Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University

College of Engineering
Electrical Department

EE223
Fundamentals of Electronic Devices
 Prologue to Electronics
• The word electronics: televisions, laptop computers, cell phones, or iPods.

• Electronic systems composed of subsystems or electronic circuits.

• Including amplifiers, signal sources, power supplies, and digital logic circuits.

• Electronics: the science of the motion of charges in a gas, vacuum, or semiconductor (Early definition)

• Separating the field of electrical engineering: dealing with motors, generators, and wire communications,
from the new field of electronic engineering, dealt with vacuum tubes.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010, pp. 1.
 Prologue to Electronics

• Today electronics: transistors and transistor circuits.

• Microelectronics: integrated circuit (IC) technology, which can produce a circuit with multimillions
of components on a single piece of semiconductor material.

• A typical electrical engineer: performing many diverse functions, and is likely to use, design, or
build systems incorporating some form of electronics.

• Consequently, the division between electrical and electronic engineering is no longer as clear as
originally defined.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010, pp. 1.
 Prologue to Electronics

Passive And Active Devices

• Passive device: an electronic component which can only receive energy, which it can either dissipate, absorb
or store it in an electric field or a magnetic field. Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power
to operate.

Examples: Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors, and Transformers

• An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy to a circuit.

Examples: Voltage sources, Current sources, Generators, and Transistors

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010, pp. 2.
 Prologue to Electronics

Analog Signals

• The voltage signal shown in Figures called an analog signal.

• The magnitude of an analog signal can take on any value within limits and may vary continuously with time.

• Electronic circuits that process analog signals are called analog circuits.

• Example of an analog circuit is a linear amplifier. A linear amplifier magnifies an input signal and produces an
output signal whose amplitude is larger and directly proportional to the input signal.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010, pp. 2.
 Prologue to Electronics

Digital Signals

• An alternative signal is at one of two distinct levels and is called a digital signal.

• Since the digital signal has discrete values, it is said to be quantized.

• Electronic circuits that process digital signals are called digital circuits.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010, pp. 2.
 Prologue to Electronics

Circuit Analysis

• Kirchhoff's current law.

• Kirchhoff's voltage law.

• Voltage divider

• Labeling voltages.

• Number of required equations

Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
College of Engineering
Electrical Department

EE223
Fundamentals of Electronic Devices
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

waist Mama ma
Conductors Semiconductors Insulators www.t
µ Copper, Gold, and Silver Glass, Plastics, and Paper É
• Two kinds of semiconductors:
➢ single-element semiconductors,
such as germanium and silicon,
group IV in the periodic table.

➢ compound semiconductors, such

as gallium-arsenide, which are
formed by combining elements
from groups III and V or groups II
and VI.

Aft
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016, pp. 44.
“Periodic Table,” Lam Research. [Online]. Available: https://blog.lamresearch.com s
 M IN
j a si
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
pi'd a Ny
III

• Compound semiconductors are useful in special electronic circuit applications as well as in

applications that involve light, such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

• One of the two elemental semiconductors, germanium, was used in the fabrication of very early
transistors (late 1940s, early 1950s).

• It was quickly supplanted by silicon, on which today's

Eti integrated-circuit technology is almost entirely
based.

• Main reason: structure of germanium destroyed at a temperature of approximately 373 K (100°C)

(Why Kelvin? 𝑻𝑲 = 𝑻𝒐𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓)

Fi 373 am
is
YIN
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016, pp. 44.
 ss
pnTptfdf
Semiconductor Materials and 5vb9
Properties i8osgitT el

TELLY.mn
3Shell
• The maximum number of electrons (𝑁𝑒 ) that can exist in each shell of of
an atom is a fact of nature and can be calculated by the formula:
Ty
𝑁𝑒 = 2𝑛2
where 𝑛 is the number of the shell gut

j8 i
• The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the innermost
shell (shell 1) is
Fishell jamais é
𝑁𝑒 = 2𝑛2 = 2 2 ashell 3 a shell
gas
shell Innit 5414 O O co
p
valence eletrons D m3
• A silicon atom has four valence electrons, and thus it requires another
four to complete its outermost shell. This is achieved by sharing one
of its valence electrons with each of its four neighboring atoms. Each
pair of shared electrons forms a covalent bond.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
“Popular science homepage,” Popular Science, 06-Jul-2021. [Online]. Available: http://www.popsci.com/.
a
 µ a s
a
Semiconductor Materials and Properties

B j 91 Be Mak wa em ISM l Don t

y
• Energy band diagram for unexcited atom in a pure intrinsic silicon freetu
crystal. ele
• At sufficiently low temperatures, approaching absolute zero (0 K), all
vane
elearn

5
the covalent bonds are intact, and no electrons are available to
conduct electric current.
• Thus, at such low temperatures, the intrinsic silicon crystal behaves
as an insulator.
lil d D ti i wi N I BE
so far f

ee m.xi ss reeaemn

valenteeletu g
14 fi 82368hell I a s
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016. MB
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
Henry, “Knowledge for all engineers,” The Engineering Knowledge. [Online]. Available: http://www.theengineeringknowledge.com/.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
• Room Temperature effect: n Bih B Epi jam
I JS 81 i
jful
ÉFE
of

I ja'd
v
y Increasing
f
Temperature

At T = 0 K 1 At T > 0 K
c
w
3Shell g ji b when a covalent bond is broken, an electron is freed,
and hole is created (current can flow)
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
App IN iMI Nino Eg skis lol c
Semiconductor Materials and Properties

O•• To
contact L 3135h.tt 41w
break the covalent bond: the valence electron must gain a minimum energy, 𝐸𝑔 , the bandgap energy.
The electrons that gain this minimum energy now exist in the conduction band and are said to be free
O O
8
electrons.
• These free electrons in the conduction band can move throughout the crystal. The net flow of electrons in
the conduction band generates a current.

fkgg.ee0
• 𝐸𝑔 is the difference between 𝐸𝑐 and 𝐸𝑣
demon
8 • The region is called the forbidden bandgap.
• Electrons cannot exist within the forbidden bandgap.
• Process is called generation.

𝐸𝑐 the minimum
𝐸𝑣 the maximum
energy of the
energy of the valence
conduction energy
energy band
band

PjeeIIeg.n
shells
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010. stvaleneewie_su1
 freee I 9

Semiconductor Materials and Properties

• Insulator: large bandgap energies, in the range of 3 to 6 electron–volts (eV).

• Conductors: contain very large numbers of free electrons at room temperature.

• Semiconductor: the bandgap energy is on the order of 1 eV

Eg
C O
ESPN

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.

 freeelectron ask'm sa
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
• Thermal generation: equal numbers of free electrons and holes, equal concentrations.
I spin
3D
27
• Concentration: the number of charge carriers per unit volume (𝑐𝑚−3).

• The concentration of free electrons 𝑛 is equal to the concentration of holes 𝑝 in the thermal equilibrium:

gg5freeeretvon fj
nfreeeletron.FI
𝑛 = 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖

• 𝑛𝑖 is the intrinsic carrier concentration for the concentration of the free electrons (𝑐𝑚−3)
was
−𝐸𝑔
3 Τ2 2𝑘𝑻
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑻 𝑒

where 𝐵 is a coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material

𝐸𝑔 is the bandgap energy (𝑒𝑉),
𝑇 is the temperature (𝐾),
𝑘 is Boltzmann’s constant (86 × 10−6 𝑒𝑉Τ𝐾)

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
I y im

ima
Extrinsic Semiconductor
free
earn
Time six
• Intrinsic semiconductor: has equal concentrations of free electrons and holes, generated by thermal
E zit jam
generation.

• These concentrations are far too small for silicon to conduct appreciable current at room temperature.

• To solve the issue: a method was developed to change the carrier concentration in a semiconductor
crystal.

y
• This process is known as doping, and the resulting silicon is referred to as doped silicon.
eletrone
• Doping: introducing impurity atoms into the silicon crystal
free issues jim
to increase the concentration of either free
electrons or holes.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Extrinsic Semiconductor

• Increasing the concentration of free electrons (n) Doping with an element with a valence of 5
such as phosphorus

silicon is n type

• Four of phosphorus’s electrons form covalent bonds.

deleting
• The fifth electron becomes a free electron. P
• Each phosphorus atom donates a free electron

• Phosphorus impurity is called a donor.

• No holes are generated by this process.

• Electrons: majority carrier while holes: minority carrier
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
or Utf
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Extrinsic Semiconductor

• Increasing the concentration of holes (p) Doping with an element having a valence of 3
such as boron

silicon is p type

• Boron atom has three electrons in its outer shell.

• Accepting an electron from a neighboring atom

• The result is a hole in the neighboring atom

psn

É
• Boron impurity is called an acceptor.

• Generating holes without electrons being generated.

• Holes: majority carrier while electrons: minority carrier
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 ni n ere p type
Him free c is
nsp p u
test on Semiconductor Materials and Properties
y
YW Extrinsic Semiconductor
Ng Na
wi m End Eva
• The materials containing impurity atoms are called extrinsic semiconductors, or doped semiconductors.

• The doping process, which allows us to control the concentrations of free electrons and holes,
determines the conductivity and currents in the material.

