect. So higher pressure remains in
lower level and lower pressure remains in upper level. As a result, pressure differences occur causing flow
of air known as chimney or stack effect.

So in summer exfiltration occurs in lower level and infiltration occurs in upper level and the reverse will
happen in winter.
The infiltration from stack effect is generally small but is greatly influenced by the height of the building
and the presence of staircases and elevators. The ASHRAE guide gives the following formula to calculate
infiltration rate

Qv = 0.172 A[ H(Ti – To)]0.5

where, H is the height of the building, T’s are the temperatures.

Wind Effect: The flow of air due to wind over a building creates regions in which the static pressure is
higher or lower than the static pressure in the undisturbed air stream. The pressure is positive in the
windward side resulting in the infiltration of air, and negative on the leeward side resulting in exfiltration.

There are two methods of estimating the infiltration of air into the conditioned space due to wind action.
They are

i) Air-change method
ii) Crack method

The air-change method assumes a certain number of air-change per hour for each space depending on its
usage. The air change method is more convenient to use in the case of doors. In this method, it is required to
use experience and judgement to estimate the overall value of the infiltration rate. In practice, the following
values of air-changes per hour can be used with reasonable precision for rooms with the extent of windows
and external doors given.

No windows or exterior doors 0.5

Exterior doors windows on one side 1.0
Exterior doors windows on two sides 1.5
Exterior doors windows on three sides 2.0
Entrance halls 2.0
In the crack method, the estimate is based on measured leakage characteristics and the width and length of
cracks around windows and doors. This method is generally regarded as more accurate and is used in the
case of windows. The leakage of air in this case is a function of the wind pressure which can be determined
by knowing the wind velocity C using the equation
Δp = 0.00047C2 where Δp in cm of H2O and C in km/h
It is common practice to take 0.64 Δp only as the pressure difference between the outside and inside air to
evaluate the infiltration rate, which can be expressed by an equation of the type.
Qv = C(Δp)n
Where Qv is in l/s/m of crack length, and Δp is in N/m2.

The leakage rates of most window cracks fall between the four classes of double-hung wood window as
given in table 18.11 of CP Arrora
Table 18.11 Infiltration through Double-Hung windows in m3/h/m of crack
Window type Pressure Difference, cm H2O
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Non-weather-stripped, loose fit 7.1 11.3 14.0 18.0 21.0
Non-weather-stripped, average fit 2.5 4.0 5.3 6.4 7.4
Weather-stripped, loose fit 2.5 4.0 5.3 6.4 7.4
Weather-stripped, average fit 1.3 2.1 2.8 3.3 3.9

Similarly, Table 18.12 of CP Arrora gives the leakage rates through cracks in doors on the windward side
for different wind velocities and different door constructions.
The ASHRAE Guide publishes data that indicates that wind pressure causes a leakge of air even through
brick and concrete walls. Its numerical value is, however, very small e.g. for 21.5 cm plastered brick wall
and at 24 kmph wind velocity, it is only 0.000356 cmm/m2 of the wall area.

Infiltration through door openings: Infiltration through doors depend on the type of door, as well as its
usage.Often the Tables developed for doors give the infiltration rates through doors which include the
leakage rates through cracks as also due to door openings. Tables 18.13 through 18.15 of CP Arrora give the
infiltration rates through doors on the windward side for various door constructions and usage, and for a
wind velocity of 12 kmph. For other doors the values may be multiplied by 0.6. For other wind velocities,
the values may be multiplied by ratio of the velocities.
7.2. Heating and cooling loads due to ventilation and infiltration:

Due to ventilation and infiltration, buildings gain energy in summer and loose energy in winter. The energy
gained or lost consists of both sensible and latent parts, as in general the temperature and moisture content of
indoor and outdoors are different both in winter and winter.

The sensible heat transfer rate due to ventilation and infiltration, Qs,vi is given by:
Qs,vi = mo cp,m (To -Ti ) = Vo ρo cp,m (To - Ti) …………………..(7.9)
The latent heat transfer rate due to ventilation and infiltration, Ql,vi is given by:
Q l,vi = m o h fg (ωo - ωi ) = V o ρ o h fg (ωo - ωi) ……………….(7.10)

In the above equations:

mo and VO are the mass flow rate and volumetric flow rates of outdoor air due to ventilation and infiltration,
cp,m is the average specific heat of moist air, h fg is the latent heat of vaporization of water, T o and Ti are the
outdoor and indoor dry bulb temperatures and ω o and ωI are the outdoor and indoor humidity ratios. Thus
from known indoor and outdoor conditions and computed or selected values of ventilation and infiltration
rates, one can calculate the cooling and heating loads on the building. The sensible and latent heat transfer
rates as given by the equations above will be positive during summer (heat gains) and negative during winter
(heat losses).

Though the expressions for heat transfer rates are same for both ventilation and infiltration, there is a
difference as far as the location of these loads are considered. While heat loss or gain due to infiltration adds
directly to the building cooling or heating load, heat loss or gain due to ventilation adds to the equipment
load. These aspects will be discussed in a later Chapter.

Questions & answers:

6. Calculate the maximum heat transfer rate through a 1.5 m2 area, unshaded, regular double glass facing
south during the months of June and December without internal shading and with internal shading consisting
of light venetian blinds. Location 32oN

Ans.: For the month of June the SHGF max from Table 33.1 is 190 W/m 2. Using the values of shading
coefficients from Table 7.2, the heat transfer rate is:

Without internal shading (SC = 0.9):

Q sg = A.(SHGFmax).(SC) = 1.5X190X0.9 256.5 W (Ans.)

With internal shading (SC = 0.51):

Q sg = A.(SHGFmax).(SC) = 1.5X190X0.51 145.35 W (Ans.)

These values for the month of December (SHGFmax = 795 W/m2) are:

Without internal shading: Qsg = 1073.25 W (Ans.)

With internal shading: Qsg = 608.175 W (Ans.)

7. Calculate energy transmitted into a building at 3 P.M on July 21 st due to solar radiation through a south
facing window made of regular single glass. The dimensions of the window are height 2 m, width 1.5 m and
the depth of inset 0.3 m. Find the energy transmitted if there is no overhang.

Ans.:
Without overhang the heat transmission rate is:

Qsg ¿(W X H )SHGFmax=690 W (Ans.)

Thus there is a reduction of 115.4 W (16.7%) due to external shading. Of course, these values will be
different for different periods.

8. A large air conditioned building with a total internal volume of 1,00,000 m3 is maintained at 25oC (DBT)
and 50% RH, while the outside conditions are 35oC and 45% RH. It has a design occupancy of 10,000
people, all non-smoking. The infiltration rate through the building is equal to 1.0 ACH. Estimate the heat
transfer rate due to ventilation and infiltration. Assume the barometric pressure to be 1 atm.

Ans.: From psychrometric chart:

For inside conditions: 24oC (DBT) and 50% RH:

Wi = 0.0093 kgw/kgda, hi = 47.656 kJ/kgda

For outside conditions: 35oC (DBT) and 45% RH:

Wo = 0.01594 kgw/kgda, ho = 75.875 kJ/kgda and va = 0.89519 m3/kg

Heat transfer due to ventilation:

From Table 33.3, assume a ventilation requirement of 3.5 l/s/person. Hence the total OD air required is:

Vo,v = 3.5 x 10,000 = 35000 l/s = 35 m3/s

Hence the mass flow rate of ventilated air is:

mo,v = 35 /0.89519 = 39.1 kg/s

Sensible heat transfer rate due to ventilation is given by:

Qs,v = mo,vcpm(to – ti) = 39.1 x 1.0216 x (35 – 25) = 399.5 kW

Latent heat transfer rate due to ventilation is given by:

Ql,v = mo,vhfg(Wo – Wi) = 39.1 x 2501 x (0.01594 – 0.0093) = 649.3 kW

Hence total heat transfer rate due to ventilation is:

Qt,v = Qs,v + Ql,v = 1048.8 kW (Ans.)

Heat transfer rate due to infiltration:

Infiltration rate, Vinf = 1 ACH = 1,00,000/3600 = 27.78 m3/s

Hence mass flow rate of infiltrated air is:

minf = Vinf/va = 27.78/0.89519 = 31 kg/s

Hence using expressions similar to ventilation, the sensible, latent and total heat transfer rates due to
infiltration are found to be:

Qs,inf = 316.7 kW (Ans.)

Ql,inf = 514.8 kW (Ans.)

Qt,inf = 831.5 kW (Ans.)

It can be seen from the above example that the total load on the air conditioning system is very high ( =
1880.3 kW = 534.6 TR).

Lecture 8

Cooling and Heating Load Calculations - Heat Transfer Through Buildings - Fabric Heat Gain/Loss

8.1. Introduction:

Whenever there is a temperature difference between the conditioned indoor space of a building and outdoor
ambient, heat transfer takes place through the building structure (walls, roof, floor etc.). This is known as
fabric heat gain or loss, depending upon whether heat transfer is to the building or from the building,
respectively. The fabric heat transfer includes sensible heat transfer through all the structural elements of a
building, but does not include radiation heat transfer through fenestration. Exact analysis of heat transfer
through building structures is very complex, as it has to consider:

a) Geometrically complex structure of the walls, roofs etc. consisting of a wide variety of materials with
different thermo-physical properties.

b) Continuously varying outdoor conditions due to variation in solar radiation, outdoor temperature, wind
velocity and direction etc.

c) Variable indoor conditions due to variations in indoor temperatures, load patterns etc.

For cooling and heating load calculations, the indoor conditions are generally assumed to be constant to
simplify the analysis. However, the variation in outdoor conditions due to solar radiation and ambient
temperature has to be considered in the analysis to arrive at realistic cooling loads during summer. In winter,
the heating load calculations are based on peak or near-peak conditions, which normally occur early in the
morning before sunrise, in addition, in cold countries, the ambient temperature variation during the winter
months is not significant. Hence, in conventional heating load calculations, the effects of solar radiation and
ambient temperature variation are not considered and the heat transfer is assumed to be steady. However by
this steady state method, the calculated heating capacity will be more than required. Thus for higher
accuracy, it is essential to consider the transient heat transfer effects during winter also. In the present
lecture, first steady state heat transfer through buildings will be discussed followed by the unsteady state
heat transfer.

8.2. One-dimensional, steady state heat transfer through buildings:

Heat transfer through the building is assumed to be steady, if the indoor and outdoor conditions do not vary
with time. The heat transfer is assumed to be one dimensional if the thickness of the building wall is small
compared to the other two dimensions. In general, all building walls are multi-layered and non-
homogeneous and could be non-isotropic. To start with we consider a single layered, homogeneous wall and
then extend the discussion to multi-layered, non-homogenous walls.

8.2.1. Homogeneous wall:

Figure 8.1(a) shows a homogeneous wall separating the conditioned indoor space from the outdoors. As
shown in the figure, the wall is subjected to radiation and convection heat transfer on both sides, while heat
transfer through the wall is by conduction.
If outside and inside conditions do not vary with time, then the heat transfer through the wall is steady, and
we can construct a heat transfer network considering various heat transfer resistances as shown in Fig.8.1(b).
The heat transfer rate per unit area of the wall qin under steady state is given by:

qin = {qc, o + qr, o } = {qc,I + qr, i} W/m2 ……………. (8.1)

where qc,o and qr,o are the convective and radiative heat transfers to the outer surface of the wall from outside
and qc,i and qr,i are the convective and radiative heat transfers from the inner surface of the wall to the
indoors, respectively. Writing the radiative heat transfer in terms of a linearized radiative heat transfer
coefficient, we can write the heat transfer rate per unit area as:
 qin = ho (To –Tw, o) = hi (Tw, I –Ti ) W/m2 ………….. (8.2)

where Ti and To are the indoor and outdoor air temperatures, T w,i and Tw,o are the inner and outer surface
temperatures of the wall respectively. In the above equation, h i and ho are the inner and outer surface heat
transfer coefficients or surface conductances, which take into account both convection and radiation heat
transfers. From the resistance network, it can easily be shown that the surface conductances hi and h o are
given by:

hi = hc, I + hr,I {( Tw,I – Ts,i)/( Tw,I – Ti )} ………………………………(8.3)

ho = hc,o + hr,o {( Ts,o – Tw,o)/( To - Tw,o )} ….…………………….. (8.4)

The convective heat transfer coefficient depends on whether heat transfer is by natural convection or forced
convection. Normally the air inside the conditioned space is assumed to be still as the required air velocities
in the conditioned space are very small. Hence, the inside convective heat transfer coefficient hc,i can be
calculated using heat transfer correlations for natural convection. For example, for still air h can be
estimated using the following simple correlation:

hc,I = 1.42( ΔT/L)1/4 W/m2 .K …………………….………………..(8.5)

where ΔT is the temperature difference between the inner surface of the wall and the still air, and L is the
length of the wall. Of course, the actual heat transfer coefficient will be slightly higher due to the finite air
motion inside the conditioned space.

Normally due to wind speed, the heat transfer from the outside air to the outer surface of the wall is by
forced convection. Hence to estimate the outer convective heat transfer coefficient h c,o, suitable forced
convective heat transfer correlations should be used.

The linearized radiative heat transfer coefficient is calculated from the equation:

hr = { εσ/ (T1 – T2)} ( T14 –T24 ) W/m2 .K …………………..(8.6)

Where, ε is the emissivity of the surface, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant ( 5.673 x 10-8 W/m 2.K4),
T1and T2 are the hot and cold surface temperatures (in K) respectively.

Table 8.1 shows typical surface conductance values, which can be used for estimating inner and outer heat
transfer coefficients (hi and ho). When the air is still (i.e., for the inside heat transfer coefficient), the order-
of-magnitude of convective heat transfer is almost same as that of the radiative heat transfer coefficient, as a
result, the emissivity of the surface plays an important role and the surface conductance increases with
emissivity as shown in the table. On the other hand, when the air is blowing at considerable speed (i.e., for
external heat transfer coefficient), the convection heat transfer coefficient is many times larger than the
radiative heat transfer coefficient, as a result, the effect of emissivity of the surface is not important.

