Control Chronology of Robotic control systems

Control Chronology of Robotic Control Systems

• The control chronology of robotic control systems refers to the
progressive development and refinement of control strategies and
architectures used to guide the actions of robots.
• This chronology spans from basic open-loop systems to advanced
intelligent control mechanisms such as adaptive, fuzzy, and AI-based
control.
• It reflects the increasing complexity, autonomy, and precision demanded
by robotic applications in industries, healthcare, military, and daily life.
 Early Control Systems (1950s – 1970s)
• In the initial stages of robotic development, control systems were
predominantly open-loop or basic closed-loop systems.
• These early robots were primarily used for simple, repetitive tasks in controlled
environments like manufacturing lines.
Open-loop Control:
• These systems followed a pre-defined sequence of actions without feedback.
• Once an action was initiated, it could not adjust based on environmental
changes or errors.
• Example: Pick-and-place robots used in automotive assembly lines.
Closed-loop Control (Proportional Control):
• Introduction of sensors allowed robots to adjust their movements based on
feedback.
• However, the control was still limited to basic correction.
 Open-loop Control System
• An open-loop system is a control method where the robot performs an
action without checking if the goal is achieved. It does not use feedback to
correct itself.
How it works:
• A command is sent to the robot.
• The robot performs the task without measuring the actual outcome.
• It assumes everything works perfectly.
Example:
Imagine a robot arm told to move 30 degrees clockwise.
• It sends power to the motor for 2 seconds and assumes it moved 30°.
• It doesn’t check to see if it actually reached 30°.
 Open-loop Control System
Characteristics:
• No feedback from sensors.
• Simple and inexpensive.
• Can be fast, but not accurate if the environment changes.
Disadvantages:
• Errors are not corrected.
• Sensitive to disturbances (like friction, load changes).
• Not suitable for precise or dynamic tasks.
Used in:
• Simple robots (toys, basic automation).
• Systems where high accuracy is not needed.
 Closed-loop Control System
• A closed-loop system uses feedback to continuously check whether the robot
is doing the task correctly and makes corrections if needed.
How it works:
• The robot measures the output using sensors.
• It compares the actual result with the desired goal.
• If there's a difference (error), the controller adjusts the commands.
Example:
The same robot arm is told to move 30 degrees.
• It starts moving.
• A sensor checks the actual angle.
• If it only moved 28°, the controller sends extra power to move the final 2°.
 Closed-loop Control System
Characteristics:
• Uses sensors (like encoders, cameras, gyros). [Encoders – Measure rotation or position, Gyroscopes/IMUs – Measure
orientation, Cameras – For vision-based feedback, Pressure/Force sensors – For grasping or touch feedback.]
• Continuously monitors and adjusts.
• More accurate and stable.
Advantages:
• Corrects errors in real-time.
• Handles unpredictable environments.
• Suitable for precision tasks (e.g., surgery robots, CNC, drones).
Disadvantages:
• More complex to design.
• Needs sensors and feedback mechanisms.
• May be slower or more expensive.
Used in:
• Industrial robots.
• Autonomous mobile robots (e.g., delivery bots).
• Drones, robotic arms, self-driving cars.
 Classical Control Systems (1970s – 1980s)
• As robotics matured, control systems evolved into classical PID
(Proportional–Integral–Derivative) controllers, which offered enhanced
accuracy and stability.
PID Control: Widely used due to its simplicity and efficiency. It compares
desired and actual output and applies corrective measures using
proportional, integral, and derivative terms.
Proportional (P) : Corrects error based on present magnitude.
Integral (I): Eliminates steady-state errors by integrating past errors.
Derivative (D): Predicts future errors to improve response time.
These systems were ideal for position control and speed regulation in robot
joints and actuators.
 PID Control – Proportional, Integral, Derivative Control
• PID control is one of the most widely used control techniques in both
industrial automation and robotics due to its simplicity, reliability, and
effectiveness in many applications.
• It is a feedback control mechanism that continuously calculates the error
between a desired setpoint and a measured process variable and applies a
correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms.
Basic Concept
• The goal of a control system is to
ensure the output of a system
(process variable) follows a desired
trajectory (setpoint). The PID
controller works by calculating an
error signal and then computing a
control signal to minimize that error
over time.
Let:
• r(t) = Desired setpoint
• y(t) = Actual output
• e(t) = r(t) – y(t) = Error signal
Components of PID Controller
Proportional Term (P)
• The proportional term produces an output that is proportional to the
current error.
• The larger the error, the larger the control action.
• It determines how aggressively the system responds to the error.
Effect:
• Reduces the rise time.
• Does not eliminate the steady-state error.
Components of PID Controller
Integral Term (I)
• The integral term accounts for the accumulation of past errors over
time.
• It integrates the error signal, thereby eliminating any residual steady-
state error that the proportional term cannot remove.
Effect:
• Eliminates steady-state error.
• May introduce oscillations or slow response if not tuned properly.
Components of PID Controller
Derivative Term (D)
• The derivative term predicts the future trend of the error by
calculating its rate of change.
• It adds a damping effect and improves system stability.
Effect:
• Reduces overshoot and settling time.
• Improves system stability and responsiveness.
In practical implementation, discrete-time versions of the PID controller
are used, especially in digital controllers like microcontrollers or PLCs.
 Applications of PID Control
PID control is extensively used across various domains:
• Industrial Automation: Temperature, pressure, flow, and level
control.
• Robotics: Motor speed and position control of joints and end-
effectors.
• Automotive: Cruise control, anti-lock braking system (ABS).
• Aerospace: Altitude and attitude control in UAVs.
• Consumer Electronics: Camera focus, refrigerator temperature
control.
 PID in Robotics: Example – Joint Position
Control
In a robotic manipulator, suppose we want the joint to rotate to a
specific angle (setpoint).
• Sensor measures current angle.
• Controller computes the error between desired and current angle.
• PID controller generates a control signal to drive the motor.
• As the joint reaches the desired position, the error reduces, and the
motor slows down and stops precisely at the target angle.
Example
• Imagine a robotic arm that you want to move from position A to position B.
You tell the robot: “Move your arm to 90 degrees.” But how does the robot
make sure it goes to exactly 90 degrees?
• That’s where PID control comes in — it acts like the brain that helps the
robot reach the right position smoothly and accurately.
• P (Proportional): "How far am I from the target?"
• I (Integral): "How long have I been off target?"
• D (Derivative): "How fast am I approaching the target?"
Example
Step 1: Proportional Control (P)
• The robot calculates the error: 90° - 60° = 30°
• It says: "I'm far from the target! Move fast!"
• The bigger the error, the stronger the motor pushes.
• If only P is used: The arm might get close but stop a little short or overshoot
the target.
Step 2: Integral Control (I)
• Let’s say the arm gets stuck at 88°, and never quite reaches 90°.
• The Integral part adds up this little error over time.
• It gives the robot an extra push to finally reach 90°.
• It helps eliminate small, steady errors over time.
Example
Step 3: Derivative Control (D)
• If the arm is moving too fast and about to overshoot 90°, the Derivative
slows it down.
• It looks at the speed of the change and applies a brake.
• D helps prevent overshooting and gives a smoother stop.
When you combine all three:
• P gets you moving toward the goal.
• I helps fix small lingering errors.
• D makes the movement smooth and prevents jerks or overshooting.
Where is PID Used in Robotics?
• Joint position control – Making sure a robot arm moves to the right
angle.
• Motor speed control – Keeping wheel motors running at the correct
speed.
• Path following in mobile robots – Staying on a line or path accurately.
• Drone stabilization – Keeping a drone level and stable in the air.