• A fundamental relationship between the electron and hole concentrations in a semiconductor in thermal
equilibrium is given by
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2

𝑁𝑑 : donor concentration
O
Mass-Action Law

(𝑐𝑚−3 ) 𝑁𝑎 : acceptor concentration (𝑐𝑚−3 )

𝑛 ≅ 𝑁𝑑 𝑝 ≅ 𝑁𝑎

D
𝑛𝑖2

O
2
𝑁𝑑 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 → 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑁𝑑 𝑛𝑁𝑎 = 𝑛𝑖2
→𝑛=
𝑁𝑎
n-type p-type
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Current Flow in Semiconductors

• Two different mechanisms for the movement of charge carriers (current flow in semiconductors):

voltage 88 Drift and Diffusion 53315

Movement caused by electric fields Flow caused by variations in the concentration

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Drift Current

• An electrical field E is established in a semiconductor crystal:

➢ Holes are accelerated in the direction of E (𝑉Τ𝑐𝑚).
➢ Free electrons are accelerated in the opposite direction of E.

• The holes acquire a velocity 𝑣𝑝−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠)

2
𝑣𝑝−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝜇𝑝 𝐸 where 𝜇𝑝 is hole mobility (𝑐𝑚 ൗ𝑉.𝑠)

• The free electron acquire a velocity 𝑣𝑛−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠)

2
𝑣𝑛−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 = −𝜇𝑛 𝐸 where 𝜇𝑛 is electron mobility (𝑐𝑚 ൗ𝑉.𝑠)

• 𝜇𝑛 is about 2.5 times 𝜇𝑝 :

Electrons move with much greater ease through the silicon crystal than do holes.

• Maximum value of 𝑣𝑝−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 and 𝑣𝑛−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 is 107 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠 (drift velocity saturation).

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
College of Engineering
Electrical Department

EE223
Fundamentals of Electronic Devices
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Current Flow in Semiconductors

• Two different mechanisms for the movement of charge carriers (current flow in semiconductors):

Drift and Diffusion

Movement caused by electric fields Flow caused by variations in the concentration

Drift current Effin andnotes Is

21
5 at site
figijanointesta hotel
why
Id E o
E o
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016. Issy felt
a
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 E III V 271 b I
y
Etto or I Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Way Drift Current

Hmi
• An electrical field E is established in a semiconductor crystal:
➢ Holes are accelerated in the direction of E (𝑉Τ𝑐𝑚).
➢ Free electrons are accelerated in the opposite direction of E.

• The holes acquire a velocity 𝑣𝑝−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠)

2
𝑣𝑝−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝜇𝑝 𝐸 where 𝜇𝑝 is hole mobility (𝑐𝑚 ൗ𝑉.𝑠)

• The free electron acquire a velocity 𝑣𝑛−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠)

2
𝑣𝑛−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 = −𝜇𝑛 𝐸 where 𝜇𝑛 is electron mobility (𝑐𝑚 ൗ𝑉.𝑠)

• 𝜇𝑛 is about 2.5 times 𝜇𝑝 :

Electrons move with much greater ease through the silicon crystal than do holes.

O
• Maximum value of 𝑣𝑝−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 and 𝑣𝑛−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 is 107 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠 (drift velocity saturation).

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

5
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
7 if
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Drift Current

• In general, current formula:

wing
𝑞

A
𝐼= 𝐶ൗ
𝑡 𝑠

• The hole component of the drift current:

𝐼𝑝 = 𝐴𝑞𝑝 𝑣𝑝−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡

em m
gal 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐴𝑞𝑝𝜇𝑝 𝐸
A
haves where 𝑞 is the magnitude of electron charge = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶

scant
• The current density 𝐽𝑝 , which is the current per unit cross-sectional area:

𝐼𝑝
𝐽𝑝 = = 𝑞𝑝𝜇𝑝 𝐸
𝐴
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Drift Current

• In general, current formula:

𝑞
𝐼=
𝑡

• The electron component of the drift current:

𝐼𝑛 = −𝐴𝑞𝑛 𝑣𝑛−𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡
WE
ox
𝐼 = +𝐴𝑞𝑛𝜇 𝐸
𝑛

o x
Q 𝑛

• The current density 𝐽𝑛 , which is the current per unit cross-sectional area:

𝐼𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = = 𝑞𝑛𝜇𝑛 𝐸
𝐴

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties t.pt

• The total drift current density can now be found by summing 𝐽𝑝 and 𝐽𝑛 :
Drift Current a13
f
É'd 𝐽 = 𝐽𝑝 + 𝐽𝑛 = 𝐸𝑞(𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑛 )

𝐽 = 𝐸𝜎 OR 𝐽 = 𝐸Τ𝜌
acting
W

where the conductivity 𝜎 Ω. 𝑐𝑚 −1 :

FI
𝜎 = 𝑞(𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑛 )
gresisting f Id
conductivityA 3 IN
where the resistivity 𝜌 (Ω. 𝑐𝑚):

EY
1 1

F
𝜌= =
𝜎 𝑞(𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑛 )

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 about.net andnotes I

fE
Diffusionago.mil
gy
a dataandholes
gypsy sawing current
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
0am tf Diffusion Current
gyjm.gs g
holes
minimalown games
gnaw IN bit pp.im of
• Carrier diffusion occurs when the density of charge carriers in a piece of semiconductor is not uniform.

• Ex: hole concentration is made higher in one part of a piece of silicon than in another, then holes will
diffuse from the region of high concentration to the region of low concentration.
• The magnitude of the current at any point is proportional to the slope of
the concentration profile, or the concentration gradient, at that point:

Intimo
𝑑𝑝 𝑥 𝐴ൗ
𝐽𝑝 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑚2

where 𝐷𝑝 is diffusion constant or diffusivity of holes 𝑐𝑚2Τ

𝑠
𝑝 𝑥 is the hole concentration at point x
Concentration Profile
𝑑𝑝 𝑥
• The gradient ( 𝑑𝑥 ) is negative, resulting in a positive current in the x Adediffusion
A. S.direction
Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016. Holecurveyt
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 g p g spa extraornae oy im at Mi
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Diffusion Current

• The case of electron diffusion resulting from an electron concentration gradient.

𝑑𝑛 𝑥 𝐴ൗ
𝐽𝑛 = 𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑚2
where 𝐷𝑛 is diffusion constant or diffusivity of electrons

• The gradient (
direction
𝑑𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
) is negative, resulting in a negative current in the x O
Concentration Profile

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Current Flow in Semiconductors

• Relationship between diffusion constant D and mobility μ.

𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝
= 𝜇 = 𝑉𝑇 Einstein relationship
𝜇𝑛 𝑝

• 𝑉𝑇 is thermal voltage:
𝑘𝑇
𝑉𝑇 =
𝑞

At room temperature T =300 K, 𝑉𝑇 ≅ 0.026 V ≅ 26 𝑚𝑉

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties 101 d efhoogfzo.a
s S 23
mi
Q1: Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at T = 300 K.

Q2: Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in gallium arsenide at T = 300 K.

no nil
so e IT lax
ni s t 8X ai

𝑘 = 86 × 10−6 𝑒𝑉 Τ𝐾
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol1:
T= 300 K
−𝐸𝑔
3 Τ2 2𝑘𝑻
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑻 𝑒
−1.1
15 3 Τ2 2(86 × 10−6 )(300)
𝑛𝑖 = (5.32 × 10 )(300) 𝑒

𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3

Sol2: T=300 K
−𝐸𝑔
3 Τ2 2𝑘𝑻
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑻 𝑒
−1.4
14 3 Τ2 2(86 × 10−6 )(300)
𝑛𝑖 = (2.1 × 10 )(300) 𝑒

𝑛𝑖 = 1.8 × 106 𝑐𝑚−3

𝑘 = 86 × 10−6 𝑒𝑉 Τ𝐾
e
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Q3: Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations.

(a) Consider silicon at T = 300 K doped with phosphorus at a concentration of 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 .

a
(b) Consider silicon at T = 300 K doped with boron at a concentration of 5 × 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 .

X.ie PENastood
cm
msn.sn
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

g g
Sol: (a) T= 300 K and 𝑁𝑑 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝑑 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3
2

o
𝑛𝑖2 1.5 × 1010
𝑝= = = 2.25 × 104 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑁𝑑 1016

(b) T= 300 K and 𝑁𝑎 = 5 × 1016 𝑐𝑚−3

𝑝 ≈ 𝑁𝑎 = 5 × 1016 𝑐𝑚−3
2
𝑛𝑖2 1.5 × 1010
𝑛= = = 4.5 × 103 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑁𝑎 5 × 1016
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Éuman
Q4: Calculate the drift current density for a silicon at T = 300 K doped with arsenic atoms at a concentration
2 2
of 8 × 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 . Assume electron and hole mobility values are 1350 𝑐𝑚 ൗ𝑉.𝑠 and 480 𝑐𝑚 ൗ𝑉.𝑠. Assume the
applied electric field is 100 V/cm.