Table 8.1: Surface conductance values in W/m 2.K for different orientations, air velocities and surface
emissivity (C.P. Arora)

Orientation Air Velocity Direction of Surface emissivity

of Surface heat flow 0.9 0.7 0.5
Horizontal Still Air Up 9.4 5.2 4.4
Horizontal Still Air Down 6.3 2.2 1.3
Vertical Still Air Horizontal 8.5 4.3 3.5
Any position 3.7 m/s Any 23.3 - -
Any position 6.4 m/s Any 35 - -
Eliminating the surface temperatures of the wall (T w,i and Tw,o), the steady state heat transfer rate per unit
area of the wall can be written in terms of the indoor and outdoor air temperatures and the overall heat
transfer coefficient, i.e.,

qin = U(To – Ti ) = (To – Ti )/R tot W/m2 …………………………(8.7)

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and R tot is the total resistance to heat transfer. From the heat
transfer network, the expression for overall heat transfer coefficient is given by:

1/U = ( 1/hi + Δx/kw + 1/ho ) = Rtot W/m2 .K………………………………(8.8)

where Δx and kw are the thickness and thermal conductivity of the wall, respectively.

If the wall consists of windows, doors etc., then the overall heat transfer U o is obtained using the individual
U-values and their respective areas as:

Uo = (Uwall .Awall + Udoor .Adoor + Uwindow .Awindow……..)/Atotal…………..(8.9)

where Uwall, Udoor, Uwindow etc. are the overall heat transfer coefficients for the wall, door, window etc., which
are obtained using Eqn.(8.8), and Awall, Adoor, Awindow are the corresponding areas. Atotal is the total area of the
wall that includes doors, windows etc. The above equation for overall heat transfer coefficient (Eqn.(8.9)) is
valid when the temperature difference across the wall components are same and the heat transfer paths
through these elements are parallel.

8.2.2. Non-homogeneous walls:

In general the building walls may consist of non-homogeneous materials such as hollow bricks. Heat
transfer through non-homogeneous materials such as hollow bricks is quite complicated as it involves
simultaneous heat transfer by convection, conduction and radiation as shown in Fig.8.2. The heat transfer
network consists of series as well as parallel paths due to the simultaneous modes of heat transfer. In
practice, all these effects are lumped into a single parameter called thermal conductance, C, and the heat flux
through the hollow brick is given by:

q = C(T w,o - T w,i ) W/m2 ………………………………. (8.10)

The conductance values of common building materials have been measured and are available in tabular
form in ASHRAE and other handbooks. Table 8.2 shows thermo-physical properties of some commonly
used building materials.
Table 8.2: Thermo-physical properties of some common building and insulating materials (C.P. Arora)

Material Description Specific heat Density kg/m3 Thermal Conductance,

kJ/kg.K conductivity,kw C W/m2.K
W/m.K

Bricks Common 0.84 1600 0.77

Face brick 0.84 2000 1.32
Firebrick 0.96 2000 1.04 – 1.09
Woods Ply - 544 0.1
Hard 2.39 720 0.158
Soft 2.72 512 0.1
Concrete 0.88 1920 1.73
Plaster, Cement 0.796 1885 8.65
Hollow Clay tiles
a) 10 cm - - - 5.23
b) 20 cm - - - 3.14
c) 30 cm - - - 8.14
Hollow Concrete
Masonry blocks
Materials d) 10 cm - - - 2.33
e) 20 cm - - - 5.23
f) 30 cm - - - 4.54

Foam concrete - 210-704 0.043-0.128 -

(Pre-cast slabs
for roof)

Glass Window 0.84 2700 0.78

Borosilicate 2200 1.09
Mineral or glass 0.67 24-64 0.038
wool
Fiberglass board 0.7 64-144 0.038
Cork board 1.884 104-128 0.038
Insulating Cork granulated 1.88 45-120 0.045
Materials Thermocole - 30 0.037
(EPS)
Diatomaceous - 320 0.061
Earth - 330 0.052
Felt - 270 0.067
Magnesia 0.816 470-570 0.154
Asbestos

8.2.3. Air spaces:

Buildings may consist of air spaces between walls. Since air is a bad conductor of heat, the air space
provides effective insulation against heat transfer. Heat transfer through the air space takes place by a
combined mechanism of conduction, convection and radiation as shown in Fig. 8.3.
Thus the heat transfer rate through the air spaces depends upon its width, orientation and surface emissivities
of the wall surfaces and the temperature difference between the two surfaces. Heat transfer by conduction is
considerable only when the thickness of the air space is very small. Studies show that beyond an air gap of
about 2 cm, the effect of conduction heat transfer is negligible, and heat transfer is predominantly by
convection and radiation. Since the thickness of the air spaces varies normally from 5 cm to 55 cm (e.g. for
false ceilings), the effect of conduction may be neglected. In such a case, the heat flux through the air space
is given by:

q = C (T1 – T2 ) W/m2 ……………………………………………(8.11)

where C is the conductance of the air space that includes the radiation as well as convection effects.
Assuming the heat transfer coefficient h c to be same for both the surfaces (i.e., when air is well-mixed in the
air space), the air temperature to be uniform and the surfaces 1 and 2 to be infinite parallel planes, it can be
shown that the conductance C is given by:

C = (hc /2 + hr ) W/m2 .K……………………………………(8.12)

The linearized radiative heat transfer coefficient hr is given by:

hr = {F12 σ/( T1 – T2 )}( T14- T24 ) W/m2.K …..………. (8.13)

where the view factor F is given by:

F12 = 1/ [(1/ ε1 + 1/ ε2 – 1)]……………………………… (8.14)

where ε1and ε2 are the emissivities of surfaces 1 and 2, respectively. Table 8.3 shows the typical conductance
values for the air spaces commonly encountered in buildings.
 Table 8.3: Typical conductance values of air spaces (C.P. Arora)

Position & Mean Direction of heat flow Width of air space, Conductance, W/m2.K
Temp. difference cm

Up 2.1 6.7
11.6 6.2
Horizontal, 10oC
Down 2.1 5.7
4.2 5.1
11.6 4.8
Vertical, 10oC Horizontal 2.1 5.8
11.6 5.8
Up 2.1 7.7
o
Horizontal, 32 C 11.6 7.2

2.1 7.0
Down 4.2 6.2
11.6 5.8
Vertical, 32oC Horizontal 2.1 7.0
11.6 6.9

8.2.4. Multi-layered, composite walls:

In general, a building wall may consist of several layers comprising of layers of homogeneous and non-
homogeneous wall materials made up of structural and insulating materials and air spaces. For such a multi-
layered wall, one can write the heat transfer rate per unit area as:

qin = U(To – Ti ) = (To – Ti )/Rtot W/m2 …………………… (8.15)

where the overall heat transfer coefficient U is given as:

( ) ( ) …… (8.16)
n
1 1 ∆ xi M 1 1
=Rtot = + ∑ +∑ +
U hi i=1 k w ,i j=1 C j ho

Thus from the structure of the wall, various material properties and conductance values of non-
homogeneous materials and air spaces and inner and outer surface temperatures and conductance, one can
calculate the heat transfer rate under steady state conditions. It should be kept in mind that the equations
given above are limited to plane walls. For non-planar walls (e.g. circular walls), the contour of the walls
must be taken into account while calculating heat transfer rates.

8.3. Unsteady heat transfer through opaque walls and roofs:

In general, heat transfer through building walls and roof is unsteady, this is particularly so in summer due to
solar radiation and varying ambient temperature. In the calculation of unsteady heat transfer rates through
buildings, it is essential to consider the thermal capacity of the walls and roof. Due to the finite and often
large thermal capacity of the buildings, the heat transfer rate from outside to the outer surface is not equal to
the heat transfer rate from the inner surface to the indoor space1. In addition, the thermal capacity of the
buildings introduces a time lag. These aspects have to be considered in realistic estimation of building
cooling loads. This makes the problem mathematically complex. Though the conduction through the
building walls and roof could be multi-dimensional, for the sake of simplicity a one-dimensional heat
transfer is normally considered. It is to be noted that when the heat transfer is not steady, the concept of
simple resistance network as discussed before cannot be used for obtaining heat transfer rate through the
wall.

8.4. One-dimensional, unsteady heat transfer through building walls and roof:

For the sake of simplicity, it is assumed that the wall is made of a homogeneous material. It is also assumed
that the temperature of the conditioned space is kept constant by using a suitable air conditioning system.
Figure 8.4 shows a wall of thickness L subjected to unsteady heat transfer. As shown in the figure the outer
surface of the wall (x=L) is subjected to direct and diffuse radiations from the sun (α DID and αdId), reflected
radiation from the outer wall to the surrounding surfaces (R) and convective heat transfer from outdoor air to
the outer surface of the wall (ho (To-Tw,o)). Heat transfer from the inner surface to the conditioned space
takes place due to combined effects of convection and radiation (hi (Tw,i-To)).

Applying energy balance equation to the outer surface of the wall (x = L) at any instance of time θ, we can
write:

q x= L,θ =−k w ( ∂∂ Tx ) x= L, θ
=h0 ( T −T
0 ) +α D I D +α d I d +R …………………..(8.17)
x=L

Applying energy balance equation to the inner surface of the wall (x = 0), we can write:

q x=0 ,θ =−k w ( ∂∂ Tx ) x=0 , θ

=hi ( T x=0−T i ) ……………………….(8.18)

Note: If the thermal capacity of the wall is small (e.g. for a thin door), the heat transfer will still be transient
due to changing outdoor conditions. However, at any point of time the heat transfer rate at the outer surface
is equal to the heat transfer rate at the inner surface, i.e., qo,θ = qi,θ due to negligible thermal storage effect

In general due to the finite thermal capacity of the walls; at any point of time θ, the heat transfer rate at the
outer surface is not equal to the heat transfer rate at the inner surface, i.e.,

qx=L,θ ≠ q0,θ ……………………………………………. (8.19)

 For cooling load calculations, we need to know the heat transfer rate from the inner surface of the wall to
the conditioned space at a given time θ, i.e., q x=0,θ. From Eq.(8.18), to calculate qx=0,θ, we need to know the
temperature distribution (∂T/∂x) inside the wall so that we can calculate (∂T/∂x) x=0,θ and qin from Eq.(8.18).
To find the temperature distribution inside the wall, one has to solve the transient heat conduction equation
as the mode of heat transfer through the solid wall is assumed to be by conduction only. Assuming the

conduction equation through the plane wall is given by: ⎟

variation in thermal properties of the solid wall to be negligible, the one-dimensional, transient heat

∂2T/ ∂x2 = 1/ α(∂T/∂θ)……………..……………………… (8.20)

In the above equation, α is the thermal diffusivity (α = k w/ρwcpw), x is the length coordinate and θ is the time
coordinate. To solve the above partial differential equation, an initial condition and two boundary conditions
are required to be specified. The initial condition could be a known temperature gradient at a particular time,
θ = 0, i.e.,

T i x,θ=0 =Ti (x) ……………………………..……………….(8.21)

The two boundary conditions at x = L and x = 0 are given by Eqs.(8.17) and (8.18). The boundary condition
at x = L, i.e., Eq.(8.17) can be written as:

q x= L,θ =−k w ( ∂∂ Tx )x= L, θ

=h0 ( T −T
0 ) +α D I D +α d I d− R=h0 (T sol−air −T x=L )……
x=L
(8.22)

where Tsol-air is known as the sol-air temperature and is an equivalent or an effective outdoor temperature that
combines the effects of convection and radiation. From the above equation the sol-air temperature is given
by:

T sol−air =T 0 +
( α D I D + α d I d −R
h0 )
….. ………………………(8.23)

It can be easily seen that in the absence of any radiation, the sol-air temperature is simply equal to the
outdoor air temperature. The difference between the sol-air temperature and ambient air temperature
increases as the amount of radiation incident on the outer surface increases and/or the external heat transfer
coefficient decreases. Since on any given day, the outdoor air temperature and solar radiation vary with
time, the sol-air temperature also varies with time in a periodic manner.

In terms of the sol-air temperature the boundary condition at x=L is written as:

q x= L,θ =−k w ( ∂∂ Tx )x= L, θ

=h0 ( T sol−air −T x=L )……………….. (8.24)

Thus the one-dimensional unsteady heat transfer equation through the plane wall given by Eq.(8.20) should
be solved using the initial condition given by Eq.(8.21) and the boundary conditions given by Eqs.(8.18) and
(8.24). This problem can be solved by an analytical method involving an infinite harmonic series or by using
numerical techniques such as finite difference or finite volume methods or by using semi-empirical methods.

8.4.1. Analytical solution:

Analytical solutions to transient transfer through building walls and roof are available for simple
geometries. To simplify the problem further it is generally assumed that the outdoor air temperature and
solar radiation intensity vary in a periodic manner. In addition, normally the indoor temperature and thermal
properties of the wall materials are assumed to be constant. Though the variation of ambient temperature and
solar radiation is highly erratic and hence non-periodic due mainly to the presence of clouds and other
climatic factors, the assumption of periodic variation is justified if one assumes a clear sky. For example
Fig.8.5, shows the direct, diffuse and total radiation intensity on a horizontal roof under clear sky conditions.
It can be seen that the variation is periodic with the peak occurring at the solar noon. Applying periodic
boundary condition at the outer surface, the analytical solution is obtained in terms of an infinite Fourier
series consisting of various harmonics.

The sol-air temperature at any instant θ is given by (Threlkeld):

T sol air, θ = Tsol air,m + M1 cos ϖ1θ +N1 sinϖ1θ + M2 cos ϖ2θ +N2 sinϖ2θ +……. …….(8.25)

where the mean sol-air temperature Tsol-air,m is obtained by averaging the instantaneous sol-air temperature
over a 24-hour period, i.e. by integrating Tsol-air using Eqn.(8.23) over a 24 hour period. Hence it is given by:
24
1
T sol−air = ∫ T sol−air dθ …….……………………(8.26)
24 0

The coefficients Mn and Nn are given by:

24
1
M n= ∫ T sol−air cos ω n θdθ .. …………………… (8.27)
12 0
24
1
N n= ∫T
12 0 sol−air
sin ω n θ dθ.. ….. ………………..(8.28)

In the above expressions, the value of n can be restricted to 2 or 3 as higher order terms do not contribute
significantly. In the above expressions, ωn is the angular velocity, and ω1 = π/12 radians per hour or 15o per
hour and ωn = nω1. The coefficients M1 , M2… and N1 , N2… are obtained from Eqns.(8.27) and (8.28). All
the calculations are based on solar time, and θ is taken as 0 hours at 12’O clock calculations are based on
solar time, and θ is taken as 0 hours at 12’O clock midnight. Thus using the above equations, the sol-air
temperature at an instance can be calculated for clear days at any location. Now using the above series
expression for sol-air temperature, the solution of the unsteady heat conduction equation yields expression
for wall temperature as a function of x and θ as:
∞
T x ,θ =A + Bx+ ∑ ( C n cos Pn . mx+ Dn sin P n . mx ) . e (
m ω nθ )
2

…………………(8.29)
n=1

where A,B, C and D are constants, and m = (-1) 1/4 . The coefficients A, B, Cn and Dn can be either real or
complex. However, in the solution only the real parts are considered. Then it is shown that the inner wall
temperature (i.e, at x = 0) the temperature is given by:

1
T x=0 ,θ =T x=0 ,0 +
hi
[ U ( T e ,m−T x=0 , 0 ) +V 1 T e ,1 cos ( ω 1 θ−φ 1−∅ 1 ) + ¿V 2 T e, 2 cos ( ω2 θ−φ2−∅ 2 ) … … … … ]
………(8.30)

where Te stands for the sol-air temperature (Tsol-air) and ;

1
U=
1 L 1 ……………………….……………..(8.31)
+ +
hi k w ho

hi ho
V n= ………………………………..(8.32)
σ n k w √Y n + Z n
2 2

√ ωn kw
σ n= ; andα w = =Therma Diffusivity of Wall…………………… (8.33)
2αw ρw c p ,w

The constants Yn and Zn in Eqn.(8.34) are expressed in terms of hi, ho , σn, L, kw.

