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Deductive and inductive approaches

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Regular Article

International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Volume 22: 1–11
From Data Management to Actionable © The Author(s) 2023
DOI: 10.1177/16094069231183620
Findings: A Five-Phase Process of journals.sagepub.com/home/ijq

Qualitative Data Analysis

Andrea J. Bingham1 

Abstract
This article outlines a five-phase process of qualitative analysis that draws on deductive (codes developed a priori) and inductive
(codes developed in the course of the analysis) coding strategies, as well as guided memoing and analytic questioning, to support
trustworthy qualitative studies. The five-phase process presented here can be used as a whole or in part to support researchers
in planning, articulating, and executing systematic and transparent qualitative data analysis; developing an audit trail to ensure
study dependability and trustworthiness; and/or fleshing out aspects of analysis processes associated with specific
methodologies.

Keywords
qualitative evaluation, secondary data analysis, case study, grounded theory, phenomenology, narrative analysis, qualitative
inquiry methods, qualitative analysis

Introduction Qualitative researchers are bound by the requirements of

their chosen methodologies as well as by the need to conduct
Rigorous, trustworthy qualitative analysis is systematic, or- research that is trustworthy. Generally, to ensure study
ganized, and iterative in nature (Ravitch and Carl, 2019). trustworthiness, research should meet the following criteria:
Given the amount of detail and data that qualitative studies can credibility, or confidence in the findings; dependability, or the
produce, it can also be time-consuming and overwhelming. As consistency of the findings; confirmability, or the extent to
such, qualitative researchers should choose analysis strategies which the findings are free from researchers’ biases; and
that allow for a balance among data organization, study transferability, or how well the research may be applicable to
purpose, theoretical and conceptual concerns, and the in- similar contexts (Tierney & Clemens, 2011). Critical to
ductive nature of qualitative work. As Miles and Huberman conducting a rigorous, trustworthy qualitative study is de-
(1994) note, veloping and articulating a clear, detailed process of data
analysis. Unclear, minimally planned, or poorly articulated
The challenge is to be explicitly mindful of the purposes of your
data management and data analysis processes can lead to
study and of the conceptual lenses you are training on it – while
trustworthiness issues in a qualitative study (Nowell et al.,
allowing yourself to be open and reeducated by things you didn’t
2017). As Nowell et al. (2017) note, a trustworthy qualitative
know about or expect to find. (p. 56)

1
In other words, qualitative researchers must embrace the California State University Channel Islands, Camarillo, CA, USA
strengths of qualitative research – its flexible nature and ca-
Corresponding Author:
pacity to generate theory from data – while also maintaining Andrea J. Bingham, Educational Leadership, School of Education, California
focus on organizational practices, research questions, relevant State University Channel Islands, Camarillo, CA, USA.
data, and coding schemes. Email: [email protected]

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2 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

study should “demonstrate that data analysis has been con- purely organizational categories (e.g., the type of data or
ducted in a precise, consistent, and exhaustive manner through when it was collected), categories based on the research
recording, systematizing, and disclosing the methods of purpose or questions (e.g., the main topics of the research
analysis with enough detail to enable the reader to determine or key aspects of the research questions), or as categories generated
whether the process is credible” (p. 1). Transparency in data from the literature and/or from theory (e.g., named concepts from
analysis methods and in how the conclusions came about – the theoretical framework) (Bingham and Witkowsky, 2022).
process and product – can also support dependability, con- Deductive codes can also be developed from propositions.
firmability, and transferability of the findings. Propositions are similar to the concept of hypotheses in
Triangulating data with, and situating the findings in, the quantitative work; they take the form of statements created by
existing literature and theory can also support trustworthi- the researcher to describe what they think will emerge from the
ness in qualitative studies – specifically, by increasing the data. They are deductive in nature because they are often de-
credibility, confirmability, and transferability of the findings veloped from existing theory and/or research. However, they
(Tierney & Clemens, 2011). To support credibility and can also be considered inductive, as propositions can sometimes
transferability, generally, researchers must connect the be formed in the course of the analysis and tested during further
findings of the analysis to the existing literature and apply analysis. Propositions can help focus the inquiry, shape pro-
any theoretical or conceptual frameworks in a way that tocols, identify data relevant to the research questions, and
expands the impact of the analysis and the findings (Bingham guide data collection and analysis (Yin, 2014). During analysis,
et al., In press). Systematic, detailed analysis processes that propositions can be used as a guide to identify pertinent data
engage both deductive and inductive analytic strategies can points, to bound the inquiry, and to offer points of comparison
support analytic transparency and can help researchers apply for what is happening in the study and what the empirical and
concepts from the literature and theory, which can in turn theoretical literature describes.
support the trustworthiness and applicability of the study Inductive analysis is a key characteristic and strength of
(Bingham and Witkowsky, 2022; Bingham et al., In press). qualitative research. Inductive analysis involves reading through
This article expands on ideas presented by Bingham and the data and identifying codes, categories, patterns, and themes as
Witkowsky (2022) to explicate a process of qualitative analysis, they emerge (Saldaña and Omasta, 2017; Miles et al., 2020). In
rooted in both deductive and inductive strategies. Specifically, other words, codes and categories are not predetermined, but are
in this article, I outline a five-phase process of qualitative instead identified and named as the researcher reads through the
analysis that draws on deductive (codes developed a priori) and data. Common practices in inductive analysis include open or
inductive (codes developed in the course of the analysis) coding initial coding, and the constant comparative method of analysis.
strategies, as well as guided memoing, to help manage data and Open coding refers to a process whereby researchers identify and
to support trustworthy, replicable, and actionable qualitative name essential concepts and patterns in the data (Glaser and
studies of policies, interventions, and reforms. The data analysis Strauss, 1967). This kind of coding is also referred to as initial
process I present here can help researchers to engage and ar- coding (Charmaz, 2014). The constant comparative method is an
ticulate clear analysis processes, situate methodologically inductive strategy in which researchers code the data, compare
specific strategies in the analysis process, apply theoretical and data with data and codes with codes, and eventually condense
conceptual frameworks as appropriate, and provide clarity codes into categories, categories into themes, and themes into
around what it looks like to move from code to theme to finding findings (Charmaz, 2014).
to explanation of finding in a particular study. This five-phase In inductive analysis, the researcher engages with and defines
analysis process, or aspects of this process, can be applied as the data, providing the link between initial or open coding and
part of the analytic strategy across several qualitative meth- eventual emergent themes and theories (Charmaz, 2014). On the
odological traditions and can also be engaged as a method of whole, inductive analysis is used to make meaning from the data,
qualitative data analysis in mixed methods research, and in develop codes, categories, themes, and findings; identify rep-
thematic analysis, discourse analysis, policy analysis, and resentative data to support findings; and explain findings using
content analysis. theory and literature (Bingham and Witkowsky, 2022).
Memoing – a critical component of rigorous qualitative
data collection and analysis – can be engaged throughout the
Deductive and Inductive Practices in course of a qualitative study in conjunction with both de-
ductive and inductive strategies. Memoing is a process of
Qualitative Analysis recording thoughts and notes throughout the course of a
Deductive or a priori coding involves creating codes prior study (Strauss, 1987) and it can support the transparent
to data analysis and applying those codes to the data analytic work needed to conduct a trustworthy study.
(Bingham and Witkowsky, 2022; Crabtree and Miller, Memoing can take a variety of forms, including a record of
1999). Deductive analysis can be used to organize data data collection and analysis processes, analytic decisions,
or sort data into predetermined categories created from reflections on field work, ruminations on the meaning of the
literature or theory. Deductive codes can be developed as data, and potential answers to research questions (Bingham
Bingham 3