PID control is the robot’s way of knowing how to move to the target
precisely, fix small errors, and do it smoothly.
Model-Based and Optimal Control (1980s – 1990s)
The limitations of classical control in nonlinear and dynamic
environments led to the adoption of model-based control approaches.
• State-Space Control: Uses system models in matrix form to predict
future states and control inputs. Suitable for multi-input multi-output
(MIMO) robotic systems.
• Optimal Control (LQR, MPC):These techniques focused on minimizing
a cost function that represents system performance. For example,
Model Predictive Control (MPC) anticipates future behavior and
computes optimal control sequences in real-time.
• Applications: Trajectory tracking, dynamic motion planning, and path-
following in autonomous mobile robots and robotic arms.
Adaptive and Nonlinear Control (1990s – 2000s)
Robotic systems operating in uncertain, changing environments required
adaptive and nonlinear control strategies.
• Adaptive Control:
These systems can adjust their parameters in real-time to accommodate
unknown disturbances or system changes.
• Example: A robotic manipulator lifting objects with unknown weights.
• Nonlinear Control:
Addresses the challenges of nonlinearities inherent in robotic systems,
such as joint friction, backlash, and dynamic coupling.
• Backstepping, Sliding Mode Control, Feedback Linearization are typical
nonlinear techniques applied in robotic arm control and UAV stabilization.
 Intelligent Control (2000s – 2010s)
With the advent of computational intelligence, control systems began
incorporating elements of AI to handle complexity, uncertainty, and unstructured
environments.
• Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC):
• Mimics human decision-making using linguistic rules instead of mathematical
models. Ideal for imprecise and heuristic control.
• Example: Fuzzy control of a robotic vacuum cleaner.
• Neural Networks (NN):
• Employed for learning complex mappings between input and output, and for
system identification and control.
• Neuro-Fuzzy Systems:
• Combine the learning capability of neural networks with the rule-based reasoning
of fuzzy systems for enhanced adaptability.
 Hybrid Control Systems (2010s – Present)
Modern robotics requires the fusion of various control strategies to manage
diverse operational requirements.
• Hybrid Systems:
• These integrate different types of controllers (e.g., classical + intelligent, or
adaptive + optimal) for robust and reliable performance across different
tasks.
• Example: A humanoid robot using a PID controller for joint angle
stabilization and neural networks for gait learning.
• Hierarchical Control Architecture:
Involves multiple layers of control:
• Low-Level Control: Real-time motion control (e.g., PID).
• Mid-Level Control: Task execution and coordination.
• High-Level Control: Decision-making and planning using AI.
Learning-Based and Cognitive Control (Present – Future)

The most recent advancements focus on robot learning, cognitive robotics,

and autonomous decision-making.
• Reinforcement Learning (RL):
Robots learn optimal behaviors through trial and error with reward-based
feedback.
• Example: A robotic arm learning to stack blocks using deep reinforcement
learning.
• Imitation Learning:
Robots mimic human demonstrations to acquire new skills.
• Cognitive Control Systems:
• Inspired by human cognition, these systems integrate perception, learning,
memory, and decision-making for intelligent interaction with the
environment.
• The control chronology of robotic control systems mirrors the
evolution of robotics from simple mechanized tools to intelligent,
autonomous agents. Each era introduced new paradigms, driven by
technological progress and increasing task complexity. The future of
robotic control lies in adaptive, learning-enabled systems that can
operate reliably in unstructured, dynamic environments with minimal
human intervention.