The term φn in Eqn.(8.30) is called as Time Lag factor and is given by:

Φn = tan-1( Zn/Yn ) …………………….……………………….(8.34)

The rate of heat transfer from the inner surface is also shown to be in the form of an infinite series as shown
below:

qx=0,θ = U{[Te,m + λ1Te,1cos(ϖ1 θ- ψ1 – φ1) + λ2Te,2cos(ϖ2 θ- ψ2 – φ2)] – Tx=0,0 } ………………..(8.35)

In the above expression the quantity λn is called as decrement factor and as mentioned before, φ n is the as
time lag factor. The factor ψ n takes into account the inner and outer heat transfer coefficients, thickness and
thermal properties of the wall etc. The expressions for decrement factor λn and factor ψn are given by:

Λn = Vn/U; and ψn = tan-1( Nn/Mn) ……………………………..(8.36)

8.4.2. Numerical methods:

The analytical method discussed above, though gives an almost exact solution, and becomes very complex
for other geometries or boundary conditions. The numerical techniques are very powerful and are very
useful for solving the unsteady conduction equations with a wide variety of boundary conditions, variable
properties and irregular shapes. However, the use of numerical methods requires a powerful computer, and
the solution obtained is not exact and is prone to errors if not applied properly. Nevertheless, at present with
the advent of computers, the numerical method is the preferred method due to its versatility and flexibility.
The commonly used numerical methods are: finite difference method, finite element method, finite volume
method etc. In general, the principle of all numerical methods is to write the continuous functions such as
temperature in discrete forms by dividing the domain of interest into a large number of grids or elements.
Due to discretization, the governing partial differential equations get converted into a set of algebraic
equations, which then are solved to get the parameters of interest in the domain. The reader should refer to
any book on Numerical Methods for further details on these techniques.

8.4.3. Semi-empirical methods:

The semi-empirical methods use the form suggested by the analytical method along with experimental
observations on standard walls. These semi-empirical methods based on Equivalent Temperature Difference
(ETD) or Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD), are widely used by air conditioning industry due
to their simplicity. However, the empirical data covers only standard walls and is suitable for specific
location, orientation and day. In the present lecture, this method is used to estimate unsteady heat transfer
through building walls and roofs. Before presenting this method, one has to consider the physical
significance of decrement factor and time lag factor mentioned under analytical methods.

Decrement factor and Time Lag:

Based on the form suggested by analytical methods, the heat transfer rate to the conditioned space at any
time θ can be written as:

Qx=0,θ = UA( Tsol-air, m – Ti) + UAλ ( Tsol-air, θ-φ – Tsol-air, m ) …………..(8.37)

In the above expression, Tsol-air,m is the time averaged sol-air temperature, T sol-air,θ-φ is the sol-air temperature φ
hours before θ, U and A are the overall heat transfer coefficient and area of the wall, λ is the decrement
factor and φ is the time lag.

The decrement factor, λ accounts for the fact that due to finite thermal capacity, the heat transferred to the
outer surface of the wall is partly stored and partly transferred to the conditioned space. Due to the thermal
energy storage, the temperature of the wall increases, and if it exceeds the outdoor air temperature then a
part of the energy stored is transferred to outside and not to the conditioned space. Thus finally the heat
transferred to the conditioned space from the inner surface (cooling load) is smaller than the heat transferred
to the outer surface. This implies that the finite thermal capacity of the wall introduces a decrement in heat
transfer.

The decrement factor, that varies between 0 to 1, increases as the thermal capacity of the wall increases.
Thus thicker walls have lower decrement factor and thinner walls have higher decrement factor.

The finite thermal capacity of the building walls and roof also introduces a time lag, φ. The time lag is the
difference between the time at which the outer surface receives heat and the time at which the inner surface
senses it. Due to the effect of time lag, if the outdoor temperature is maximum at noon, the indoor
temperature of a non-air conditioned room reaches a maximum somewhere in the afternoon.

As mentioned both decrement factor and time lag depend on the thermal capacity (mass x specific heat) of
the wall. Most of the commonly used building structural materials have a specific heat of about 840 J/kg.K,
then, the thermal capacity of these walls depend mainly on the thickness and density of the wall material.
For these standard wall materials, the decrement factor decreases and the time lag increases as the wall
thickness and density increase as shown in Fig. 8.6. Thus from the comfort point of view it is always
advantageous to construct buildings with thick walls as this will yield low decrement factor and large time
lag. In the limiting case, when the thermal capacity of the wall is very large, then the decrement factor
becomes zero, then the heat transferred to the conditioned will remain constant throughout the day at the
mean value as given by the Eqn.(8.37), i.e.,

Qx=0,θ = UA( Tsol-air, m – Ti) when λ=0.0 ………………(8.38)

On the other extreme, if the wall has negligible thermal capacity, then the decrement factor will be 1.0 and
the time lag will be 0, and the heat transfer rate to the conditioned space at any point is equal to the heat
transferred to the outer surface of the wall at that instant, i.e.,

Qx=0,θ = UA( Tsol-air, m – Ti) when λ= 1 and φ = 0.0 ……………(8.39)

 density

Fig.8.6: Variation of time lag and decrement factor with wall thickness and density

In general the decrement factor of building walls and roof lies between 0 to 1 and the time lag will be
greater than 0 hours. However, for windows and thin doors etc., which are exposed to outdoors, the
decrement factor may be taken as 1.0 and the time lag factor as 0.0, as the thermal storage capacity of these
elements is very small. Figure 8.7 shows the variation of heat transfer rate to the conditioned space with
solar time for walls of different thickness. It can be seen that for thin walls with small time lag, the peak heat
transfer occurs sometime around 4 P.M, whereas for thick walls with large time lags, the peak occurs well
after midnight. Since the outside temperatures will be much smaller during the night the building can reject
heat to the outside during night, thus for thicker walls due to the thermal storage effect a major portion of the
heat absorbed by the outer surface during the daytime can be rejected to the outside, while a relatively small
amount is transferred to the conditioned space (small decrement factor). The net effect is a greatly reduced
cooling load on the building for thick walls. It can also be observed that due to large decrement factor the
peak heat transfer for thin walled structures is much higher compared to the thick walled buildings. This
implies the requirement of cooling system of much larger capacity (hence high initial cost) for buildings
with thin walls compared to thick walls.

When the thermal capacity of the building is sufficiently large, then it is also possible to maintain reasonably
comfortable temperatures inside the building even without an air conditioning system during both winter and
summer. This is the principle behind old temples and buildings, which are comfortable throughout the year
without any artificial air conditioning systems. However, the effect of the thermal capacity becomes
significant mainly in locations, which have large variation in diurnal temperatures (i.e., T max-Tmin on a
particular day is large). This is generally the case in dry areas, where thick walled buildings are highly
beneficial. In costal areas with large humidity the diurnal temperature variation is not very large, as a result
the decrement factor will be high even with thick walled buildings as the building cannot loose significant
amount of heat to the outside even during the night due to the relatively high night temperatures. Thus thick
walled buildings are not as effective in coastal areas as in dry areas.
Empirical methods for cooling load estimation:

Equation (8.37) can be written as:

Qx=0,θ = UA( Tsol-air, m – Ti) + UAλ ( Tsol-air, θ-φ – Tsol-air, m ) = UA ΔTeff …..…….(8.40)

here ΔTeff, called as Equivalent Temperature Differential (ETD) or Cooling Load Temperature
Differenential (CLTD) is given by:

ΔTeff = ( Tsol-air, m – Ti) + λ ( Tsol-air, θ-φ – Tsol-air, m ) …………….. …………………(8.41)

It can be seen from the above expression that ETD or CLTD depends on:

i. Decrement (λ) and Time Lag (φ) factors

ii. Solar radiation and outside ambient temperature(through sol-air temperature), and
iii. Inside temperature, Ti

Tables of ETD and CLTD have been prepared for fixed values of inside and outside temperatures, for
different latitudes, orientations and different types of walls and roofs. For example, a typical CLTD table for
a roof without suspended ceiling prepared and presented by ASHRAE is shown in Table 8.4:

Roof Mass per Heat Solar Time, h

type unit area, capacity 0 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
kg/m2 kJ/ 7
m2 .K
3 90 90 -2 1 5 11 18 25 31 36 39 40 40 37 32
4 150 120 1 0 2 4 8 13 18 24 29 33 35 36 35
5 250 230 4 4 6 8 11 15 18 22 25 28 29 30 29
6 365 330 9 8 7 8 8 10 12 15 18 20 22 24 25

Description of Roof Types:

T ype 3: 100 mm thick, lightweight concrete

Type 4: 150 mm thick, lightweight concrete

Type 5: 100 mm thick, heavyweight concrete

Type 6: Roof terrace systems

Table 8.4: CLTD values (in K) for flat roofs without suspended ceilings (ASHRAE Handbook)

For vertical walls in addition to the other parameters, the orientation of the wall affects the incident solar
radiation and hence the CLTD values. For example, Table 8.5 shows the CLTD values for a D-Type (100-
mm face brick with 200-mm concrete block and interior finish or 100-mm face brick and 100-mm concrete
brick with interior finish) wall with solar time for different orientations:

Solar Orientation
time, h N NE E SE S SW W NW
7 3 4 5 5 4 6 7 6
 8 3 4 5 5 4 5 6 5
9 3 6 7 5 3 5 5 4
10 3 8 10 7 3 4 5 4
11 4 10 13 10 4 4 5 4
12 4 11 15 12 5 5 5 4
13 5 12 17 14 7 6 6 5
14 6 13 18 16 9 7 6 6
15 6 13 18 17 11 9 8 7
16 7 13 18 18 13 12 10 8
17 8 14 18 18 15 15 13 10
18 9 14 18 18 16 18 17 12
19 10 14 17 17 16 20 20 15
20 11 13 17 17 16 21 22 17
CLTDmax 11 14 18 18 16 21 23 18

The above tables are valid for the following conditions:

a) Inside temperature of 25o C, maximum outside temperature of 35oC with an average value of 29o C and a
daily range of 12o C. For inside and average outside temperatures (T i and Tav) other than the above, the
following adjustment has to be made to CLTD:

CLTDadj = CLTDTable + (25-Ti) + (Tav-29) ……………….(8.42)

here CLTDTable is the value obtained from the table.

b) Solar radiation typical of July 21 at 40 o N latitude, but in the absence of more accurate data, the tables can
be used without significant error for 0oN to 50oN and for summer months. Similar data are available for
other types of walls and roofs and for different latitudes. Adjustments are also suggested for walls and roofs
with insulation, wetted roofs etc.

Thus knowing the value of the overall heat transfer coefficient and area of the wall from the building
specifications, local design outdoor temperatures and suitable ETD or CLTD values from the tables, one can
calculate the heat transfer rate to the conditioned space through the opaque walls and roof of the building
using Eq.(8.40). It should be remembered that the use of published ETD or CLTD cannot cover all possible
walls and roofs and other conditions. Hence, some error is always involved in using these data. However, by
developing individual heat transfer models for the specific building and using the numerical methods, one
can estimate the heat transfer rate to the building more accurately. However, since this is extremely time
consuming, practising engineers generally use the published data and provide a safety factor to account for
possible differences in the actual and published values.

Alternatively-

The values from Table 18.9 and 18.10 from C.P.Arrora can be used for the following conditions.

o o o
(i) 40 N latitude, but normally suitable for latitude 0 to 50 N, for the hottest summer days.
o
(ii) An outside and inside design temp. diff. of 8.3 C(15F)
(iii) An outdoor daily range of dry bulb temp. of 11.1C(20F)
(iv) Dark colour walls and roofs with absorptivity of 0.9
(v) A specific heat of construction material of 1.005 kJ/kg.K
When there is a departure from these conditions, the following corrections may be applied.
 (i) Add or subtract the difference between (To – Ti ) and 8.3 with the table values ETD
(ii) If the daily range differs from 11.1, then apply the effective corrections as follows
o O
(a) For each 1 C diff. less than 11.1 C Add 0.25 deg. for medium construction
Add 0.5 deg. for heavy construction
o O
(a) For each 1 C diff. greater than 11.1 C Subtract 0.25 deg. for medium construction
Subtract 0.5 deg. for heavy construction

© Maximum correction 2 deg. for medium and 3 deg. for heavy consn.

(d) Light construction No correction

Thus knowing the value of the overall heat transfer coefficient and area of the wall from the building
specifications, local design outdoor temperatures and suitable ETD or CLTD values from the tables, one can
calculate the heat transfer rate to the conditioned space through the opaque walls and roof of the building
using Eq.(8.40). It should be remembered that the use of published ETD or CLTD cannot cover all possible
walls and roofs and other conditions. Hence, some error is always involved in using these data. However, by
developing individual heat transfer models for the specific building and using the numerical methods, one
can estimate the heat transfer rate to the building more accurately. However, since this is extremely time
consuming, practising engineers generally use the published data and provide a safety factor to account for
possible differences in the actual and published values.

Lecture 09
Cooling and Heating Load Calculations - Estimation of Required Cooling/Heating Capacity

9.1. Introduction:

As mentioned in an earlier chapter, heating and cooling load calculations are carried out to estimate the
required capacity of heating and cooling systems, which can maintain the required conditions in the
conditioned space. To estimate the required cooling or heating capacities, one has to have information
regarding the design indoor and outdoor conditions, specifications of the building, specifications of the
conditioned space (such as the occupancy, activity level, various appliances and equipment used etc.) and
any special requirements of the particular application. For comfort applications, the required indoor
conditions are fixed by the criterion of thermal comfort, while for industrial or commercial applications the
required indoor conditions are fixed by the particular processes being performed or the products being
stored. As discussed in an earlier chapter, the design outdoor conditions are chosen based on design dry bulb
and coincident wet bulb temperatures for peak summer or winter months for cooling and heating load
calculations, respectively.