480
1350 1Up
Unt nerd
E
100 Ym
ning
pass d
3 Eq pytndm
1 gg
 8

Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol: T=300 K, 𝑁𝑑 = 8 × 1015 𝑐𝑚−3

2 2
𝜇𝑛 = 1350 𝑐𝑚 ൗ𝑉.𝑠, 𝜇𝑝 = 480 𝑐𝑚 ൗ𝑉.𝑠, and E= 100 V/cm

𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝑑 = 8 × 1015 𝑐𝑚−3
2
𝑛𝑖2 1.5 × 1010
𝑝= = 15 = 2.81 × 104 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑁𝑑 8 × 10
𝐽 = 𝐸𝜎 OR 𝐽 = 𝐸Τ𝜌
𝜎 = 𝑞(𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑛 )
𝜎 = 1.68 × 10−19 2.81 × 104 480 + 8 × 1015 1350
= 1.68 × 10−19 13.488 × 106 + 10.8 × 1018
= 1.81 Ω. 𝑐𝑚 −1
𝐽 = 100 × 1.81 = 181 𝐴Τ𝑐𝑚2

3 Eq Ynutupp
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Q5: Calculate the diffusion current density for silicon at T = 300 K. Assume the electron concentration
varies linearly from 1012 𝑐𝑚−3 to 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 over the distance from 0 to 3 μm. Assume electron diffusion
2
constant is 35 𝑐𝑚 Τ𝑠.
one

EIT
Tg sym i
Bi s n q Dn th i
 s
I go
Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol:

1016
T = 300 K and 𝐷𝑛 = 35 𝑐𝑚2Τ
𝑠
1012
𝑑𝑛 𝑥
𝐽𝑛 = 𝑞𝐷𝑛 0 3 μm
𝑑𝑥
−19
(1016 − 1012 )
𝐽𝑛 = 1.68 × 10 35 3 × 10−4 𝑐𝑚
(3 × 10−4 − 0)
𝐽𝑛 = 187 𝐴ൗ 2
𝑐𝑚
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Q6: Holes are being steadily injected into a region of n-type silicon. 𝑁𝐷 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 , 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3 ,
2
𝐷𝑝 = 12 𝑐𝑚 Τ𝑠, and W = 50 nm find the density of the current that will flow in the x direction.

NJ so em In
holes
F n
exit
Jp q Dp
try f
Pu
fi
t sum
0 864 A em 7017 u im
G X
A
n type
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol:
𝑁𝐷 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 , 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3 , 𝐷𝑝 = 12 𝑐𝑚2Τ , and W = 50 nm
𝑠

𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝑑 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3
2
𝑛𝑖2 1.5 × 1010
𝑝𝑛 = = = 2.25 × 104 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑁𝑑 1016
𝑑𝑝 𝑥
𝐽𝑝 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥
𝐽𝑝 = − 1.68 × 10−19 12(−4.5 × 1017 )
𝐽𝑝 = 0.864 𝐴ൗ
𝑐𝑚2
𝑑𝑝 𝑥 (2.25 × 104 − 108 × 2.25 × 104
=
𝑑𝑥 (50 × 10−7 − 0)
Since 𝐽𝑝 is positive, the current flows in the x direction 𝑑𝑝 𝑥
= −4.5 × 1017
𝑑𝑥
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
neem
Gtf
to
I
Q7: Find the current that flows in a silicon bar of 10 𝜇𝑚 length having a 5 𝜇𝑚 * 4 𝜇𝑚 cross-section and having
free-electron and hole densities of 104 𝑐𝑚−3 and 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 respectively, when a 1 V is applied end-to-end. Use
2 2
electron mobility value of 1350 𝑐𝑚 ൗ𝑉.𝑠 and hole mobility value of 480 𝑐𝑚 ൗ𝑉.𝑠.

i noooo em
sMMXYMM

E E If
m I Volte
A
sgi.is Ig
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol:

𝐽 = 𝐸𝑞 𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑛 → 𝐼 = 𝐴𝐸𝑞 𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑛

10 𝜇𝑚 = 1 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚

5 𝜇𝑚
4 𝜇𝑚

𝐴 = 5 𝜇𝑚 × 4 𝜇𝑚 = 5 × 10−4 × 4 × 10−4 = 2 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚2

𝑉 1
𝐸= = = 1000 V/cm
𝑙 1 × 10−3

𝐼 = (2 × 10−7 )(1000)(1.68 × 10−19 ) 1016 × 480 + 104 × 1350

𝐼 = 161 𝜇A
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

O
Q8: In a phosphorus-doped silicon layer with impurity concentration of 1017 𝑐𝑚−3 , find the hole and electron

IET
concentrations at 27°C

1017cm
NI
p ng 155ft

2.25 X I M emi
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol:
T= 27°C = 27+273= 300 K

𝑁𝑑 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3

𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝑑 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3

2
𝑛𝑖2 1.5 × 1010
𝑝= = = 2.25 × 104 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑁𝑑 1016
Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
College of Engineering
Electrical Department

EE223
Fundamentals of Electronic Devices
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
The pn Junction t 1
• Ready to consider our first practical semiconductor structure.

• The real power of semiconductor electronics occurs when p- and n-regions are directly adjacent to each
other, forming a pn junction.

• The pn junction implements the diode and plays the dominant role in the structure and operation of the
bipolar junction transistor (BJT).

• Understanding pn junctions is very important to the study of the MOSFET operation.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
The pn Junction

• Simplified block diagram of a pn junction

o
Metallurgical
junction

• Consisting of a p-type semiconductor (e.g., silicon) brought into close contact

with an n-type semiconductor material (also silicon).

• In actual practice, both the p and n regions are part of the same silicon crystal.

• The pn junction is formed within a single silicon crystal by creating regions of different dopings (p and n
regions).

• Showing the respective p-type and n-type doping concentrations

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010. T tnype Tsung c
 Drift mine

g j
o

j
a
wat op
voltage E suis891 s region so
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
u
Depletion

g ay
The pn Junction 𝐼𝐷
• A diffusion of holes from the p-region into the n-region, and a diffusion of
electrons from the n-region into the p-region.

• Two current components add together to form the diffusion current 𝐼𝐷 , whose
direction is from the p side to the n side

• The flow of holes from the p-region uncovers negatively charged acceptor ions,
and the flow of electrons from the n-region uncovers positively charged donor
ions.
e

• A potential difference results across the depletion region, with the n side at a
positive voltage relative to the p side.

• This action creates a charge separation which sets up an electric field oriented in mm
the direction from the positive charge to the negative charge.
𝑉𝑏𝑖
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
The pn Junction
i
• The voltage drop across the depletion region acts as a barrier that has to be V6
overcome for holes to diffuse into the n region and electrons to diffuse into the p
if
region.

• The larger the barrier voltage (Built-in Voltage), the smaller the number of carriers
that will be able to overcome the barrier, and hence the lower the magnitude of
diffusion current:
𝑉𝑏𝑖 ↑→ 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ↓→ 𝐼𝐷 ↓

Ex
across the depletion4611
𝑉𝑏𝑖
• 𝐼𝐷 depends strongly on the voltage drop 𝑉𝑏𝑖 region.

𝑉𝑏𝑖 =
𝑘𝑇
𝑒
𝑙𝑛
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
𝑛𝑖2
= 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
𝑛𝑖2
NJ Na
ja
no inn gaffe I ai me
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
open w
É ÉÉ
n
tape
HeavrinSemiconductor Materials and Properties
In

void
t.gl if f
man
ÉÉopium
The pn Junction
• The drift current 𝐼 : caused by the electrical filed
Q
𝑠

• Some of the thermally generated holes in the n material move toward the junction
and reach the edge of the depletion region → they experience the electric field in
the depletion region → sweeps them across that region into the p side.

• The minority thermally generated electrons in the p material move to the edge of
the depletion region and get swept by the electric field in the depletion region
across that region into the n side. 𝑉𝑏𝑖
• These two current components—electrons moved by drift from p to n and holes moved by drift from n to
p—add together to form the drift current 𝐼𝑠 .

0
• Since the current 𝐼𝑠 is carried by thermally generated minority carriers, its value is strongly dependent on
temperature.
• Any minority carriers that manage to get to the edge of the depletion region will be swept across by E
regardless of the value of E or, correspondingly, of 𝑉𝑏𝑖 .
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 I
i

Semiconductor Materials and Properties

arexp W
The pn Junction n
• A junction in which 𝑁𝑎 > 𝑁𝑑

F
• The width of the depletion layer will not be the same on the two sides.

• The depletion layer will extend deeper into the more lightly doped material.
I
• The width of the depletion region in the p side by 𝑥𝑝 and in the n side by 𝑥𝑛 .

• The width W of the depletion layer:

wiped
2𝜀𝑠 1 1
𝑊 = 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑥𝑛 = +𝑁 𝑉𝑏𝑖
WHY 𝑞 𝑁𝑎 𝑑

𝑉𝑏𝑖
• where 𝜀𝑠 is the electrical permittivity of silicon =11.7𝜀𝑜 = 11.7 × 8.85 × 10−14 𝐹Τ𝑐𝑚
= 1.04 × 10−12 𝐹Τ𝑐𝑚.
• Typically, W is in the range 0.1 μm to 1 μm

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
College of Engineering
Electrical Department

EE223
Fundamentals of Electronic Devices
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Na NJ
Vita up 𝑊 = 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑥𝑛 =
The pn Junction
2𝜀𝑠 1 1
+𝑁 𝑉𝑏𝑖
𝑞 𝑁𝑎 𝑑

• 𝑥𝑝 and 𝑥𝑛 can be obtained:

𝑁𝑎
f 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑊
𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑑
𝑁𝑑
𝑥𝑝 = 𝑊 T
y 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑑

• The charge stored on either side of the depletion region:

Is
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 𝑉𝑏𝑖
𝑄𝐽 = 𝐴𝑞𝑊
𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑑
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
𝑄𝐽 = 𝐴 2𝜀𝑠 𝑞 𝑉𝑏𝑖
𝑁𝑎 +𝑁𝑑

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
e

Semiconductor Materials and Properties

The pn Junction

• Open-circuited pn junction in detail.

• Appling a dc voltage between its two terminals to find its electrical conduction properties.

• If the voltage is applied so that the p side is made more positive than the n side, it is referred to as a
forward-bias voltage.