9.2. Heating versus cooling load calculations:

As the name implies, heating load calculations are carried out to estimate the heat loss from the building in
winter so as to arrive at required heating capacities. Normally during winter months the peak heating load
occurs before sunrise and the outdoor conditions do not vary significantly throughout the winter season. In
addition, internal heat sources such as occupants or appliances are beneficial as they compensate some of the
heat losses. As a result, normally, the heat load calculations are carried out assuming steady state conditions
(no solar radiation and steady outdoor conditions) and neglecting internal heat sources. This is a simple but
conservative approach that leads to slight overestimation of the heating capacity. For more accurate
estimation of heating loads, one has to take into the thermal capacity of the walls and internal heat sources,
which makes the problem more complicated.
 For estimating cooling loads, one has to consider the unsteady state processes, as the peak cooling load
occurs during the day time and the outside conditions also vary significantly throughout the day due to solar
radiation. In addition, all internal sources add on to the cooling loads and neglecting them would lead to
underestimation of the required cooling capacity and the possibility of not being able to maintain the
required indoor conditions. Thus cooling load calculations are inherently more complicated as it involves
solving unsteady equations with unsteady boundary conditions and internal heat sources.

For any building there exists a balance point at which the solar radiation (Q solar) and internal heat generation
rate (Qint) exactly balance the heat losses from the building. Thus from sensible heat balance equation, at
balanced condition:

(Qsolar + Qint) sensible = UA(Tin - Tout) ……………………….(9.1)

where UA is the product of overall heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer area of the building, T in is the
required indoor temperature and Tout is the outdoor temperature.

From the above equation, the outside temperature at balanced condition (Tout,bal) is given by:

T out ,bal =T ¿ −¿ ¿ ¿ ……………………. (9.2)

If the outdoor temperature is greater than the balanced outdoor temperature given by the above equation, i.e.,
when Tout > Tout,bal, then there is a need for cooling the building. On the other hand, when the outdoor
temperature is less than the balanced outdoor temperature, i.e., when Tout < T out,bal, then there is a need for
heating the building. When the outdoor temperature exactly equals the balanced outdoor temperature, i.e.,
when Tout = Tout,bal, then there is no need for either cooling or heating the building.

For residential buildings (with fewer internal heat sources), the balanced outdoor temperature may vary from
10 to 18oC. As discussed before, this means that if the balanced outdoor temperature is 18 oC, then a cooling
system is required when the outdoor temperature exceeds 18 oC. This implies that buildings need cooling not
only during summer but also during spring and fall as well. If the building is well insulated (small UA)
and/or internal loads are high, then from the energy balance equation (9.2), the balanced outdoor
temperature will reduce leading to extended cooling season and shortened heating season. Thus a smaller
balanced outdoor temperature implies higher cooling requirements and smaller heating requirements, and
vice versa. For commercial buildings with large internal loads and relatively smaller heat transfer areas, the
balanced outdoor temperature can be as low as 2 oC, implying a lengthy cooling season and a small heating
season. If there are no internal heat sources and if the solar radiation is negligible, then from the heat balance
equation, Tout,bal = Tin, this implies that if the outside temperature exceeds the required inside temperature
(say, 25oC for comfort) then there is a need for cooling otherwise there is a need for heating. Thus depending
upon the specific conditions of the building, the need for either cooling system or a heating system depends.
This also implies a need for optimizing the building insulation depending upon outdoor conditions and
building heat generation so that one can use during certain periods free cooling provided by the environment
without using any external cooling system.

9.3. Methods of estimating cooling and heating loads:

Generally, heating and cooling load calculations involve a systematic, stepwise procedure, using which one
can arrive at the required system capacity by taking into account all the building energy flows. In practice, a
variety of methods ranging from simple rules-of-thumb to complex Transfer Function Methods are used in
practice to arrive at the building loads. For example, typical rules-of-thumb methods for cooling loads
specify the required cooling capacity based on the floor area or occupancy. Table 9.1 shows typical data on
required cooling capacities based on the floor area or application. Such rules-of-thumb are useful in
preliminary estimation of the equipment size and cost. The main conceptual drawback of rules of-thumb
methods is the presumption that the building design will not make any difference. Thus the rules for a badly
designed building are typically the same as for a good design.

Table 9.1: Required cooling capacities for various applications based on rules of-thumb (Croome and
Roberts, 1981)

Sl.No. Application Required cooling capacity (TR) for 1000 ft 2 of floor

area

Office buildings:
External zones 25% glass: 3.5 TR
1. 50% glass: 4.5 TR
75% glass: 5.0 TR
Internal zones 2.8 TR
2. Computer rooms 6.0 – 12.0 TR
3. Hotels Bedrooms Single room: 0.6 TR per room
Double room: 1.0 TR per room
Restaurants 5.0 - 9.0 TR
Department stores:
4. Basement & ground floors 4.5 – 5.0 TR
Upper floors 3.5 – 4.5 TR
5. Shops 5.0 TR
6. Banks 4.5 – 5.5 TR
7. Theatres & Auditoriums 0.07 TR per seat

More accurate load estimation methods involve a combination of analytical methods and empirical results
obtained from actual data, for example the use of Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) for
estimating fabric heat gain and the use of Solar Heat Gain Factor (SHGF) for estimating heat transfer
through fenestration. These methods are very widely used by air conditioning engineers as they yield
reasonably accurate results and estimations can be carried out manually in a relatively short time. Over the
years, more accurate methods that require the use of computers have been developed for estimating cooling
loads, e.g. the Transfer Function Method (TFM). Since these methods are expensive and time consuming
they are generally used for estimating cooling loads of large commercial or institutional buildings. ASHRAE
suggests different methods for estimating cooling and heating loads based on applications, such as for
residences, for commercial buildings etc.

9.4. Cooling load calculations:

As mentioned before, load calculations involve a systematic and stepwise procedure that takes into account
all the relevant building energy flows. The cooling load experienced by a building varies in magnitude from
zero (no cooling required) to a maximum value. The design cooling load is a load near the maximum
magnitude, but is not normally the maximum. Design cooling load takes into account all the loads
experienced by a building under a specific set of assumed conditions.

The assumptions behind design cooling load are as follows:

1. Design outside conditions are selected from a long-term statistical database. The conditions will not
necessarily represent any actual year, but are representative of the location of the building. Design data for
outside conditions for various locations of the world have been collected and are available in tabular form in
various handbooks.
2. The load on the building due to solar radiation is estimated for clear sky conditions.

3. The building occupancy is assumed to be at full design capacity.

4. All building equipment and appliances are considered to be operating at a reasonably representative
capacity.

The total building cooling load consists of heat transferred through the building envelope (walls, roof, floor,
windows, doors etc.) and heat generated by occupants, equipment, and lights. The load due to heat transfer
through the envelope is called as external load, while all other loads are called as internal loads. The
percentage of external versus internal load varies with building type, site climate, and building design. The
total cooling load on any building consists of both sensible as well as latent load components. The sensible
load affects dry bulb temperature, while the latent load affects the moisture content of the conditioned space.

Steps of Calculation method:

Room load:

A: Room Sensible Heat(RSH)

(i) Solar and transmission gain through wall, roof, etc.

(ii) Solar and transmission gain through glass
(iii) Transmission gain through partition walls, ceiling, floor, etc.
(iv) Infiltration
(v) Internal gain from people, power, lights, appliances, etc.
(vi) Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor, etc.
(vii) Supply duct heat gain, supply duct leakage loss and fan power.

The sum of all the above gives room sensible heat(RSH) load. For the purpose of psychrometric analysis,
the following component is also included in the RSH.

(viii) Bypassed outside air load.

The sum of items (i) to (viii) gives effective room sensible heat (ERSH).

B: Room Latent Heat(RLH)

(i) Infiltration
(ii) Internal heat gain from people, steam, appliance, equipments, etc.
(iii) Vapour transmission
(iv) Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor, etc.
(v) Supply duct leakage loss.

The sum of all the above gives Room Latent Heat(RLH). The other latent heat gain considered for
psychrometric analysis is:

(vi) Bypassed outside air load

The sum of (i) to (vi) gives the effective room latent heat (ERLH)

The sum of A and B gives ERTH. But the sum of items (i) to (vii) I A, and (i) to (v) in B gives the room
total heat(RTH).

Grand Total Load on A/C apparatus:

C: Sensible Heat

(i) Effective room sensible heat(ERSH)

(ii) Sensible heat of the outside air that is not bypassed
(iii) Return duct heat gain, return duct leakage gain, dehumidifier pump horse power and
dehumidifier and piping losses.

The sum of the items (i) to (iii) gives total sensible heat(TSH)

D: Latent Heat

(i) Effective room latent heat(ERLH)

(ii) Latent heat of outside air which is not bypassed
(iii) Return duct leakage gain

The sum of the items (i) to (iii) gives the total latent heat(TLH). Finally the sum of C and D above gives the
grand total heat(GTH) which is the load on A/C apparatus.

As mentioned before, the total cooling load on a building consists of external as well as internal loads. The
external loads consist of heat transfer by conduction through the building walls, roof, floor, doors etc, heat
transfer by radiation through fenestration such as windows and skylights. All these are sensible heat
transfers. In addition to these the external load also consists of heat transfer due to infiltration, which
consists of both sensible as well as latent components. The heat transfer due to ventilation is not a load on
the building but a load on the system. The various internal loads consist of sensible and latent heat transfer
due to occupants, products, processes and appliances, sensible heat transfer due to lighting and other
equipment. Figure 9.1 shows various components that constitute the cooling load on a building.

Estimation of cooling load involves estimation of each of the above components from the given data. In the
present chapter, the cooling load calculations are carried out based on the CLTD/CLF method suggested by
ASHRAE. For more advanced methods such as TFM, the reader should refer to ASHRAE and other
handbooks.

9.4.1. Estimation of external loads:

a) Heat transfer through opaque surfaces: This is a sensible heat transfer process. The heat transfer rate
through opaque surfaces such as walls, roof, floor, doors etc. is given by:

Qopaque = U.A.CLTD …………………………………. (9.3)

Where, U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and A is the heat transfer area of the surface on the side of
the conditioned space. CLTD is the cooling load temperature difference.

For sunlit surfaces, CLTD has to be obtained from the CLTD tables as discussed in the previous chapter.
Adjustment to the values obtained from the table is needed if actual conditions are different from those
based on which the CLTD tables are prepared.
For surfaces which are not sunlit or which have negligible thermal mass (such as doors), the CLTD value is
simply equal to the temperature difference across the wall or roof. For example, for external doors the
CLTD value is simply equal to the difference between the design outdoor and indoor dry bulb temperatures,
Tout-Tin.

For interior air conditioned rooms surrounded by non-air conditioned spaces, the CLTD of the interior walls
is equal to the temperature difference between the surrounding non-air conditioned space and the
conditioned space. Obviously, if an air conditioned room is surrounded by other air conditioned rooms, with
all of them at the same temperature, the CLTD values of the walls of the interior room will be zero.

Estimation of CLTD values of floor and roof with false ceiling could be tricky. For floors standing on
ground, one has to use the temperature of the ground for estimating CLTD. However, the ground
temperature depends on the location and varies with time. ASHRAE suggests suitable temperature
difference values for estimating heat transfer through ground. If the floor stands on a basement or on the
roof of another room, then the CLTD values for the floor are the temperature difference across the floor (i.e.,
difference between the temperature of the basement or room below and the conditioned space). This
discussion also holds good for roofs which have non-air conditioned rooms above them. For sunlit roofs
with false ceiling, the U value may be obtained by assuming the false ceiling to be an air space. However,
the CLTD values obtained from the tables may not exactly fit the specific roof. Then one has to use his
judgement and select suitable CLTD values.

b) Heat transfer through fenestration: Heat transfer through transparent surface such as a window, includes
heat transfer by conduction due to temperature difference across the window and heat transfer due to solar
radiation through the window. The heat transfer through the window by convection is calculated using Eq.
(9.3), with CLTD being equal to the temperature difference across the window and A equal to the total area
of the window. The heat transfer due to solar radiation through the window is given by:

Qtrans = Aunshaded .SHGFmax.SC.CLF = …………………… (9.4)

where Aunshaded is the area exposed to solar radiation, SHGF max and SC are the maximum Solar Heat Gain
Factor and Shading Coefficient, respectively, and CLF is the Cooling Load Factor. As discussed in a
previous chapter, the unshaded area has to be obtained from the dimensions of the external shade and solar
geometry. SHGFmax and SC are obtained from ASHRAE tables based on the orientation of the window,
location, month of the year and the type of glass and internal shading device.

The Cooling Load Factor (CLF) accounts for the fact that all the radiant energy that enters the conditioned
space at a particular time does not become a part of the cooling load instantly. As solar radiation enters the
conditioned space, only a negligible portion of it is absorbed by the air particles in the conditioned space
instantaneously leading to a minute change in its temperature. Most of the radiation is first absorbed by the
internal surfaces, which include ceiling, floor, internal walls, furniture etc. Due to the large but finite thermal
capacity of the roof, floor, walls etc., their temperature increases slowly due to absorption of solar radiation.
As the surface temperature increases, heat transfer takes place between these surfaces and the air in the
conditioned space. Depending upon the thermal capacity of the wall and the outside temperature, some of
the absorbed energy due to solar radiation may be conducted to the outer surface and may be lost to the
outdoors. Only that fraction of the solar radiation that is transferred to the air in the conditioned space
becomes a load on the building, the heat transferred to the outside is not a part of the cooling load. Thus it
can be seen that the radiation heat transfer introduces a time lag and also a decrement factor depending upon
the dynamic characteristics of the surfaces. Due to the time lag, the effect of radiation will be felt even when
the source of radiation, in this case the sun is removed. The CLF values for various surfaces have been
calculated as functions of solar time and orientation and are available in the form of tables in ASHRAE
Handbooks. Table 9.2 gives typical CLF values for glass with interior shading.

Table 9.2: Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for glass with interior shading and located in north latitudes
(ASHRAE)

Note: At any point of time, cooling load may be equated to the heat transfer rate to the air in the conditioned
space. If heat is transferred to the walls or other solid objects, then it does not become a part of the cooling
load at that instant

Solar Direction the sunlit window is facing

Time, N NE E SE S SW W NW Horiz.
h
6 0.73 0.56 0.47 0.30 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.12
7 0.66 0.76 0.72 0.57 0.16 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.27
8 0.65 0.74 0.80 0.74 0.23 0.14 0.11 0.14 0.44
9 0.73 0.58 0.76 0.81 0.38 0.16 0.13 0.17 0.59
10 0.80 0.37 0.62 0.79 0.58 0.19 0.15 0.19 0.72
11 0.86 0.29 0.41 0.68 0.75 0.22 0.16 0.20 0.81
12 0.89 0.27 0.27 0.49 0.83 0.38 0.17 0.21 0.85
13 0.89 0.26 0.26 0.33 0.80 0.59 0.31 0.22 0.85
14 0.86 0.24 0.24 0.28 0.68 0.75 0.53 0.30 0.81
15 0.82 0.22 0.22 0.25 0.50 0.83 0.72 0.52 0.71
16 0.75 0.20 0.20 0.22 0.35 0.81 0.82 0.73 0.58
17 0.78 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.27 0.69 0.81 0.82 0.42
18 0.91 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.19 0.45 0.61 0.69 0.25

c) Heat transfer due to infiltration: Heat transfer due to infiltration consists of both sensible as well as latent
components. The sensible heat transfer rate due to infiltration is given by:

Qs,inf = mo cp,m (To – Ti ) = Vo ρo cp,m (To – Ti ) …………………(9.5)

where, Vo is the infiltration rate(in m3/sec), ρo and cp,m are the density and specific heat of the moist,
infiltrated air, respectively. To and Ti are the outdoor and indoor dry bulb temperatures.

The latent heat transfer rate due to infiltration is given by:

Ql,inf = mo hfg (wo - wi ) = Vo ρo hfg (wo - wi ) …………………………. (9.6)

where, hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of water, w o and wi are the outdoor and indoor humidity ratio,
respectively.
As discussed in an earlier chapter, the infiltration rate depends upon several factors such as the tightness of
the building that includes the walls, windows, doors etc. and the prevailing wind speed and direction. As
mentioned before, the infiltration rate is obtained by using either the air change method or the crack method.

The infiltration rate by air change method is given by:

Vo = (ACH).V /3600 m3 /sec …………………………….. (9.7)

where ACH is the number of air changes per hour and V is the gross volume of the conditioned space in m 3.
Normally the ACH value varies from 0.5 ACH for tight and well-sealed buildings to about 2.0 for loose and
poorly sealed buildings. For modern buildings the ACH value may be as low as 0.2 ACH. Thus depending
upon the age and condition of the building an appropriate ACH value has to be chosen, using which the
infiltration rate can be calculated.

The infiltration rate by the crack method is given by:

V = A.C. ΔPn m3/sec …………………………………………. (9.8)

where A is the effective leakage area of the cracks, C is a flow coefficient which depends on the type of the
crack and the nature of the flow in the crack, ΔP is the difference between outside and inside pressure (P o-Pi)
and n is an exponent whose value depends on the nature of the flow in the crack. The value of n varies
between 0.4 to 1.0, i.e., 0.4 ≤ n ≤ 1.0. The pressure difference ΔP arises due to pressure difference due to the
wind (ΔPwind), pressure difference due to the stack effect (ΔP stack) and pressure difference due to building
pressurization (ΔPbld), i.e.,

ΔP = ΔPstack + ΔPwind+ ΔPbld …………………………………..(9.9)

Semi-empirical expressions have been obtained for evaluating pressure difference due to wind and stack
effects as functions of prevailing wind velocity and direction, inside and outside temperatures, building
dimensions and geometry etc.

Representative values of infiltration rate for different types of windows, doors walls etc. have been
measured and are available in tabular form in air conditioning design handbooks.

d) Miscellaneous external loads: In addition to the above loads, if the cooling coil has a positive by-pass
factor (BPF > 0), then some amount of ventilation air directly enters the conditioned space, in which case it
becomes a part of the building cooling load. The sensible and latent heat transfer rates due to the by-passed
ventilation air can be calculated using equations (9.5) and (9.6) by replacing V o with Vvent.. BPF, where,
Vvent.is the ventilation rate and BPF is the by-pass factor of the cooling coil.

In addition to this, sensible and latent heat transfer to the building also occurs due to heat transfer and air
leakage in the supply ducts. A safety factor is usually provided to account for this depending upon the
specific details of the supply air ducts.

If the supply duct consists of supply air fan with motor, then power input to the fan becomes a part of the
external sensible load on the building. If the duct consists of the electric motor, which drives the fan, then
the efficiency of the fan motor also must be taken into account while calculating the cooling load. Most of
the times, the power input to the fan is not known a priori as the amount of supply air required is not known
at this stage. To take this factor into account, initially it is assumed that the supply fan adds about 5% of the
room sensible cooling load and cooling loads are then estimated. Then this value is corrected in the end
when the actual fan selection is done.

9.4.2. Estimation of internal loads:

 The internal loads consist of load due to occupants, due to lighting, due to equipment and appliances and
due to products stored or processes being performed in the conditioned space.

(a)Load due to occupants: The internal cooling load due to occupants consists of both sensible and latent
heat components. The rate at which the sensible and latent heat transfer take place depends mainly on the
population and activity level of the occupants. Since a portion of the heat transferred by the occupants is in
the form of radiation, a Cooling Load Factor (CLF) should be used similar to that used for radiation heat
transfer through fenestration. Thus the sensible heat transfer to the conditioned space due to the occupants is
given by the equation:

Q s, occupants = No. of people . (Sensible heat gain/person) .CLF …… (9.10)

Table 9.3 shows typical values of total heat gain from the occupants and also the sensible heat gain fraction
as a function of activity in an air conditioned space. However, it should be noted that the fraction of the total
heat gain that is sensible depends on the conditions of the indoor environment. If the conditioned space
temperature is higher, then the fraction of total heat gain that is sensible decreases and the latent heat gain
increases, and vice versa.

Table 9.3: Total heat gain, sensible heat gain fraction from occupants

Activity Total heat gain, W Sensible heat gain

fraction
Sleeping 70 0.75
Seated, quiet 100 0.60
Standing 150 0.50
Walking @ 3.5 kmph 305 0.35
Office work 150 0.55
Teaching 175 0.50
Industrial work 300 to 600 0.35
The value of Cooling Load Factor (CLF) for occupants depends on the hours after the entry of the occupants
into the conditioned space, the total hours spent in the conditioned space and type of the building. Values of
CLF have been obtained for different types of buildings and have been tabulated in ASHRAE handbooks.

Since the latent heat gain from the occupants is instantaneous the CLF for latent heat gain is 1.0, thus the
latent heat gain due to occupants is given by:

Q L,occupants = No. of people.(Latent heat gain/person)……………… (9.11)

b) Load due to lighting: Lighting adds sensible heat to the conditioned space. Since the heat transferred from
the lighting system consists of both radiation and convection, a Cooling Load Factor is used to account for
the time lag. Thus the cooling load due to lighting system is given by:

QS,lighting = (Installed wattage) (Usage factor)(Ballast Factor). CLF (9.12)

The usage factor accounts for any lamps that are installed but are not switched on at the time at which load
calculations are performed. The ballast factor takes into account the load imposed by ballasts used in
fluorescent lights. A typical ballast factor value of 1.25 is taken for fluorescent lights, while it is equal to 1.0
for incandescent lamps. The values of CLF as a function of the number of hours after the lights are turned
on, type of lighting fixtures and the hours of operation of the lights are available in the form of tables in
ASHRAE handbooks.

c) Internal loads due to equipment and appliances: The equipment and appliances used in the conditioned
space may add both sensible as well as latent loads to the conditioned space. Again, the sensible load may be
in the form of radiation and/or convection. Thus the internal sensible load due to equipment and appliances
is given by:

Q S,appliances = (Installed wattage) (Usage Facto).CLF ………….(9.13)

The installed wattage and usage factor depend on the type of the appliance or equipment. The CLF values
are available in the form of tables in ASHARE handbooks.

The latent load due to appliances is given by:

Q L,appliance = (Installed wattage) .(Latent heat fraction)………………… (9.14)

Table 9.4 shows typical load of various types of appliances.

Table 9.4: Typical appliance load (C.P. Arora)

Appliance Sensible load, Latent load, Total load,

W W W
Coffee brewer, 0.5 gallons 265 65 330
Coffee warmer, 0.5 71 27 98
gallons
Toaster, 360 slices/h 1500 382 1882
Food warmer/m2 plate 1150 1150 2300
area

For other equipment such as computers, printers etc, the load is in the form of sensible heat transfer and is
estimated based on the rated power consumption. The CLF value for these equipment may be taken as 1.0 as
the radiative heat transfer from these equipment is generally negligible due to smaller operating
temperatures. When the equipment are run by electric motors which are also kept inside the conditioned
space, then the efficiency of the electric motor must be taken into account. Though the estimation of cooling
load due to appliance and equipment appears to be simple as given by the equations, a large amount of
uncertainty is introduced on account of the usage factor and the difference between rated (nameplate) power
consumption at full loads and actual power consumption at part loads. Estimation using nameplate power
input may lead to overestimation of the loads, if the equipment operates at part load conditions most of the
time.

If the conditioned space is used for storing products (e.g. cold storage) or for carrying out certain processes,
then the sensible and latent heat released by these specific products and or the processes must be added to
the internal cooling loads. The sensible and latent heat release rate of a wide variety of live and dead
products commonly stored in cold storages are available in air conditioning and refrigeration handbooks.
Using these tables, one can estimate the required cooling capacity of cold storages.

Thus using the above equations one can estimate the sensible (Q s,r), latent (Ql,r) and total cooling load (Qt,r)
on the buildings. Since the load due to sunlit surfaces varies as a function of solar time, it is preferable to
calculate the cooling loads at different solar times and choose the maximum load for estimating the system
capacity. From the sensible and total cooling loads one can calculate the Room Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF)
for the building. As discussed in an earlier chapter, from the RSHF value and the required indoor conditions
one can draw the RSHF line on the psychrometric chart and fix the condition of the supply air.

9.5. Estimation of the cooling capacity of the system:

 In order to find the required cooling capacity of the system, one has to take into account the sensible and
latent loads due to ventilation, leakage losses in the return air ducts and heat added due to return air fan (if
any).

9.5.1. Load on the system due to ventilated air:

Figure 9.2 shows a schematic of an air conditioning system with the cooling coil, supply and return ducts,
ventilation and fans. The cooling coil has a by-pass factor X. Then the cooling load on the coil due to
sensible heat transfer of the ventilated air is given by:

Q s,vent = mvent (1 - X).cp,m (To - Ti ) = Vvent ρ (1 - X).cp,m (To – Ti ) ………(9.15)

where mvent, Vvent, are the mass and volumetric flow rates of the ventilated air and X is the by-pass factor of
the coil.

The latent heat load on the coil due to ventilation is given by:

Q l,vent = mvent (1 - X).h fg (wo – wi ) = Vvent. ρ (1 - X). h fg (wo – wi )……… (9.16)

where wo and wi are the humidity ratios of the ambient and conditioned air, respectively and h fg is the latent
heat of vapourization of water.

9.4.2. Load on the coil due to leakage in return air duct and due to return air fan:

If there is leakage of air and heat from or to the return air duct, additional capacity has to be provided by the
cooling coil to take care of this. The sensible heat transfer to the return duct due to heat transfer from the
surroundings to the return duct depends on the surface area of the duct that is exposed to outside air (Aexposed),
amount of insulation (Uins) and temperature difference between outdoor air and return air, i.e.,

Q s,duct = Uins .A exposed (To – Ti )………………………. (9.17)

The amount of sensible and latent heat transfer rates due to air leakage from or to the system depends on the
effectiveness of the sealing provided and the condition of the outdoor air and return air. Since the load due to
return air duct including the return air fan (Q return duct) are not known a priori an initial value (e.g. as a fraction
of total building cooling load) is assumed and calculations are performed. This value is modified at the end
by taking into account the actual leakage losses and return fan power consumption.

Fig.9.2: A typical summer air conditioning system with a cooling coil of non-zero by-pass factor

Now the total sensible load on the coil (Q s,c) is obtained by summing up the total sensible load on the
building (Qs,r), sensible load due to ventilation (Qs,vent) and sensible load due to return air duct and fan (Qs,retrun
duct), that is:

QS,c = Q s,r + Qs, vent + Qs,returns ducts ……………………………(9.18)

Similarly the total latent load on the coil (Q l,c) is obtained by summing up the total latent load on the
building (Ql.r), latent load due to ventilation (Q l,vent) and latent load due to return air duct and fan (Q l,retrun duct),
that is:

Ql,c = Ql,r + Ql,vent + Q l, returnduct (9.19)

Finally the required cooling capacity of the system which is equal to the total load on the coil is obtained
from the equation:

Required Cooling Capacity,Qt,c = Qs,c + Ql,c (9.20)

One can also calculate the sensible heat factor for the coil (CSHF) and draw the process line on the
psychrometric chart and find the required coil Apparatus Dew Point Temperature (coil ADP) from the above
data as discussed in an earlier chapter.

As mentioned, the method discussed above is based on CLTD/CLF as suggested by ASHRAE. It can be
seen that with the aid of suitable input data and building specifications one can manually estimate the
cooling load on the building and the required cooling capacity of the system. A suitable safety factor is
normally used in the end to account for uncertainties in occupants, equipment, external infiltration, external
conditions etc. This relatively simple method offers reasonably accurate results for most of the buildings.
However, it should be noted that the data available in ASHRAE handbooks (e.g. CLTD tables, SHGF tables)
have been obtained for a specific set of conditions. Hence, any variation from these conditions introduces
some amount of error. Though this is generally taken care by the safety factor (i.e., by selecting a slightly
oversized cooling system), for more accurate results one has to resort actual building simulation taking into
account on all relevant factors that affect the cooling load. However, this could be highly complex
mathematically and hence time consuming and expensive. The additional cost and effort may be justified
for large buildings with large amount of cooling loads, but may not be justified for small buildings. Thus
depending upon the specific case one has to select suitable load calculation method.

Steps of Calculation of Cooling/Heating Loads:

Room load:

A: Room Sensible Heat(RSH)

(ix) Solar and transmission gain through wall, roof, etc.

(x) Solar and transmission gain through glass
(xi) Transmission gain through partition walls, ceiling, floor, etc.
(xii) Infiltration
(xiii) Internal gain from people, power, lights, appliances, etc.
(xiv) Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor, etc.
(xv) Supply duct heat gain, supply duct leakage loss and fan power.

The sum of all the above gives room sensible heat(RSH) load. For the purpose of psychrometric analysis,
the following component is also included in the RSH.

(xvi) Bypassed outside air load.

The sum of items (i) to (viii) gives effective room sensible heat (ERSH).