• If our applied dc voltage is such that it makes the n side more positive than the p side, it is said to be a
reverse-bias voltage.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

p
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.n
tunendes
Is
type.si mrrwo
n
a

94
v if wi
 so
if I
www
anti
ion revenge it
Semiconductor Materials and Properties ET
The pn Junction
Iska
• Reverse-Biased pn Junction.

T 8D
• IncreasingIsthe effective barrier voltage to (𝑉𝑏𝑖 + 𝑉𝑅 ) O
𝐸
• The direction of this applied field is the same as that of the E-field in the space-
charge region.
𝐸𝐴
• The magnitude of the electric field in the space-charge region increases.

• Reducing the number of holes that diffuse into the n region and the number of 𝑉𝑏𝑖 + 𝑉𝑅
electrons that diffuse into the p region.

• The diffusion current 𝐼𝐷 is dramatically reduced (𝐼𝐷 ≈ 0) 𝐼𝑠 dominate (very

small for specific voltage range)
• Increasing in barrier voltage → increasing in the stored charge on depletion region → wider depletion region

t
2𝜀𝑠 1 1
𝑊 = 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑥𝑛 = +𝑁 𝑉𝑏𝑖 + 𝑉𝑅
𝑞 𝑁𝑎 𝑑

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 t b is
Ippparriervateau Go w

É
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
The pn Junction
• Forward-Biased pn Junction.
t re
• 𝐸𝐴 induced by the applied voltage is in the opposite direction from that of the a
thermal equilibrium space-charge E.
𝐸
• Reducing barrier voltage (𝑉𝑏𝑖 − 𝑉𝐹 ) across the depletion region.
𝐸𝐴
• The lowering of the barrier voltage will enable more holes to diffuse from p to n and
more electrons to diffuse from n to p.

• The diffusion current 𝐼𝐷 increases and can become larger than the drift current 𝐼𝑠 .
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐷 − 𝐼𝑠 forward direction from p to n. 𝑉𝑏𝑖 − 𝑉𝐹

• Decreasing in barrier voltage → decreasing in the stored charge on depletion region → narrower depletion
region
Gift
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
The pn Junction
• An analytical expression describing the current–voltage relationship of the pn junction.

• Considering a junction operating with a forward applied voltage V and derive an expression for the
current I that flows in the forward direction (from p to n).

• Forward-bias voltage V → resulting in a lower barrier voltage → greater number of holes to overcome the
barrier and diffuse into the n region (same for electron).
𝑣𝐷

É
É T
𝑖𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 −1

𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛 Ée 1I in Ipa
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐴𝑞𝑛𝑖2 𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷
+𝐿 saturation current
𝑛 𝑁𝐴

where 𝐿𝑝 is the diffusion length of holes in the n material. The smaller the value of 𝐿𝑝 , the faster

E to
the injected holes will recombine with the majority electrons, resulting in a steeper decay of
minority-carrier concentration.
𝑛 is usually called the emission coefficient or ideality factor, and its value is in the range 1 ≤ n ≤ 2.
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

It
The pn Junction
𝑣𝐷

Fete
𝑖𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇
−1
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐴𝑞𝑛𝑖2
𝐷𝑝
+
𝐷𝑛 no
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴
v20
• 𝐼𝑠 is the reverse-bias saturation current or saturation current. fog
• Typical values for 𝐼𝑠 , for junctions of various areas, range from 10−18 𝐴 to 10−12 A.
RE

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
s
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
The pn Junction
𝑣𝐷
𝑖𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇
−1
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐴𝑞𝑛𝑖2

brig X
+
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴

• At a reverse-bias voltage, the reverse current that flows across the junction is approximately equal to 𝐼𝑠
and is very small.
• However, as the magnitude of the reverse-bias voltage V is increased, a value is reached at which a very
large reverse current flows.
• Reaching the value 𝑉𝑍 , the dramatic increase in reverse current is accompanied by a very small increase
in the reverse voltage.
• The phenomenon that occurs at 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑍 is known as junction breakdown.

Afreakson WIs 134

E
NRI XD
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
v RAM Id
 MY
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
The pn Junction
• Two possible mechanisms for pn junction breakdown:

1. Zener effect if 𝑉𝑍 < 5𝑉

infatuation
2. Avalanche effect if 𝑉𝑍 > 7 𝑉

• Zener effect:
➢ Increases E in the depletion layer → breaking covalent bonds and
generating electron–hole pairs.

E
➢ Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes are swept into the p-
region.
➢ Generating a large reverse bias.

• Avalanche effect:

Mmmm
➢ Will be discussed later.

or
• Nowadays: Diodes have breakdown voltage in the range of 50 to 200 V.
Peak inverse voltage or PIV
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
The pn Junction
• Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction:
1. Depletion or Junction Capacitance.
2. Diffusion Capacitance.

• Depletion or Junction Capacitance associated with the pn junction when a reverse-bias voltage is applied
due to increasing the effective barrier voltage.

9f.gs
vague fgage
𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑎 𝑑𝑄𝐽
𝑉𝑏𝑖 + 𝑉𝑅 → 𝐶𝐽 =
t 𝑄𝐽 = 𝐴 2𝑞𝜀𝑠
𝑁𝑑 + 𝑁𝑎 𝑑𝑉𝑅

A 𝐶𝐽 =
𝐶𝐽0
101794
get
per
it'm a 𝑉
1 + 𝑉𝑅
𝑏𝑖

𝑞𝜀𝑠 𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑎 1
𝐶𝐽0 = 𝐴
2 𝑁𝑑 + 𝑁𝑎 𝑉𝑏𝑖
where 𝐶𝐽0 is the junction capacitance at zero applied voltage.
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

É
The pn Junction
• Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction: É
1. Depletion or Junction Capacitance.
2. Diffusion Capacitance.
in
• Diffusion Capacitance is associated with the minority-carrier charge stored in the n and p materials
(outside the depletion region).

gory B and ont for

𝐶𝑑 =
𝜏𝑇
𝐼
𝑉𝑇 𝐷

where 𝜏 𝑇 is called the mean transit time of the junction.

• 𝐶𝑑 is directly proportional to the forward current 𝐼𝐷 and thus is negligibly small when the diode is reverse
biased.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 einen
Diodes
Eine termini
• Diode is nothing more than the pn junction.
NWI j jy
Dietl two
• The simplest and most fundamental nonlinear circuit element is the diode. Device
• Like a resistor, the diode has two terminals; but unlike the resistor, which has a linear (straight-line)
relationship between the current flowing through it and the voltage appearing across it, the diode has a
nonlinear 𝑖– 𝑣 characteristic.
e
• Ohm’s law, which describes the properties of a resistor → Developing the dc analysis and modeling
techniques of diode circuits.

• Many applications of diodes, their use in the design of rectifiers (which convert ac to dc) is the most
common.

Svi two Ideal Diode

pÉ
In 5 24 Regan'd
WE 4
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
fitage
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 son
If
sfyf is
a
Diodes
E
eg1
The Ideal Diode
It is a two-terminal device having the circuit symbol The 𝑖– 𝑣 characteristic
great Diodes

0 7 4 m
steadied a
q
ideal

T
• If a negative voltage is applied to the diode, no current flows and the diode behaves as an open circuit
(reverse biased mode).
• Zero current when operated in the reverse direction and is said to be cut off, or simply off.

E
• if a positive voltage is applied to the ideal diode, zero voltage drop appears across the diode (short circuit)
• Passing any current with zero voltage drop. A forward-biased diode is said to be turned on, or simply on.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
College of Engineering
Electrical Department

EE223
Fundamentals of Electronic Devices
 Diodes

• Diode is nothing more than the pn junction.

• The simplest and most fundamental nonlinear circuit element is the diode.

• Like a resistor, the diode has two terminals; but unlike the resistor, which has a linear (straight-line)
relationship between the current flowing through it and the voltage appearing across it, the diode has a
nonlinear 𝑖– 𝑣 characteristic.

• Ohm’s law, which describes the properties of a resistor → Developing the dc analysis and modeling
techniques of diode circuits.

• Many applications of diodes, their use in the design of rectifiers (which convert ac to dc) is the most
common.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
The Ideal Diode
It is a two-terminal device having the circuit symbol The 𝑖– 𝑣 characteristic

• If a negative voltage is applied to the diode, no current flows and the diode behaves as an open circuit
(reverse biased mode).
• Zero current when operated in the reverse direction and is said to be cut off, or simply off.