B: Room Latent Heat(RLH)

(vii) Infiltration
 (viii) Internal heat gain from people, steam, appliance, equipments, etc.
(ix) Vapour transmission
(x) Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor, etc.
(xi) Supply duct leakage loss.

The sum of all the above gives Room Latent Heat(RLH). The other latent heat gain considered for
psychrometric analysis is:

(xii) Bypassed outside air load

The sum of (i) to (vi) gives the effective room latent heat (ERLH)

The sum of A and B gives ERTH. But the sum of items (i) to (vii) I A, and (i) to (v) in B gives the room
total heat(RTH).

Grand Total Load on A/C apparatus:

C: Sensible Heat

(iv) Effective room sensible heat(ERSH)

(v) Sensible heat of the outside air that is not bypassed
(vi) Return duct heat gain, return duct leakage gain, dehumidifier pump horse power and
dehumidifier and piping losses.

The sum of the items (i) to (iii) gives total sensible heat(TSH)

D: Latent Heat

(iv) Effective room latent heat(ERLH)

(v) Latent heat of outside air which is not bypassed
(vi) Return duct leakage gain

The sum of the items (i) to (iii) gives the total latent heat(TLH). Finally the sum of C and D above gives the
grand total heat(GTH) which is the load on A/C apparatus.

Prob.

For the air conditioning of a 4m high single-story office building located at 30 oN latitude, the plan of which
is shown in the following figure. The following data are given

Plaster on inside wall : 1.25 cm

Outside wall construction : 20 cm concrete block, 10 cm brick veneer
Partition wall construction : 33 cm brick
Roof construction : 20 cm RCC slab with 4 cm asbestos cement board.
Floor construction : 20 cm concrete
Densities: Btrick-2000, Concrete-1900, Plaster- 1885, and asbestos board-520 kg/m3
Fenestration(Weather-stripped, loose fit) : 2mx1.5m glass whose U = 5.9 W/m2 .K
Doors :1.5mx2m wood panels whose U = 0.63 W/m2 K
Outdoor design conditions 43oC DBT, 27oC WBT
Indoor design conditions : 25oC DBT, 50% RH
Daily range :31oC to 43oC = 12oC
Occupancy :100
Lights : 15,000 Watts Flourescent
Bypass factor of the cooling coil : 0.15
Find the room sensible heat and latent heat loads, and also the grand total heat load.
Solution:
Thermal conductivities from Table 18.1(C.P. Arrora)
kglass = 0.78, kconcrete= 1.73, kbrick= 1.32, kplaster= 8.65, and kasbestos= 0.154 W/mK
Assume convective heat transfer coeff. : fo = 23 and fi = 7 w/m2 K
Overall heat transfer coefficients : Outside wall- 1/U = 1/23+0.1/1.32+0.2/1.73+1/7
or, U = 3.5 W/m2 K
Partn. wall- 1/U = 1/7+0.33/1.32+1/7+2(0.0125)/8.65
or, U = 1.86 W/m2 K
: Roof- 1/U = 1/23+ 0.2/9+0.04/0.154+0.0125/8.65+1/7
or, U = 2.13 W/m2 K
: Floor- 1/U = 1/7+0.2/9
Or, U = 6.05 W/m2 K
Area and Volume of the space : A = 27x17=459m2 and V = 459x4 = 1836m3
Ventilation rate for office : Qv/person=0.28cmm(from Table16.2) Then Qv=28cmm
No. of air changes of ventilation air : 28x60/1836 = 0.92(Satisfactory)
Mass of wall per unit area :Outside-0.2x1900+0.1x2000+0.0125xx1885= 604 kg/m2
Partition-0.33x2000+2(0.0125)x1885 = 707 kg/m2
Roof- 0.2x1900+0.04x520 = 401 kg/m2
Correction to Equivalent temperature differentials-
For daily range of 12OC = (12 – 11.1)/2 = 0.45oC
For (To – Ti) of 18oC = 18 – 8.3 =9.7oC
Therefore total correction = -0.45 + 9.7 = 9.25oC

Equivalent temperature differentials in oC from Table 18.9 and 18.10 and incorporating corrections:
2pm 3pm 4pm 5pm 6pm 7pm
West wall 14.4 14.8 15.2 16.5 17.5
North wall 9.6 10.2 9.6 11.3 11.7
South wall 13.1 14.7 16.0 17.4 17.8
Roof exposed 24.0 25.8 28.0 29.7 30.5 30.2

Rates of solar gain through glass on June 21 in W/m2 from Table 17.8(d)
2pm 3pm 4pm 5pm
West glass 309 451 508 492
North glass 44 44 51 91
South glass 47 44 38 32

Door area = 1.5x2 = 3m2

Glass Area: West-4(1.5x2) = 12m2
North- 1.5x2 = 3m2
South- 2(1.5x2) = 6m2
Outside wall areas:
West- 27x4 – 12 = 96m2
North- 10x4 – 3 -3 = 34m2
South- 17x4 – 3 - 6 = 59m2
Partition wall areas:
East- 27x4 – 3 = 105m2
 North- 7x4 = 28m2
Estimated time of maximum cooling load:
From the above calculations, it is obvious that the major components of the variable cooling loads are solar
and transmission heat gains through the west wall and glass, and the roof. Of these, glass and roof loads are
predominant loads. The roof load is maximum at 6pm when the equivalent temperature is 30.5 oC. The solar
gain through west glass has a maximum value of 508 W/m 2 at 4pm. Thus the time of maximum load is most
likely to be near 5pm.

Assume temp. diff. of 2.5oC across the floor.

Assuming the wind velocity of 1kmph, we have
Wind pressure, Δp = 0.00047x152 = 0.11cm H2O
Then infiltration rate for windows, from Table 18.11 for wind pressure equals 0.11cm, 2.5m3/h. m crack
Total length of crack for 7 windows = 7{2(2+1.5)} = 49m
Occupancy load from Table 19.1
SHL = 75W/person
LHL = 55W/person

Other Assumptions:
(i) Only 10% of the supply duct is outside the conditioned space.
(ii) No return duct outside the conditioned space.
(iii) Fan horse power, load is 5% of RSH

The Details of Cooling Load Calculations are given on the calculation sheet as below-
Space used for office = 1836m2
Load estimate for 5pm local time(Sun time)
Hours of operation- Daytime
Conditions DB WB % RH DP h. kJ/kg W kg/kg
Outdoor 43 27 29 21.3 85.0 0.016
Inside 25 18 50 15.7 50.85 0.01
Difference 18 34.15 0.006
………No. of……….people x …………………..cmm/person

Ventilation 100 x 0.28 =

28 cmm

Infiltration Through swinging revolving doors Door AreaxTable value=3x3x1.98 =17.8

cmm
Window crack Crack lengthxTable value= 49x2.5/60= 2.0
cmm
Total infiltration
=19.8 cmm

Load Calculation
Item Area or Quantity Sun gain or Factor
W
Temp. Diff. or
 Humidity diff.

Sensible heat(Solar gain through glass)

East glass - - -
-
West glass 12 492 -
5900
North glass 3 91 -
270
South glass 6 32 -
190
Sky light - - -
-
Solar transmission gain through wall and roof

E wall - - -
-
W wall 96 16.5 3.5
5540
N wall 34 11.3 3.5
1345
S wall 59 17.4 3.5
3590
Roof Sun 459 29.7 2.13
29035
Roof Shaded - - -
-
Transmission gain through others

Doors 9 18 0.63
100
All glass (12+3+6) 18 5.9
2230
Partition 108+28 15.5 1.86
3930
Ceiling - - -
-
Floor 459 29.7 6.05
6940
Infiltration 19.8 18 20.4
7270

Internal Gain

People 100 75
7500
Power - - -
-
Lights 15000 1.25
18750
Appliances - - -
-
Additional - - -
-
Sub Total
92690
Storage(neglected)
Safety factor 5%
4635
Room Sensible Heat =
103090
Supply Duct

Heat gain 0.5% + leakage + Fan 5%

5560
Out door bypassed 28 cmm 18 20.4x0.15
1540
Effective Room Sensible Heat
=104425

Latent Heat

Infitration 19.8 cmm 0.006 50000

5940
People 100 55
5500
Steam
Appliances
Additional
Vapour Transmission
Sub Total =
11440
Safety factor 5%
570
Room Latent Heat =
12010
Supply duct leakage loss
Outside air bypassed 28 cmm 0.006 50000x0.15
1260
Effective Room Latent Heat =
13330
Effective Room Total Heat =
117755

Out door air Total Heat(on Equipment)

Sensible 28 cmm 18 20.4(1 – 0.15)
8740
Latent 28 cmm 0.006 50000(1 – 0.15)
7140
Return duct - - -
-
Heat gain Leakage gain Pipe gain
-
Grand Total Heat(GTH) =
133635

(38 TR)

9.6 Heating load calculations:

As mentioned before, conventionally steady state conditions are assumed for estimating the building
heating loads and the internal heat sources are neglected. Then the procedure for heating load calculations
becomes fairly simple. One has to estimate only the sensible and latent heat losses from the building walls,
roof, ground, windows, doors, due to infiltration and ventilation. Equations similar to those used for cooling
load calculations are used with the difference that the CLTD values are simply replaced by the design
temperature difference between the conditioned space and outdoors. Since a steady state is assumed, the
required heating capacity of the system is equal to the total heat loss from the building. As already
mentioned, by this method, the calculated heating system capacity will always be more than the actual
required cooling capacity. However, the difference may not be very high as long as the internal heat
generation is not very large (i.e., when the building is not internally loaded). However, when the internal
heat generation rate is large and/or when the building has large thermal capacity with a possibility of storing
solar energy during day time, then using more rigorous unsteady approach by taking the internal heat
sources into account yields significantly small heating small capacities and hence low initial costs. Hence,
once again depending on the specific case one has to select a suitable and economically justifiable method
for estimating heating loads.

Prob. A retail shop located in a city at 340oN latitude has the following loads.

Room sensible heat 58.15 kW

Room latent heat 14.54 kW

The summer outside and inside design conditions are:

Outside 40oC DB and 27oC WB

Inside 25oC and 50% RH

70 cmm of ventilation air is used. Determine the followings:

i) Ventilation load
ii) Grand total heat
iii) Effective sensible heat factor
iv) Apparatus Dew Point Temperature
v) Dehumidified air quantity
vi) Condition of air entering and leaving the apparatus
 Assume a suitable bypass factor.

Soln:

DB WB RH w kg/kg h kJ/kg v m3/kg d.a.

Outside 40oC 27oC - 0.0175 85.0 0.912

Inside 25oC 50% 0.01 50.8 0.858

i) Outside air sensible heat

OASH = 0.0204x70x(40 – 25) = 21.42 kW
OALH = 50x70x(0.0175 – 0.01) = 26.25 kW
OATH = OASH + OALH = 47.67 kW

ii) Total sensible heat, TSL = RSH + OASH = 79.57 kW

Total latent heat, TLH = RLH + OALH = 40.79 kW
Grand total Heat, GTH = 79.57 + 40.79 = 120.36 kW

iii) Assume bypass factor = 0.15

Effective room sensible heat, ERSH = 58.15 + 0.15x21.42 = 61.36 kW
Effective room latent heat, ERLH = 14.54 + 0.15x26.25 = 18.48 kW
Effective sensible heat factor, ESHF = 61.36/( 61.36 + 18.48 ) = 0.77

iv) Draw 0.77 SHF line from inside conditions as shown in . The intersection with the saturation
curve gives the ADP as 11oC.
v) Dehumidified air quantity, (cmm)d = ERSH/0.0204x(Ti – TADP)(1 – BPF)
= 61.36/0.0204(25 – 11)(1 – 0.15) = 253 cmm
 vi) Recirculated room air, (cmm)i = (cmm)d – (cmm)o = 253 – 70 = 183 cmm

Basing calaculations on cmm instead of mass flow rates as all the other calculations are based on
the standard density of air, we can write the following equations

The DBT of entering air,T1 = (183x25 + 70x40)/253 = 29.1oC

The entering WBT could be got from the intersecting point of line joining i to o with 29.1 oC as
21.9oC

The DBT of leaving air, T2 = TADP + (T1 – TADP)BPF = 11 + (29.1 – 11 )x0.15 = 13.7oC
Leaving wet bulb temperature is obtained by locating point 2 at the above temperature on the line
joining 1 to S. Thus WBT from chart = 13.2oC.

Questions and answers:

9. A building has a U-value of 0.5 W/m2.K and a total exposed surface area of 384 m2. The building is
subjected to an external load (only sensible) of 2 kW and an internal load of 1.2 kW (sensible). If the
required internal temperature is 25oC, state whether a cooling system is required or a heating system is
required when the external temperature is 3oC. How the results will change, if the U-value of the building is
reduced to 0.36 W/m.K?

Ans.: From energy balance,

8.33 C

0.5x384 (2 1.2)x1000

25

UA (Q Q ) T T osensibleintsolar out,bal in = + = − + = −

Since the outdoor temperature at balance point is greater than the external temperature (Text < Tout,bal);

the building requires heating (Ans.)

When the U-value of the building is reduced to 0.36 W/m.K, the new balanced outdoor temperature is given
by:

1.85 C

0.36x384 (2 1.2)x1000

25

UA (Q Q ) T T osensibleintsolar out,bal in = + = − + = −

Since now the outdoor temperature at balance point is smaller than the external temperature (Text >
Tout,bal);

the building now requires cooling (Ans.)

The above example shows that adding more insulation to a building extends the cooling season and reduces
the heating season.
10. An air conditioned room that stands on a well ventilated basement measures 3 m wide, 3 m high and 6 m
deep. One of the two 3 m walls faces west and contains a double glazed glass window of size 1.5 m by 1.5
m, mounted flush with the wall with no external shading. There are no heat gains through the walls other
than the one facing west. Calculate the sensible, latent and total heat gains on the room, room sensible heat
factor from the following information. What is the required cooling capacity?
Inside conditions : 25oC dry bulb, 50 percent RH Outside conditions : 43oC dry bulb, 24oC wet bulb U-
value for wall : 1.78 W/m2.K U-value for roof : 1.316 W/m2.K U-value for floor : 1.2 W/m2.K
Effective Temp. Difference (ETD) for wall: 25oC Effective Temp. Difference (ETD) for roof: 30oC U-
value for glass ; 3.12 W/m2.K Solar Heat Gain (SHG) of glass ; 300 W/m2 Internal Shading Coefficient
(SC) of glass: 0.86

Occupancy : 4 (90 W sensible heat/person) (40 W latent heat/person) Lighting load : 33 W/m2 of
floor area

Appliance load : 600 W (Sensible) + 300 W(latent) Infiltration : 0.5 Air Changes per Hour Barometric
pressure : 101 kPa

Ans.: From psychrometric chart,

For the inside conditions of 25oC dry bulb, 50 percent RH:

Wi = 9,9167 x 10-3 kgw/kgda

For the outside conditions of 43oC dry bulb, 24oC wet bulb:

Wo = 0.0107 kgw/kgda, density of dry air = 1.095 kg/m3

External loads:

a) Heat transfer rate through the walls: Since only west wall measuring 3m x 3m with a glass windows of
1.5m x 1.5m is exposed; the heat transfer rate through this wall is given by:

Qwall = UwallAwallETDwall = 1.78 x (9-2.25) x 25 = 300.38 W (Sensible)

b) Heat transfer rate through roof:

Qroof = UroofAroofETDroof = 1.316 x 18 x 30 = 710.6 W (Sensible)

c) Heat transfer rate through floor: Since the room stands on a well-ventilated basement, we can assume the
conditions in the basement to be same as that of the outside (i.e., 43oC dry bulb and 24oC wet bulb), since
the floor is not exposed to solar radiation, the driving temperature difference for the roof is the temperature
difference between the outdoor and indoor, hence:

Qfloor = UfloorAfloorETDfloor = 1.2 x 18 x 18 = 388.8 W (Sensible)

d) Heat transfer rate through glass: This consists of the radiative as well as conductive components. Since no
information is available on the value of CLF, it is taken as 1.0. Hence the total heat transfer rate through the
glass window is given by:

Qglass = Aglass [Uglass(To−Ti)+SHGFmaxSC] = 2.25[3.12 x 18 + 300 x 0.86] = 706.9 W

(Sensible)

e) Heat transfer due to infiltration: The infiltration rate is 0.5 ACH, converting this into mass flow rate, the
infiltration rate in kg/s is given by:
minf = density of air x (ACH x volume of the room)/3600 = 1.095 x (0.5 x 3x3x6)/3600

minf = 8.2125 x 10-3 kg/s

Sensible heat transfer rate due to infiltration,Qs,inf;

Qs,inf = minfcpm(To−Ti) = 8.2125 x 10-3 x 1021.6 x (43 – 25) = 151 W (Sensible)

Latent heat transfer rate due to infiltration, Ql,inf:

Ql,inf = minfhfg(Wo−Wi) = 8.8125x10-3 x 2501x103(0.0107−0.0099)=16.4 W (sensible)

Internal loads:

a) Load due to occupants: The sensible and latent load due to occupants are:

Qs,occ = no.of occupants x SHG = 4 x 90 = 360 W

Ql,occ = no.of occupants x LHG = 4 x 40 = 160 W

b) Load due to lighting: Assuming a CLF value of 1.0, the load due to lighting is:

Qlights = 33 x floor area = 33 x 18 = 594 W (Sensible)

c) Load due to appliance:

Qs,app = 600 W (Sensible)

Ql,app = 300 W (Latent)

Total sensible and latent loads are obtained by summing-up all the sensible and latent load components (both
external as well as internal) as:

Qs,total = 300.38+710.6+388.8+706.9+151+360+594+600 = 3811.68 W (Ans.)

Ql,total = 16.4+160+300 = 476.4 W (Ans.)

Total load on the building is:

Qtotal = Qs,total + Ql,total = 3811.68 + 476.4 = 4288.08 W (Ans.)

Room Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF) is given by:

RSHF = Qs,total/Qtotal = 3811.68/4288.08 = 0.889 (Ans.)

To calculate the required cooling capacity, one has to know the losses in return air ducts. Ventilation may be
neglected as the infiltration can take care of the small ventilation requirement. Hence using a safety factor of
1.25, the required cooling capacity is:

Required cooling capacity = 4288.08 x 1.25 = 5360.1 W ≈ 1.5 TR (Ans.)

Lecture 10
Selection of Air Conditioning Systems
10.1. Introduction: In order to maintain required conditions inside the conditioned space, energy has to be
either supplied or extracted from the conditioned space. The energy in the form of sensible as well as latent
heat has to be supplied to the space in winter and extracted from the conditioned space in case of summer.
An air conditioning system consists of an air conditioning plant and a thermal distribution system as shown
in Fig. 10.1. As shown in the figure, the air conditioning (A/C) plant acts either as a heat source (in case of
winter systems) or as a heat sink (in case of summer systems). Air, water or refrigerant are used as media
for transferring energy from the air conditioning plant to the conditioned space. A thermal distribution
system is required to circulate the media between the conditioned space and the A/C plant. Another
important function of the thermal distribution system is to introduce the required amount of fresh air into the
conditioned space so that the required Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) can be maintained.

10.2. Selection criteria for air conditioning systems: Selection of a suitable air conditioning system
depends on:

1. Capacity, performance and spatial requirements

2. Initial and running costs
3. Required system reliability and flexibility
4. Maintainability
5. Architectural constraints
The relative importance of the above factors varies from building owner to owner and may vary from project
to project. The typical space requirement for large air conditioning systems may vary from about 4% to
about 9% of the gross building area, depending upon the type of the system. Normally based on the selection
criteria, the choice is narrowed down to 2 to 3 systems, out of which one will be selected finally.

10.3. Classification of air conditioning systems: Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution
system, air conditioning systems can be classified as:

1. All air systems

2. All water systems
3. Air- water systems
4. Unitary refrigerant based systems
10.4. All air systems: As the name implies, in an all air system air is used as the media to transport energy
to and from the conditioned space to the A/C plant. In these systems air is processed in the A/C plant and
this processed air is then conveyed to the conditioned space through insulated ducts using blowers and fans.
This air extracts (or supplies in case of winter) the required amount of sensible and latent heat from the
conditioned space. The return air from the conditioned space is conveyed back to the plant, where it again
undergoes the required processing thus completing the cycle. No additional processing of air is required in
the conditioned space. All air systems can be further classified into:

1. Single duct systems, or

2. Dual duct systems
The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating using the same duct, but not both heating and
cooling simultaneously. These systems can be further classified into:

1. Constant volume, single zone systems

2. Constant volume, multiple zone systems
3. Variable volume systems
The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and heating simultaneously. These systems can be further
classified into:

1. Dual duct, constant volume systems

2. Dual duct variable volume systems
10.4.1. Single duct, constant volume, single zone systems:

Figure 10.2 shows the classic, single duct, single zone, constant volume systems. As shown in the figure,
outdoor air (OD air) for ventilation and recirculated air (RC air) are mixed in the required proportions using
the dampers and the mixed air is made to flow through a cooling and dehumidifying coil, a heating coil and
a humidifier using a an insulated ducting and a supply fan. As the air flows through these coils the
temperature and moisture content of the air are brought to the required values. Then this air is supplied to the
conditioned space, where it meets the building cooling or heating requirements. The return air leaves the
conditioned space, a part of it is recirculated and the remaining part is vented to the atmosphere. A
thermostat senses the temperature of air in the conditioned space and controls the amount of cooling or
heating provided in the coils so that the supply air temperature can be controlled as per requirement. A
humidistat measures the humidity ratio in the conditioned space and controls the amount of water vapour
added in the humidifier and hence the supply air humidity ratio as per requirement.
This system is called as a single duct system as there is only one supply duct, through which either hot air or
cold air flows, but not both simultaneously. It is called as a constant volume system as the volumetric flow
rate of supply air is always maintained constant. It is a single zone system as the control is based on
temperature and humidity ratio measured at a single point. Here a zone refers to a space controlled by one
thermostat. However, the single zone may consist of a single room or one floor or whole of a building
consisting of several rooms. The cooling/ heating capacity in the single zone, constant volume systems is
regulated by regulating the supply air temperature and humidity ratio, while keeping the supply airflow rate
constant. A separate sub-system controls the amount of OD air supplied by controlling the damper position.

Since a single zone system is controlled by a single thermostat and humidistat, it is important to locate these
sensors in a proper location, so that they are indicative of zone conditions. The supply air conditions are
controlled by either coil control or face-and-bypass control.

In coil control, supply air temperature is controlled by varying the flow rate of cold and hot water in the
cooling and heating coils, respectively. As the cooling season gradually changes to heating season, the
cooling coil valve is gradually closed and heating coil valve is opened. Though coil control is simpler, using
this type of control it is not possible to control the zone humidity precisely as the dehumidification rate in
the cooling coil decreases with cold water flow rate. Thus at low cold water flow rates, the humidity ratio of
the conditioned space is likely to be higher than required.

In face-and-bypass control, the cold and hot water flow rates are maintained constant, but the amount of air
flowing over the coils are decreased or increased by opening or closing the by-pass dampers, respectively.
By this method it is possible to control the zone humidity more precisely, however, this type of control
occupies more space physically and is also expensive compared to coil control.

Applications of single duct, single zone, constant volume systems:

1. Spaces with uniform loads, such as large open areas with small external loads e.g. theatres, auditoria,
departmental stores.
2. Spaces requiring precision control such as laboratories
The Multiple, single zone systems can be used in large buildings such as factories, office buildings etc.

10.4.2. Single duct, constant volume, multiple zone systems:

 For very large buildings with several zones of different cooling/heating requirements, it is not economically
feasible to provide separate single zone systems for each zone. For such cases, multiple zone systems are
suitable. Figure 10.3 shows a single duct, multiple zone system with terminal reheat coils. In these systems
all the air is cooled and dehumidified (for summer) or heated and humidified (for winter) to a given
minimum or maximum temperature and humidity ratio. A constant volume of this air is supplied to the
reheat coil of each zone. In the reheat coil the supply air temperature is increased further to a required level
depending upon the load on that particular zone. This is achieved by a zone thermostat, which controls the
amount of reheat, and hence the supply air temperature. The reheat coil may run on either electricity or hot
water.

Advantages of single duct, multiple zone, constant volume systems with reheat coils:

a) Relatively small space requirement

b) Excellent temperature and humidity control over a wide range of zone loads
c) Proper ventilation and air quality in each zone is maintained as the supply air amount is kept constant
under all conditions
Disadvantages of single duct, multiple zone, constant volume systems with reheat coils:

a) High energy consumption for cooling, as the air is first cooled to a very low temperature and is then
heated in the reheat coils. Thus energy is required first for cooling and then for reheating. The energy
consumption can partly be reduced by increasing the supply air temperature, such that at least one reheat coil
can be switched-off all the time. The energy consumption can also be reduced by using waste heat (such as
heat rejected in the condensers) in the reheat coil.

b) Simultaneous cooling and heating is not possible.

10.4.3. Single duct, variable air volume (VAV) systems:

Figure 10.4 shows a single duct, multiple zone, variable air volume system for summer air conditioning
applications. As shown, in these systems air is cooled and dehumidified to a required level in the cooling
and dehumidifying coil (CC). A variable volume of this air is supplied to each zone. The amount of air
supplied to each zone is controlled by a zone damper, which in turn is controlled by that zone thermostat as
shown in the figure. Thus the temperature of supply air to each zone remains constant, whereas its flow rate
varies depending upon the load on that particular zone.
Compared to constant volume systems, the variable air volume systems offer advantages such as:

a) Lower energy consumption in the cooling system as air is not cooled to very low temperatures and then
reheated as in constant volume systems.

b) Lower energy consumption also results due to lower fan power input due to lower flow rate, when the
load is low. These systems lead to significantly lower power consumption, especially in perimeter zones
where variations in solar load and outside temperature allows for reduced air flow rates.

However, since the flow rate is controlled, there could be problems with ventilation, IAQ and room air
distribution when the zone loads are very low. In addition it is difficult to control humidity precisely using
VAV systems. Balancing of dampers could be difficult if the airflow rate varies widely. However, by
combining VAV systems with terminal reheat it is possible to maintain the air flow rate at a minimum
required level to ensure proper ventilation and room air distribution. Many other variations of VAV systems
are available to cater to a wide variety of applications.

10.4.4. Dual duct, constant volume systems:

Figure 10.5 shows the schematic of a dual duct, constant volume system. As shown in the figure, in a dual
duct system the supply air fan splits the flow into two streams. One stream flow through the cooling coil and
gets cooled and dehumidified to about 13oC, while the other stream flows the heating coil and is heated to
about 35–45oC. The cold and hot streams flow through separate ducts. Before each conditioned space or
zone, the cold and hot air streams are mixed in required proportions using a mixing box arrangement, which
is controlled by the zone thermostat. The total volume of air supplied to each zone remains constant,
however, the supply air temperature varies depending upon load.

Advantages of dual duct systems:

1. Since total airflow rate to each zone is constant, it is possible to maintain proper IAQ and room air
distribution.
2. Cooling in some zones and heating in other zones can be achieved simultaneously
3. System is very responsive to variations in the zone load, thus it is possible to maintain required conditions
precisely.
Disadvantages of dual duct systems:

1. Occupies more space as both cold air and hot air ducts have to be sized to handle all the air flow rate, if
required.
2. Not very energy efficient due to the need for simultaneous cooling and heating of the air streams.
However, the energy efficiency can be improved by completely shutting down the cooling coil when the
outside temperature is low and mixing supply air from fan with hot air in the mixing box. Similarly, when
the outside weather is hot, the heating coil can be completely shut down, and the cold air from the cooling
coil can be mixed with supply air from the fan in the mixing box.
10.4.5. Dual duct, variable air volume systems:

These systems are similar to dual duct, constant volume systems with the only difference that instead of
maintaining constant flow rates to each zone, the mixing boxes reduce the air flow rate as the load on the
zone drops.

10.4.6. Outdoor air control in all air systems:

As mentioned in a previous lecture, outdoor air is required for ventilation purposes. In all air systems, a sub-
system controls the amount of outdoor air by controlling the position of exhaust, re-circulated and outdoor
air dampers. From mass balance, since the outdoor airflow rate should normally be equal to the exhaust
airflow rate (unless building pressurization or de-pressurization is required), both the exhaust and outdoor
air dampers open or close in unison. Again from mass balance, when the outdoor air damper opens the re-
circulated air damper closes, and vice versa. The control system maintains a minimum amount of outdoor air
(about 10 to 20% of supply air flow rate as required for ventilation) when the outdoor is too cold (≤−30 oC)
or too warm (≥ 24oC). For energy conservation, the amount of outdoor air can be increased gradually as the
outdoor air temperature increases from −30oC to about 13oC. A 100 percent outdoor air can be used when
the outdoor air temperature is between 13oC to about 24oC. By this method it is possible to reduce the annual
energy consumption of the air conditioning system significantly, while maintaining the required conditions
in the conditioned space.