• if a positive voltage is applied to the ideal diode, zero voltage drop appears across the diode (short circuit)
• Passing any current with zero voltage drop. A forward-biased diode is said to be turned on, or simply on.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes so Avg g
Aug I

3
The Rectifier
• A fundamental application of the diode is the rectifier circuit (AC to DC).
F

t g O
𝑣1 ≥ 0 𝑣1 < 0 R

• 𝑣1 alternates in polarity and has a zero average value, 𝑣𝑜

É •
is unidirectional and has a finite average value or a dc
component.
Therefore, the circuit rectifies the signal and hence is
called a rectifier. It can be used to generate dc from ac.
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
EIFEL Diodes
F x y ez
Diode Logic Gates
• Diodes together with resistors can be used to implement digital logic functions.
• Voltage values close to 0 𝑉 correspond to logic 0 (or low) and voltage values close to +5 𝑉 correspond to
logic 1 (or high).

aimed
• Three inputs, 𝑣𝐴 , 𝑣𝐵 , and 𝑣𝑐 .
• Diodes connected to +5 𝑉 inputs will • The circuit implements the logic AND function:
conduct, the output 𝑣𝑌 to a value equal to 𝑌 = 𝐴. 𝐵. 𝐶
+5𝑉.
• The output will be high if one or more of the
inputs are high.
• The circuit therefore implements the logic
OR function: 𝑌 =𝐴+𝐵+𝐶
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 1 x u
cat in
go prop
Diodes I 017 voltage
77 x
Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes
• The 𝑖 − 𝑣 characteristic curve consists of three distinct regions

1) Forward-bias region, determined by 𝑣 > 0

2) Reverse-bias region, determined by 𝑣 < 0
3) Breakdown region, determined by 𝑣 < −𝑉𝑍

• The forward region the i–v relationship is closely approximated by: I Enron
𝑣𝐷
𝑖𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇
Y
−1

• For appreciable current 𝑖𝐷 in the forward direction, specifically for 𝑖𝐷 ≫ 𝐼𝑠 :

𝑣𝐷 𝑖𝐷
𝑖𝐷 ≈ 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 → 𝑣𝐷 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝐼𝑠
• The current is negligibly small for 𝑣𝐷 smaller than about 0.5 𝑉 (Cut-in Voltage).

• Fully conducting diode, the voltage drop lies in a narrow range, approximately 0.6 V to 0.8 V.
• Diode is assumed that a conducting diode has approximately a 0.7-V drop across it (Drop Voltage)
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 V
Diodes VD
Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes
• 𝐼𝑠 and 𝑉𝑇 are functions of temperature → The forward 𝑖– 𝑣 characteristic varies with temperature.
𝑣𝐷 𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛
𝑖𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 − 1 and 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐴𝑞𝑛𝑖2 +
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴 nin infant
• The required forward-bias voltage decreases as temperature increases. For silicon diodes, the change is
approximately 2 mV/°C → Increasing the temperature makes the diode to "turn ON" at lower voltages.
• 𝐼𝑠 is a function of 𝑛𝑖 , strongly dependent on temperature → 𝐼𝑠 approximately doubles for every 5 °C
increase in temperature

x x

I
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
t.it
or
Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Q1: Calculate the built-in voltage of a junction in which the p and n regions are doped equally with

i
5 × 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 . Assume intrinsic carrier concentration equals 1.5 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3. With the terminals left open,
what is the width of the depletion region, and how far does it extend into the p and n regions? If the cross-

1
sectional area of the junction is 5 𝜇𝑚 × 4 𝜇𝑚 , find the magnitude of the charge stored on either side of the
junction. 𝜀𝑠 =11.7𝜀𝑜 = 11.7 × 8.85 × 10−14 𝐹Τ𝑐𝑚 = 1.04 × 10−12 𝐹Τ𝑐𝑚

54
o 778 u
764103in
Vfi s Vt in raft s

W Flattest s axisem
iTI
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Sol: 𝜀𝑠 =11.7𝜀𝑜 = 11.7 × 8.85 × 10−14 𝐹Τ𝑐𝑚 = 1.04 × 10−12 𝐹Τ𝑐𝑚

p and n regions are doped equally → 𝑁𝑑 = 𝑁𝑎 = 5 × 1016 𝑐𝑚−3

𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3
2
𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 5 × 1016
𝑉𝑏𝑖 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 = 0.026𝑙𝑛 2 = 778 𝑚𝑉
𝑒 𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2 1.5 × 1010

2𝜀𝑠 1 1 21.04×10−12 2
𝑊 = 𝑥𝑝 + 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑞 𝑁𝑎
+𝑁 𝑉𝑏𝑖 = 1.68×10−19 5×1016
778 × 10−3 = 2 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚
𝑑
𝑊
p and n regions are doped equally → 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑥𝑛 = = 1 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚
2

𝐴 = 5 𝜇𝑚 × 4 𝜇𝑚 = 5 × 10−4 × 4 × 10−4 = 2 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚2

𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 5 × 10 16 2
𝑄𝐽 = 𝐴𝑞𝑊 = 2 × 10−7 × 1.68 × 10−19 × 2 × 10−5 16 = 1.6 × 10−14 𝐶
𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑑 2 × 5 × 10
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Q2: By how much does the built-in potential barrier change if 𝑁𝐷 or 𝑁𝐴 is increased by a factor of 10?

0598
Vii ut n
CI o

Vi in 110m91
noywaYd
vbig.ve
o7
Vi 59.874103
vt1yY
183 V8i
87
VGis 59 0 508 r

i
sasaonopJ
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol:
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
𝑉𝑏𝑖1 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝑛𝑖2
10𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
𝑁𝐷 or 𝑁𝐴 is increased by a factor of 10 → 𝑉𝑏𝑖2 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑛𝑖2
10𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
𝑉𝑏𝑖2 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑛𝑖2
= 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 10 + 𝑙𝑛 𝑛𝑖2
𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝑑
𝑉𝑏𝑖2 = 59.6 × 10−3 + 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝑛𝑖2
𝑉𝑏𝑖2 = 59.6 × 10−3 + 𝑉𝑏𝑖1

The change in the value is 59.6 𝑚𝑉

 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Q3: Find the values of I and V in the circuits shown, assume ideal diodes:

Dison a 6 Assume'Dicoff
a Aflame sina.sn

2 5.4
me
so
ma
jig
5 0

soil piogi.fr L qq.gg

 and

t
of
p

g
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol:

5−0
a) Assume Diode is on 𝐼 = 2.5×103 = 2 𝑚𝐴
Since 𝐼 is positive → Diode is on
→𝑉 =0𝑉
5−0
b) Assume Diode is on 𝐼 = 2.5×103 = 2 𝑚𝐴
Since diode current = −𝐼 → Diode is off
→ 𝐼 = 0 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 5 𝑉
0−(−5)
c) Assume Diode is on 𝐼 = 2.5×103 = 2 𝑚𝐴
Since diode current = −𝐼 → Diode is off
→ 𝐼 = 0 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 5 𝑉
0−(−5)
d) Assume Diode is on 𝐼 = 2.5×103 = 2 𝑚𝐴
Since 𝐼 is positive → Diode is on
→𝑉 =0𝑉
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Q4: Assuming the diodes to be ideal, find the values of I and V in the circuits

Diotel areon
Assume
a
aimA
D1 II
t.nl
o s zm
A
3
g
g O

514 o
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol:
10−0
a) Assume both Diodes are on 𝐼𝐷2 = 10×103 = 1 𝑚𝐴
0−(−10)
At B: 𝐼𝐷2 + 𝐼 = 5×103 = 2 𝑚𝐴 → 𝐼 = 1 𝑚𝐴
Since𝐼𝐷2 and 𝐼 are positive → Diodes are on IM
→𝑉 =0𝑉

i
10−0
b) Assume both Diodes are on 𝐼𝐷2 = 5×103 = 2 𝑚𝐴
0−(−10)
At B: 𝐼𝐷2 + 𝐼 = = 1 𝑚𝐴 → 𝐼 = −1 𝑚𝐴 g
10×103
Since 𝐼 is negative → Diode D1 is off
10−(−10)
Start again → 𝐼𝐷2 = 10×103+5×103 = 1.33 𝑚𝐴 and 𝐼 = 0
IBS
→ 𝑉 = −10 + 10 × 1.33 × 10−3 = 3.3 𝑉
OFI
M
1mA
gin
g
2B
M q
is off JB IMA
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Q5: For the circuits shown below using ideal diodes, find the values of the labeled voltages and current
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Sol:

Since the input voltages of diode are not equal and diodes are parallel
→ diodes cannot be both on

The only solution we have is when D2 is on and D1 is off

𝑉 =2𝑉

2 − (−3)
𝐼= = 2.5 𝑚𝐴
2 × 103
Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
College of Engineering
Electrical Department

EE223
Fundamentals of Electronic Devices
 Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS
• Diode is a two-terminal device with nonlinear 𝑖– 𝑣 characteristics, as opposed to a two-terminal resistor.

• The analysis of nonlinear electronic circuits is not as straightforward as the analysis of linear electric
circuits.

• Mathematical relationships, or models, that describe the current–voltage characteristics of electrical

elements.

• Allow us to analyze and design circuits without having to fabricate and test them in the laboratory.

• An example is Ohm’s law, which describes the properties of a resistor → developing the dc analysis and
modeling techniques of diode circuits.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS
• The Exponential Model:

• The most accurate description of the diode operation in the forward region is provided by the exponential
model but the most difficult to use.

• The diode 𝑖– 𝑣 characteristic:

𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1
• Kirchhoff loop equation:
𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 =
𝑅

• Assuming 𝑉𝐷𝐷 and 𝐼𝑠 are known, two equations in the two unknown quantities 𝐼𝐷 and 𝑉𝐷 .

• Two alternative ways for obtaining the solution are graphical analysis and iterative analysis.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS
• Graphical Analysis Using the Exponential Model:

• Graphical analysis is performed by plotting the two relationships on the 𝑖– 𝑣 plane.

𝑣𝐷
𝑉𝐷𝐷 −𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 − 1 and 𝐼𝐷 =
𝑅

• If 𝐼𝐷 = 0, then 𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 which is the horizontal axis intercept.

𝑉
• If 𝑉𝐷 = 0, then 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐷𝐷 which is the vertical axis intercept.
𝑅

• Straight line is known as the load line.

• The load line intersects the diode curve at point Q, which

represents the operating point of the circuit. Its coordinates give
the values of 𝐼𝐷 and 𝑉𝐷 .

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS
• Iterative Analysis Using the Exponential Model:

• Iteration means using trial and error to find a solution to a problem.

• Example: Determine the diode voltage and current for the circuit shown. Consider a diode with
𝐼𝑠 = 10−13 A, 𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 5 𝑉, and 𝑅 = 2 𝑘Ω.
• Sol:
𝑉𝐷
𝑉𝐷𝐷 −𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇
− 1 and 𝐼𝐷 =
𝑅
𝑉𝐷

5 = 10
→ 𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅 𝑒
−13 3
× 2 × 10 × 𝑒
𝑉𝑇
− 1 + 𝑉𝐷
𝑉𝐷
0.026 −1 +𝑉
q
𝐷

If we first try 𝑉𝐷 = 0.60 V, the right side of Equation is 2.7 V, so the equation is not balanced.
we must try again. If we next try VD = 0.65 V, the right side of Equation is 15.1 V.
Again, the equation is not balanced, but we can see that the solution for 𝑉𝐷 is between 0.6 and 0.65 V.
If we continue refining our guesses, we will be able to show that, when 𝑉𝐷 = 0.619 V, the right side of
Equation is 4.99 V, which is essentially equal to the value of the left side of the equation.
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
 Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND MODELS

• The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model:

• The simplest and most widely used diode model.

• This model is based on the observation that a forward-

conducting diode has a voltage drop that varies in a
relatively narrow range, say, 0.6 to 0.8 V.

• The model assumes this voltage to be constant at a value,

say, 0.7 V.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 C Acvoltage pimp lil pigeon
Diodes To I
usesAC
DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
D beta
• The Small-Signal Model.

Adding a sinusoidal or time-varying signal

• Finding a way to determine the values of ∆𝐼𝐷 and ∆𝑉𝐷 incremental changes → Small Signal Model.

• Signal → ∆𝑉𝐷 can be a time-varying quantity.

• Small → diode model applies only when ∆𝑉𝐷 is kept sufficiently small.
𝑖𝐷
𝑣𝐷 2
∆𝐼𝐷 ∆𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 𝑉𝐷

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 VII Et nodosa tog
Ginsburg in
insead
Diodes n
I
in.ee DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT ssemeng in
• The Small-Signal Model. Ije c it É NEALE
get a Germani
• Voltage across the diode as the sum of the dc voltage 𝑉𝐷 and the time-varying signal 𝑣𝑑deft
inasmall
𝑡 .
𝑣𝐷 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐷 + 𝑣𝑑 𝑡

• Diode current 𝑖𝐷 𝑡 :
𝑣𝐷 𝑉𝐷 +𝑣𝑑 𝑉𝐷 𝑣𝑑
𝑖𝐷 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 → 𝑖𝐷 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 → 𝑖𝐷 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 𝑒 𝑉𝑇
𝐼𝐷 + 𝑖𝑑
𝑣𝑑
𝑣
• If the ac signal is small → 𝑣𝑑 ≪ 𝑉𝑇 → 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 → 1 + 𝑉𝑑
𝑇
𝑉𝐷
𝑣𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝐷 + 𝑣𝑑
• We learned 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇

• The diode current–voltage relationship can then be written as:

.
𝑣𝑑 𝐼𝐷
𝑖𝐷 𝑡 = 𝐼𝐷 1 + → 𝑖𝐷 𝑡 = 𝐼𝐷 + 𝑣𝑑 → 𝑖𝐷 𝑡 = 𝐼𝐷 + 𝑖𝑑
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
i2 gV
 O
Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
• The diode current–voltage relationship.
𝑣𝑑 𝐼𝐷
𝑖𝐷 𝑡 = 𝐼𝐷 1 + → 𝑖𝐷 𝑡 = 𝐼𝐷 + 𝑣𝑑 → 𝑖𝐷 𝑡 = 𝐼𝐷 + 𝑖𝑑
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇
𝐼
where 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝐷 𝑣𝑑
𝑇

• The relationship between the ac components of the diode voltage and current:
𝐼𝐷
𝑖𝑑 = 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑔𝑑 ∙ 𝑣𝑑
𝑉𝑇

𝑉𝑇
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑖 = 𝑟𝑑 ∙ 𝑖𝑑
𝐼𝐷 𝑑

• 𝑔𝑑 : the diode small-signal incremental conductance or diffusion conductance.

• 𝑟𝑑 : resistance or diffusion resistance.
1 𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝑑 = =
𝑔𝑑 𝐼𝐷
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
R f
 Ig IDe

tie
Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

1 𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝑑 = =
𝑔𝑑 𝐼𝐷

• The value of 𝑟𝑑 is inversely proportional to the bias current 𝐼𝐷 .

• The dc and ac equivalent circuits:

𝑉𝐷

𝐼𝐷 𝑣𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑑 O
𝑉𝐷𝐷

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
or
Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

• Example: Consider the circuit shown below for the case in which R = 10 k. The power supply V+ has a dc
value of 10 V on which is superimposed a 60-Hz sinusoid of 1-V peak amplitude. Calculate both the dc
voltage of the diode and the amplitude of the sine-wave signal appearing across it. Assume the diode to
have a 0.7-V drop.

DE
Assume Dis
on
ÉÉ
In
É
so93mA
D is on
y Igg

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

• Sol:
DC Analysis:
Assuming diode is on:
𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝐷 10 − 0.7
𝐼𝐷 = = = 0.93 𝑚𝐴 → Diode is on
𝑅 10 × 103

AC Analysis:
𝑉 0.026
The diode incremental resistance 𝑟𝑑 = 𝐼 𝑇 = 0.93×10−3 = 26.9 Ω
𝐷
The ac Kirchhoff voltage law (KVL) equation:
𝑣𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑅𝑖𝑑 + 𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖𝑑 𝑅 + 𝑟𝑑 → 𝑖𝑑 = = = 99.73 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝜇𝐴
𝑅 + 𝑟𝑑 10 × 103 + 26.9

𝑣𝑑 = 𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑑 = 2.68 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑚𝑉 → 𝑣𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝑽

since this value is quite small, our use of the small-signal model of the diode is justified.
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
College of Engineering
Electrical Department

EE223
Fundamentals of Electronic Devices
 Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

• A diode circuit involves both dc and signal quantities.

• A small-signal equivalent circuit can be obtained by eliminating the dc sources and replacing each diode
with its small-signal resistance 𝑟𝑑 .

• Therefore, the circuit is linear and can be solved using linear circuit analysis.

• The diffusion capacitance associated with a forward-biased pn junction becomes important when ac
signal applied.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
regulation

DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

• Use of the Diode Forward Drop in Voltage Regulation.

• An application of the diode small-signal model is found in a popular diode application to create a
regulated voltage.

• A voltage regulator is a circuit whose purpose is to provide a constant dc voltage between its output
terminals.

• The output voltage is required to remain as constant as possible in spite of:

➢ Changes in the load current drawn from the regulator output terminal and
➢ Changes in the dc power-supply voltage that feeds the regulator circuit.

• Since the forward-voltage drop of the diode remains almost constant at approximately 0.7 V while the
current through it varies by relatively large amounts → a forward-biased diode can make a simple voltage
regulator.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

• Previous example in the last lecture: while the 10-V dc supply voltage had a ripple of 2 V peak-to-peak (a
±10% variation), the corresponding ripple in the diode voltage was only about ±2.7 mV (a ±0.4%
variation).

• Regulated voltages greater than 0.7 V can be obtained by connecting a number of diodes in series.

• For example, the use of three forward-biased diodes in series provides a voltage of about 2 V.

• Example: Consider the below circuit. A string of three diodes is used to provide a constant voltage of
about 2.1 V. We want to calculate the percentage change in this regulated voltage caused by (a) a ±10%
change in the power-supply voltage, and (b) connection of a 1-k load resistance.

i
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
iso.to
 E
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7 045
1V8 3.2mV c up
ve s out 10 d
2am

qg a.gg Diodes
DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

• Sol: a) No load:
Assuming diodes are on:
10 − 2.1
𝐼𝐷 = = 7.9 𝑚𝐴 → Diodes are on
1 × 103
𝑉𝑇 0.026
The diode incremental resistance 𝑟𝑑 = = 7.9×10−3 = 3.2 Ω
𝐼𝐷
The three diodes in series will have a total incremental resistance of
3𝑟𝑑 = 9.6Ω

𝑣𝑠 1
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑅𝑖𝑑 + 𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑑 + 𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑑 + 𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖𝑑 𝑅 + 3𝑟𝑑 → 𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = = 1×103+9.6 = 990.49 𝜇𝐴
𝑅+3𝑟𝑑

𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 3𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑑 = 9.5 𝑚𝑉 → 𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 19 𝑚𝑉

3𝑟𝑑 9.6
Another way: 𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 3𝑟 𝑣𝑠 = 9.6+1×103 = 9.5 𝑚𝑉 → 𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 19 𝑚𝑉
𝑑 +𝑅
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010. R
 Et
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DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT I 02
In s rat not
• Sol: 𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 3𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑑 = 9.5 𝑚𝑉 → 𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 19 𝑚𝑉
• Corresponding to the ±1-V (±10%) change in supply voltage, the output
voltage will change by ±9.5 mV or ±0.5%.