10.4.7. Advantages of all air systems:

1. All air systems offer the greatest potential for energy conservation by utilizing the outdoor air effectively.
2. By using high-quality controls it is possible to maintain the temperature and relative humidity of the
conditioned space within ± 0.15oC (DBT) and ± 0.5%, respectively.
3. Using dual duct systems, it is possible to provide simultaneous cooling and heating. Changeover from
summer to winter and vice versa is relatively simple in all air systems.
4. It is possible to provide good room air distribution and ventilation under all conditions of load.
5. Building pressurization can be achieved easily.
6. The complete air conditioning plant including the supply and return air fans can be located away from the
conditioned space. Due to this it is possible to use a wide variety of air filters and avoid noise in the
conditioned space.
10.4.8. Disadvantages of all air systems:

1. They occupy more space and thus reduce the available floor space in the buildings. It could be difficult to
provide air conditioning in high-rise buildings with the plant on the ground floor or basement due to space
constraints.
2. Retrofitting may not always be possible due to the space requirement.
3. Balancing of air in large and particularly with variable air volume systems could be difficult.
10.4.9. Applications of all air systems:

All air systems can be used in both comfort as well as industrial air conditioning applications. They are
especially suited to buildings that require individual control of multiple zones, such as office buildings,
classrooms, laboratories, hospitals, hotels, ships etc. They are also used extensively in applications that
require very close control of the conditions in the conditioned space such as clean rooms, computer rooms,
operation theatres, research facilities etc.

10.5. All water systems: In all water systems the fluid used in the thermal distribution system is water, i.e.,
water transports energy between the conditioned space and the air conditioning plant. When cooling is
required in the conditioned space then cold water is circulated between the conditioned space and the plant,
while hot water is circulated through the distribution system when heating is required. Since only water is
transported to the conditioned space, provision must be there for supplying required amount of treated,
outdoor air to the conditioned space for ventilation purposes. Depending upon the number of pipes used, the
all water systems can be classified into a 2-pipe system or a 4-pipe system.

A 2-pipe system is used for either cooling only or heating only application, but cannot be used for
simultaneous cooling and heating. Figure 10.6 shows the schematic of a 2-pipe, all water system. As shown
in the figure and as the name implies, a 2-pipe system consists of two pipes – one for supply of cold/hot
water to the conditioned space and the other for the return water. A cooling or heating coil provides the
required cold or hot water. As the supply water flows through the conditioned space, required heat transfer
between the water and conditioned space takes place, and the return water flows back to the cooling or
heating coil. A flow control valve controls the flow rate of hot or cold water to the conditioned space and
thereby meets the required building heating or cooling load. The flow control valve is controlled by the zone
thermostat. As already mentioned, a separate arrangement must be made for providing the required amount
of ventilation air to the conditioned space. A pressure relief valve (PRV) is installed in the water line for
maintaining balanced flow rate.

A 4-pipe system consists of two supply pipelines – one for cold water and one for hot water; and two return
water pipelines. The cold and hot water are mixed in a required proportion depending upon the zone load,
and the mixed water is supplied to the conditioned space. The return water is split into two streams, one
stream flows to the heating coil while the other flows to the cooling coil.
Heat transfer between the cold/hot water and the conditioned space takes place either by convection,
conduction or radiation or a combination of these. The cold/hot water may flow through bare pipes located
in the conditioned space or one of the following equipment can be used for transferring heat:

1. Fan coil units 2. Convectors 3. Radiators etc.

A fan coil unit is located inside the conditioned space and consists of a heating and/or cooling coil, a fan, air
filter, drain tray and controls. Figure 10.7 shows the schematic of a fan coil unit used for cooling
applications. As shown in the figure, the basic components of a fan coil unit are: finned tube cooling coil,
fan, air filter, insulated drain tray with provision for draining condensate water and connections for cold
water lines. The cold water circulates through the finned tube coil while the blower draws warm air from the
conditioned space and blows it over the cooling coil. As the air flows through the cooling coil it is cooled
and dehumidified. The cold and dehumidified air is supplied to the conditioned space for providing required
conditions inside the conditioned space. The water condensed due to dehumidification of room air has to be
drained continuously. A cleanable or replaceable filter is located in the upstream of the fan to prevent dust
accumulation on the cooling coil and also to protect the fan and motor from dust. Fan coil units for domestic
air conditioning are available in the airflow range of 100 to 600 l/s, with multi-speed, high efficiency fans.
In some designs, the fan coil unit also consists of a heating coil, which could be in the form of an electric
heater or steam or hot water coil. Electric heater is used with 2-pipe systems, while the hot water/steam coils
are used with 4-pipe systems. The fan coil units are either floor-mounted, window-mounted or ceiling-
mounted. The capacity of a fan coil unit can be controlled either by controlling the cold water flow rate or
by controlling air flow rate or both. The airflow rate can be controlled either by a damper arrangement or by
varying the fan speed. The control may be manual or automatic, in which case, a room thermostat controls
the capacity. Since in the fan coil unit there is no provision for ventilation, a separate arrangement must be
made to take care of ventilation. A fan coil unit with a provision for introducing treated ventilation air to the
conditioned space is called as unit ventilator.
A convector consists of a finned tube coil through which hot or cold fluid flows. Heat transfer between the
coil and surrounding air takes place by natural convection only, hence no fans are used for moving air.
Convectors are very widely used for heating applications, and very rarely are used for cooling applications.
In a radiator, the heat transfer between the coil and the surrounding air is primarily by radiation. Some
amount of heat is also transferred by natural convection. Radiators are widely used for heating applications,
however, in recent times they are also being used for cooling applications.

10.5.1. Advantages of all water systems:

1. The thermal distribution system requires very less space compared to all air systems. Thus there is no
penalty in terms of conditioned floor space. Also the plant size will be small due to the absence of large
supply air fans.
2. Individual room control is possible, and at the same time the system offers all the benefits of a large
central system.
3. Since the temperature of hot water required for space heating is small, it is possible to use solar or waste
heat for winter heating.
4. It can be used for new as well existing buildings (retrofitting).
5. Simultaneous cooling and heating is possible with 4-pipe systems.
10.5.2. Disadvantages of all water systems:

1. Requires higher maintenance compared to all air systems, particularly in the conditioned space.
2. Draining of condensate water can be messy and may also create health problems if water stagnates in the
drain tray. This problem can be eliminated, if dehumidification is provided by a central ventilation system,
and the cooling coil is used only for sensible cooling of room air.
3. If ventilation is provided by opening windows or wall apertures, then, it is difficult to ensure positive
ventilation under all circumstances, as this depends on wind and stack effects.
4. Control of humidity, particularly during summer is difficult using chilled water control valves.
10.5.3. Applications of all water systems:

All water systems using fan coil units are most suitable in buildings requiring individual room control, such
as hotels, apartment buildings and office buildings.
10.6. Air-water systems: In air-water systems both air and water are used for providing required
conditions in the conditioned space. The air and water are cooled or heated in a central plant. The air
supplied to the conditioned space from the central plant is called as primary air, while the water supplied
from the plant is called as secondary water. The complete system consists of a central plant for cooling or
heating of water and air, ducting system with fans for conveying air, water pipelines and pumps for
conveying water and a room terminal. The room terminal may be in the form of a fan coil unit, an induction
unit or a radiation panel. Figure 10.8 shows the schematic of a basic air-water system. Even though only one
conditioned space is shown in the schematic, in actual systems, the air-water systems can simultaneously
serve several conditioned spaces.

Normally a
constant volume of primary air is supplied to each zone depending upon the ventilation requirement and the
required sensible cooling capacity at maximum building load. For summer air conditioning, the primary air
is cooled and dehumidified in the central plant, so that it can offset all the building latent load. Chilled water
is supplied to the conditioned space to partly offset the building sensible cooling load only. Since the chilled
water coil kept in the conditioned space has to take care of only sensible load, condensation of room air
inside the conditioned space is avoided thereby avoiding the problems of condensate drainage and related
problems in the conditioned space. As mentioned, the primary takes care of the ventilation requirement of
the conditioned space, hence unlike in all water systems, there is no need for separate ventilation systems. In
winter, moisture can be added to the primary air in the central plant and hot water is circulated through the
coil kept in the conditioned space. The secondary water lines can be of 2-pipe, 3pipe or 4-pipe type similar
to all water systems.

As mentioned the room unit may be in the form of a fan coil unit, an induction unit or in the form of a
radiant panel. In an induction unit the cooling/heating coil is an integral part of the primary air system. The
primary air supplied at medium to high pressure to the induction unit, induces flow of secondary air from the
conditioned space. The secondary air is sensibly cooled or heated as it flows through the cooling/heating
coil. The primary and secondary air are mixed and supplied to the conditioned space. The fan coil units are
similar to the ones used in all water systems.

10.6.1. Advantages of air-water systems:

1. Individual zone control is possible in an economic manner using room thermostats, which control either
the secondary water flow rate or the secondary air (in fan coil units) or both.
2. It is possible to provide simultaneous cooling and heating using primary air and secondary water.
3. Space requirement is reduced, as the amount of primary supplied is less than that of an all air systems.
4. Positive ventilation can be ensured under all conditions.
5. Since no latent heat transfer is required in the cooling coil kept in the conditioned space, the coil operates
dry and its life thereby increases and problems related to odours or fungal growth in conditioned space is
avoided.
6. The conditioned space can sometimes be heated with the help of the heating coil and secondary air, thus
avoiding supply of primary air during winter.
7. Service of indoor units is relatively simpler compared to all water systems.
10.6.2. Disadvantages of air-water systems:

1. Operation and control are complicated due to the need for handling and controlling both primary air and
secondary water.
2. In general these systems are limited to perimeter zones.
3. The secondary water coils in the conditioned space can become dirty if the quality of filters used in the
room units is not good.
4. Since a constant amount of primary air is supplied to conditioned space, and room control is only through
the control of room cooling/heating coils, shutting down the supply of primary air to unoccupied spaces is
not possible.
5. If there is abnormally high latent load on the building, then condensation may take place on the cooling
coil of secondary water.
6. Initial cost could be high compared to all air systems.
10.6.3. Applications of air-water systems:

These systems are mainly used in exterior buildings with large sensible loads and where close control of
humidity in the conditioned space is not required. These systems are thus suitable for office buildings,
hospitals, schools, hotels, apartments etc.

10.7. Unitary refrigerant based systems: Unitary refrigerant based systems consist of several separate air
conditioning units with individual refrigeration systems. These systems are factory assembled and tested as
per standard specifications, and are available in the form of package units of varying capacity and type. Each
package consists of refrigeration and/or heating units with fans, filters, controls etc. Depending upon the
requirement these are available in the form of window air conditioners, split air conditioners, heat pumps,
ductable systems with air cooled or water cooled condensing units etc. The capacities may range from
fraction of TR to about 100 TR for cooling. Depending upon the capacity, unitary refrigerant based systems
are available as single units which cater to a single conditioned space, or multiple units for several
conditioned spaces. Figure 10.9 shows the schematic of a typical window type, room air conditioner, which
is available in cooling capacities varying from about 0.3 TR to about 3.0 TR. As the name implies, these
units are normally mounted either in the window sill or through the wall. As shown in the figure, this type
of unit consists of single package which includes the cooling and dehumidification coil, condenser coil, a
hermetic compressor, expansion device (capillary tube), condenser fan, evaporator fan, room air filter and
controls. A drain tray is provided at the bottom to take care of the condensate water. Both evaporator and
condensers are plate fin-and-tube, forced convection type coils. For rooms that do not have external
windows or walls, a split type room air conditioner can be used. In these air conditioners, the condensing
unit comprising of the condenser, compressor and condenser fan with motor are located outside, while the
indoor unit consisting of the evaporator, evaporator fan with motor, expansion valve and air filter is located
inside the conditioned room. The indoor and outdoor units are connected by refrigerant piping. In split type
air conditioners, the condensed water has to be taken away from the conditioned space using separate drain
pipes. In the room air conditioners (both window mounted and split type), the cooling capacity is controlled
by switching the compressor on-and-off. Sometimes, in addition to the on-and-off, the fan speed can also be
regulated to have a modular control of capacity. It is also possible to switch off the refrigeration system
completely and run only the blower for air circulation.

Figure 10.10 shows a typical package unit with a remote condensing unit. As shown, in a typical package
unit, the remote condensing unit consists of the compressor and a condenser, while the indoor unit consists
of the plate fin-and-tube type, evaporator, a blower, air filter, drain tray and an arrangement for connecting
supply air and return air ducts. These units are available in capacities ranging from about 5 TR to upto about
100 TR. The condenser used in these systems could be either air cooled or water cooled. This type of system
can be used for providing air conditioning in a large room or it can cater to several small rooms with suitable
supply and return ducts. It is also possible to house the entire refrigeration in a single package with
connections for water lines to the water cooled condenser and supply and return air ducts. Larger systems
are either constant air volume type or variable air volume type. They may also include heating coils along
with the evaporator.
Most of the unitary systems have a provision for supplying outdoor air for ventilation purposes. The type of
control depends generally on the capacity of the unit. The control system could be as simple as a simple
thermostat based on-off control as in room air conditioners to sophisticated microprocessor based control
with multiple compressors or variable air volume control or a combination of both.

10.7.1. Advantages of unitary refrigerant based systems:

1. Individual room control is simple and inexpensive.

2. Each conditioned space has individual air distribution with simple adjustment by the occupants.
3. Performance of the system is guaranteed by the manufacturer.
4. System installation is simple and takes very less time. 5. Operation of the system is simple and there is no
need for a trained operator.
6. Initial cost is normally low compared to central systems.
7. Retrofitting is easy as the required floor space is small.
10.7.2. Disadvantages of unitary refrigerant based systems:

1. As the components are selected and matched by the manufacturer, the system is less flexible in terms of
air flow rate, condenser and evaporator sizes.
2. Power consumption per TR could be higher compared to central systems.
3. Close control of space humidity is generally difficult.
4. Noise level in the conditioned space could be higher.
5. Limited ventilation capabilities.
6. Systems are generally designed to meet the appliance standards, rather than the building standards.
7. May not be appealing aesthetically.
8. The space temperature may experience a swing if on-off control is used as in room air conditioners.
9. Limited options for controlling room air distribution.
10. Equipment life is relatively short.

10.7.3. Applications of unitary refrigerant based systems:

Unitary refrigerant based systems are used where stringent control of conditioned space temperature and
humidity is not required and where the initial cost should be low with a small lead time. These systems can
be used for air conditioning individual rooms to large office buildings, classrooms, hotels, shopping centers,
nursing homes etc. These systems are especially suited for existing building with a limitation on available
floor space for air conditioning systems.