• Since this implies a change of about ±3.2 mV per diode, our use of the small-
signal model is justified.
b) With load 1 𝑘Ω is connected across the diode string:
2.1
Diodes are on → 𝐼𝑅𝐿 = 1×103 = 2.1 𝑚𝐴 → 𝐼𝐷 = 7.9 × 10−3 − 2.1 × 10−3 = 5.8 𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝑇 0.026
𝑟𝑑 = = 5.8×10−3 = 4.48 Ω → 3𝑟𝑑 = 13.45 Ω
𝐼𝐷
3𝑟𝑑 ∕∕𝑅𝐿 13.27
𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 3𝑟 𝑣𝑠 = 13.27+1×103 = 13.1 𝑚𝑉 → 𝑣𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 26.19 𝑚𝑉
𝑑 ∕∕𝑅𝐿 +𝑅

• Corresponding to adding load, the output voltage will change by ±13.1 mV or ±0.62%.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 I 7.9mA

storm
2
iii

I
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Q1: At what forward voltage does a diode conduct a current equal to 10,000𝐼𝑠 ? In terms of 𝐼𝑠 , what current

FI
flows in the same diode when its forward voltage is 0.7 V?.
at
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Cimon
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol:
First Part 𝐼𝐷 = 10,000 𝐼𝑠
𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1
𝑉𝐷
10,000𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1
𝑉𝐷
𝑒 𝑉𝑇
= 10001
𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
ln(𝑒 𝑉𝑇 ) = ln 10001 → = 9.21 → 𝑉𝐷 = 0.239 𝑉
𝑉𝑇

Second Part 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7 𝑉

0.7
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 0.026 − 1 = 4.93 × 1011 𝑰𝒔
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Do
Q2: In the circuit shown below, D1 has 10 times the junction area of D2. What value of V results?

ARIA
a

I
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol:
D1 has 10 times the junction area of D2 → 𝐴1 = 10 𝐴2
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐴𝑞𝑛𝑖2 + → 𝐼𝑠1 = 10𝐼𝑠2
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴

Both diodes are on since currents are positive → 𝐼𝐷1 = 3 𝑚𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐷2 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐷1 = 7 𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝐷1 𝑉𝐷2
𝐼𝐷1 = 𝐼𝑠1 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐼𝐷2 = 𝐼𝑠2 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1

𝑉𝐷1 𝑉𝐷1 𝑉𝐷1 𝑉𝐷1

𝐼𝐷1 3 𝐼𝑠1 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1 10𝐼𝑠2 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1 10 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1 10𝑒 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝐷1 −𝑉𝐷2
= = = = ≈ = 10𝑒 𝑉𝑇
𝐼𝐷2 7 𝑉𝐷2 𝑉𝐷2 𝑉𝐷2 𝑉𝐷2
𝐼𝑠2 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1 𝐼𝑠2 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −1 𝑒 𝑉𝑇

𝑉𝐷1 − 𝑉𝐷2 3
= ln → 𝑉𝐷1 − 𝑉𝐷2 = −81.9 𝑚𝑉
𝑉𝑇 70
𝑉 = 𝑉𝐷2 − 𝑉𝐷1 = 81.9 𝑚𝑉
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Q3: Consider the voltage-regulator circuit shown below. The value of R is selected to obtain an output
voltage 𝑉𝑜 (across the diode) of 0.7 V:
Use the diode small-signal model to show that the change in output voltage
corresponding to a change of 1 V in 𝑉 + is
𝑣𝑜 𝑉𝑇
= +
𝑣𝑠 𝑉 + 𝑉𝑇 − 0.7
This quantity is known as the line regulation and is usually expressed in mV/V.
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol:
DC Analysis:
𝑉 + − 𝑉𝐷 𝑉 + − 0.7 𝑉 + − 0.7
𝐼𝐷 = = →𝑅=
𝑅 𝑅 𝐼𝐷
+
Diode is on when 𝑉 > 0.7 𝑉
AC Analysis:
𝑉𝑇 𝑟𝑑 𝑉𝑇 Τ𝐼𝐷
𝑟𝑑 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑣
𝐼𝐷 𝑟𝑑 + 𝑅 𝑉𝑇 𝑉 + − 0.7 𝑠
𝐼𝐷 + 𝐼𝐷
𝑣𝑜 𝑉𝑇
=
𝑣𝑠 𝑉𝑇 + 𝑉 + − 0.7
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties
Q3: Design a diode voltage regulator to supply 1.5 V to a 1.5-k load. Use two diodes specified to have a
saturation current equal to 6.91 × 10−16 A. The diodes are to be connected to a +5-V supply through a
resistor R. Specify the value for R. What is the diode current with the load connected?
 Semiconductor Materials and Properties

Sol: To supply 1.5 V to a 1.5-k load → 𝑉𝑜 = 1.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝐿 = 1.5 𝑘 Ω

Finding the R value and diode current with the load connected
5 − 𝑉𝑜 3.5
𝑅= =
𝐼 𝐼
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝐷 0.75
𝑉𝐷 = = 0.75 𝑉 → 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉𝑇 − 1 = 6.91 × 10−16 𝑒 0.026 − 1
2
𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝐷 = 2.35 𝑚𝐴 → 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐷 + 𝐼𝑅𝐿 = 2.35 + = 3.35 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿
3.5
𝑅= = 1045 Ω
𝐼
Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University
College of Engineering
I
Electrical Department

EE223
Fundamentals of Electronic Devices
 Dt
Diodes
BE
Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region—Zener Diodes vz us
• The applied reverse-bias voltage cannot increase without limit.

• At some point, breakdown occurs and the current in the reverse-bias direction increases rapidly.

• The voltage at this point is called the breakdown voltage.

• Voltage regulators: an important application of diodes operating in the reverse breakdown region, and
special diodes are manufactured to operate specifically in the breakdown region. Such diodes are called
breakdown diodes or Zener diodes.

• The circuit symbol of the zener diode:

• In normal applications of Zener diodes, current flows into the cathode,

and the cathode is positive with respect to the anode.

• 𝑉𝑍 : the Zener breakdown voltage, and 𝐼𝑍 : the reverse-bias current.

• 𝐼𝑍 and 𝑉𝑍 in have positive values.
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region—Zener Diodes
Diode 𝑖– 𝑣 characteristic
• 𝑟𝑍 is the inverse of the slope of the almost-linear 𝑖– 𝑣 curve at point Q. in the breakdown region

• Resistance 𝑟𝑍 is the incremental resistance of the zener diode at operating point Q.

• It is also known as the dynamic resistance of the Zener.

• The almost-linear 𝑖– 𝑣 characteristic of the zener diode suggests that the device
can be modeled.

• The Constant Voltage Drop (CVD) Zener Model: voltage source in DC and
resistor in AC 𝑖𝑍

𝑣𝑍 = 𝑉𝑍0 + 𝑟𝑍 𝑖𝑧

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
s th Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region—Zener Diodes
VE
• Example: The 15-V zener diode in the circuit below is specified to have 𝑟𝑍 =5. The supply voltage 𝑉 + is
nominally 25 V.
ax 7
(a) Determine R maximum if the largest possible value of 𝑖𝐿 is 20 mA.

(b) Using the value of R found in part 1 determine 𝑖𝑍 if 𝑅𝐿 =1.5 K.

(c) Determine the change in 𝑣𝑜 if 𝑉 + varies by ±1 V.

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A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016. i
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Re risks
6 Soon
RI
I I
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 Diodes
Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region—Zener Diodes

• Sol: (a) Determine R if the largest possible value of 𝑖𝐿 is 20 mA.

𝑖 = 𝑖𝑍 + 𝑖𝐿
Zener diode to remain in breakdown → 𝑖𝑍 must be positive → 𝑖𝑍 = 𝑖 − 𝑖𝐿 > 0
if 𝑖𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20 𝑚𝐴, 𝑖 must be > 20 𝑚𝐴 for 𝑖𝑍 to remain greater than zero

we only have DC voltage:

𝑉 + −𝑉𝑍𝑂 25−15 10
𝑖 > 20 𝑚𝐴 → 𝑖 = = = > 20 𝑚𝐴
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

10
𝑅 < 20×10−3 = 500 Ω

The maximum value of R is almost 500 Ω

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region—Zener Diodes

Sol: (b) Using the value of R found in part 1 determine 𝑖𝑍 if 𝑅𝐿 =1.5 K.

𝑉 + −𝑉𝑍𝑂 𝑉𝑍𝑂 10 15
𝑖𝑍 = 𝑖 − 𝑖𝐿 = − = 500- -1500 = 10 𝑚𝐴 → 𝑖𝑍 > 0
𝑅 𝑅𝐿

(c) Determine the change in 𝑣𝑜 if 𝑉 + varies by ±1 V.

𝑟𝑍 ∕∕ 𝑅𝐿 𝑟𝑍 5
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑠−𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 ≈ 𝑣𝑠−𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 ≈ ≈ 9.9 𝑚𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑟𝑍 ∕∕ 𝑅𝐿 𝑅 + 𝑟𝑍 500 + 5

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
Rectifier Circuits

• One of the most important applications of diodes is in the design of rectifier circuits.
• A block diagram of a dc power supply:

says
o
55 9 1 o
• Rectification is the process of converting an ac voltage into one that is limited to one polarity.

• The diode is useful for this function because current exists for one voltage polarity and zero for the
opposite polarity.
• Rectification is classified as half-wave or full-wave
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
it
ÉÉ
Rectifier Circuits

• The circuit of a half-wave rectifier. to 7

0 𝑣𝑠 < 𝑉𝐷
𝑣𝑜 = ቊ

qpgx.int
𝑣𝑠 − 𝑉𝐷 𝑣𝑠 ≥ 𝑉𝐷

5oo.t
• The transfer characteristic represented by the previous equations:

If
• The output voltage obtained when the input 𝑣𝑠 is a sinusoid:

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
i
wave
 I t Diodes
Rectifier Circuits
t
• The circuit of a full-wave rectifier.

• The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of the input sinusoid.

• Providing a unipolar output, it inverts the negative halves of the sine wave.

• when the input line voltage is positive, both 𝑣𝑠 will be positive:

→ D1 will conduct and D2 will be reverse biased

• When 𝑣𝑠 are negative → D1 will be cut off while D2 will conduct.

• The output waveform shown is obtained by assuming that a conducting

diode has a constant voltage drop 𝑉𝐷 .

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

fÉÉÉf
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 s
Us Diodes us
É in Rectifier Circuits

t.ua
• The circuit of a bridge rectifier.

• An alternative implementation of the full-wave rectifier bridge, does not

require a center-tapped transformer.
o
• During the positive half-cycles of the input voltage, 𝑣𝑠 is positive, and thus current is conducted through
diode D1, resistor R, and diode D2. Diodes D3 and D4 will be reverse biased.

• Disadvantage: there are two diodes in series in the conduction path, and thus 𝑣𝑜 will be lower than 𝑣𝑠 by
two diode drops.

• During the negative half-cycles of the input voltage, 𝑣𝑠 will be negative, and
thus − 𝑣𝑠 will be positive, forcing current through D3, R, and D4. Diodes
D1 and D2 will be reverse biased.

PyLJm6vodd
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 sina.t
EI Rectifier Circuits
Diodes
EEEE
capacitor In
• The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor—The Peak Rectifier.

• The pulsating nature of the output voltage produced by the previous rectifier circuits makes it unsuitable
as a dc supply for electronic circuits.

• A simple way to reduce the variation of the output voltage is to place a capacitor
across the load resistor.

• 𝑣1 is a sinusoid with a peak value 𝑉𝑝 and assume the diode to be ideal.

• As 𝑣1 goes positive, the diode conducts and the capacitor is charged so that 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣1 .
sootis capacitor
p p
vs Aiman
• Beyond the peak, as 𝑣1 decreases, the diode becomes reverse biased and
the output voltage remains constant at the value 𝑉𝑝 .
y
capacitor

fye
Vine
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
Rectifier Circuits
• The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor—The Peak Rectifier.

• Considering the more practical situation where a load resistance R is connected

across the capacitor C.

• For a sinusoidal input, the capacitor charges to the peak of the input 𝑉𝑝 .

• Then the diode cuts off, and the capacitor discharges through the load
resistance R.

• The capacitor discharge will continue for almost the entire cycle, until
the time at which 𝑣1 exceeds the capacitor voltage.

• To keep the output voltage from decreasing too much during capacitor
discharge, one selects a value for C so that the time constant CR is much
greater than the discharge interval.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
Rectifier Circuits
• The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor—The Peak Rectifier.

• The steady-state input and output voltage waveforms under the assumption that
𝐶𝑅 ≫ 𝑇.

• The waveforms of the load current → 𝑖𝐿 = 𝑣𝑜 Τ𝑅.

𝑑𝑣1
• The diode current (when it is conducting) → 𝑖𝐷 = 𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝐿 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑖𝐿

• Notes: 1- the diode conducts for a brief interval, ∆𝑡, near the peak of the
input sinusoid.
2- Assuming an ideal diode, the diode conduction begins at time 𝑡1 ,
at which the input 𝑣1 equals the exponentially decaying output 𝑣𝑜 .
Conduction stops at 𝑡2 shortly after the peak of 𝑣1 .
3- At the end of the discharge interval, which lasts for almost the
entire period T, 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉𝑝 – 𝑉𝑟 , where 𝑉𝑟 is the peak-to-peak ripple
voltage.
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
Rectifier Circuits
• The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor—The Peak Rectifier.

• The steady-state input and output voltage waveforms under the assumption that
𝐶𝑅 ≫ 𝑇.

• When 𝑉𝑟 is small: 𝑣𝑜 is almost constant and equal to the peak value of 𝑣1 .

• During the diode-off interval, 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑉𝑝 𝑒 −𝑇Τ𝐶𝑅 (From discharge equation).

• At the end of the discharge interval:𝑉𝑝 – 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑝 𝑒 −𝑇Τ𝐶𝑅

• Since 𝐶𝑅 ≫ 𝑇: 𝑒 −𝑇Τ𝐶𝑅 = 1 − (𝑇Τ𝐶𝑅) → 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑝 𝐶𝑅 = 𝑓𝐶𝑅

𝑇 𝑉𝑝
s
• To keep 𝑉𝑟 small we must select a capacitance C so that 𝐶𝑅 ≫ 𝑇.

• For non-ideal diode: replacing the peak voltage 𝑉𝑝 with (𝑉𝑝 – 𝑉𝐷 )

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 vow m
gets on is a
Diodes
Rectifier Circuits
• The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor—The Peak Rectifier. ma
• The full-wave peak rectifier.

• The ripple frequency, however, will be twice that of the input.

• The peak-to-peak ripple voltage, for this case, can be derived as before but with the discharge period T
replaced by T/2,

𝑇 𝑉𝑝
𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑝 2𝐶𝑅 = 2𝑓𝐶𝑅
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• Comparing with half-wave peak rectifier for the same values of 𝑉𝑝 , 𝑓 , 𝑅, and 𝑉𝑟 → we need a capacitor
half the size of that required in the half-wave rectifier.

• For non-ideal diode: replacing the peak voltage 𝑉𝑝 with (𝑉𝑝 – 2𝑉𝐷 )

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
Special Diode Types
• The Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD) simply a Schottky diode.

• Formed when a metal, such as aluminum, is brought into contact with a moderately
doped n-type semiconductor to form a rectifying junction.

• The current–voltage characteristics of a Schottky diode are very similar to those of a

pn junction diode. The same ideal diode equation can be used for both devices.

• Two important differences:

➢ The current in a pn junction diode is controlled by the diffusion of minority
carriers. The current in a SBD results from the flow of majority carriers over
the potential barrier at the depletion junction.

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(Switching time from a forward bias to a reverse bias is very Short in Schottky diode)

➢ The forward voltage drop of a conducting SBD is lower than that of a

pn-junction diode.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 FrSBI Vpn
Diodes
Special Diode Types

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• Photodiodes convert light signals into electrical signals
o
• When light hits the space-charge region, electrons and holes are generated. They are quickly separated
and swept out of the depletion region by the electric field, thus creating a photocurrent.

• This current, known as photocurrent, is proportional to the intensity of the incident light.

• Note that without reverse bias, the illuminated photodiode functions as a solar cell.

• The generated photocurrent will produce a voltage across the load, which means that the solar cell
has supplied power.

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
Special Diode Types
• The light-emitting diode (LED) performs the inverse of the function of the photodiode.
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• it converts a forward current into light. D
• The diffusing minority carriers then recombine with the majority carriers. Such recombination can be
made to give rise to light emission.

• The light emitted by an LED is proportional to the number of recombinations that take place.

• Combining an LED with a photodiode in the same package results in a device known as an optoisolator.

• The LED converts an electrical signal applied to the optoisolator into light, which the photodiode detects
and converts back to an electrical signal at the output of the optoisolator.

• Use of the optoisolator provides complete electrical isolation between the electrical
circuit that is connected to the isolator’s input and the circuit that is connected to
its output.
A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.
D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
Special Diode Types
Q: A half-wave rectifier circuit with a 1-k load operates from a 120-V (rms) 60-Hz household supply through
a 12-to-1 step-down transformer. It uses a silicon diode that can be modeled to have a 0.7-V drop for any
current. What is the peak voltage of the rectified output?

Sol:
Waveform
o
RMS
𝑉𝑝
Dl 𝑣1 𝑛1
Sine wave
൘
2

Ig
=
Ikr 𝑣2 𝑛2 Square wave 𝑉𝑝
Tringle wave 𝑉𝑝
120 12 ൘
= → 𝑣2 = 10 (𝑟𝑚𝑠) 3
𝑣2 1

𝑣2 peak = 10 × 2 = 14.14 V (peak)

𝑣𝑜 peak = 14.14 − 0.7 = 13.44 V (peak)

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
 Diodes
Special Diode Types
Q: The circuit below implements a complementary-output rectifier. Sketch and clearly label the waveforms
of 𝑣𝑜1 and 𝑣𝑜2 . Assume the diodes are non-ideal.
Sol:
𝑣𝑜1

𝑣𝑜2

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
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 Diodes
Special Diode Types
Q: In the voltage regulator circuit shown below, 𝑉𝐼 = 20 V, 𝑉𝑍 = 10 V, 𝑅𝐼 = 222 Ω, and 𝑃𝑍 (max) = 400 mW. (a)
Determine 𝐼𝐿 , 𝐼𝑍 , and 𝐼𝐼 , if 𝑅𝐿 = 380 Ω. (b) Determine the value of 𝑅𝐿 that will establish 𝑃𝑍 (max) in the diode.
Sol: s e

a)
𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑍 𝑉𝑍
𝐼𝐼 = = 45 𝑚𝐴 , 𝐼𝐿 = = 26.3 𝑚𝐴, 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝑍 = 18.7 𝑚𝐴 → 𝑍𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛
𝑅𝐼 𝑅𝐿

b)
𝑃𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 400 𝑚𝑊 → 𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 40 𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝑍
𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 5 𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝑍
𝑅𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 2 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛

A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smi, Microelectronic Circuit, 7th ed. 2016.

D. Neamen, Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design, 4th ed. 2010.
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