and Witkowsky, 2022; Ravitch and Carl, 2019; Strauss, applicable recommendations, and apply theoretical framing,
1987). Recording data collection and analysis processes which many researchers struggle to do in a way that is
and analytic decisions aids in trustworthiness (Lincoln & transparent and useful for both the researcher and the reader
Guba, 1985) by allowing the researcher to keep a running log (Bingham et al., In press). Toward these ends, in the next
of thoughts and lines of analysis, and to maintain a detailed, section, I detail each analysis phase, discussing the purpose
evolving description of the data, a continuing analytic record and procedures associated with each phase, providing ex-
of emerging codes and themes, and possible interpretations amples from an in-progress study of an innovative educational
and conclusions as they develop (Creswell and Poth, 2016; reform, and exploring different types of memoing that can
Stake, 1995). As such, the five-phase analysis process out- occur during each phase.
lined in this paper includes memoing as a critical component
of each coding stage.
A Five-Phase Qualitative Analysis Process
In this section, I describe each step in this five-phase analysis
Qualitative Coding Phases
process and use excerpts from recently collected field notes to
Coding phases or stages are one way for qualitative researchers demonstrate how each phase can be applied. The example data
to balance the demands of qualitative analysis and support the comes from an in-progress study of data-driven instruction in a
trustworthiness of the study. Saldaña (2013) divides coding into competency-based learning school. Because the example
two primary stages: first cycle coding and second cycle coding. study is in progress, the coding and memos I present are the
First cycle codes are those initially applied to the data, and rough first results of this five-phase process. Although there
second cycle codes can be applied to the data within the are five phases, there is more than one analytic activity as-
generated first cycle codes. In other words, in the second cycle, sociated with each phase. Phases are grouped by related ac-
the researcher can further analyze the coded text of the first tivity. See Figure 1 for a visual representation of the five
cycle, adding a second layer of coding to the initial first cycle phases of analysis, including the name, function, memoing
codes. The forms of coding used within each cycle can vary. For strategies, and outcomes associated with each phase.
example, coding can be divided into inductive and deductive
cycles (Bingham and Witkowsky, 2022).
Phase 1: Organizing the Data
In the qualitative data analysis process outlined in this
article, I break the coding process into five distinct phases. Qualitative studies vary in the amount of data collected and
These phases entail using attribute coding to organize the data; analyzed, but even smaller studies can produce large amounts
topic coding to bound the inquiry; open/initial coding to of data. This is especially true for studies that span multiple
identify patterns and themes in the data; memoing to develop participants and/or research sites, or which involve many
findings from those themes; and examining the findings using different forms of data (MacQueen and Milstein, 1999;
codes developed from the existing literature and the theo- Williamson and Long, 2005). Larger qualitative data sets, in
retical framework(s), in order to apply theory, explain the particular, can make it difficult for researchers to maintain the
findings, and situate the findings in the literature. Memoing trustworthiness of the study (White et al., 2012). Effectively
occurs in each phase. This five-phase approach is meant to managing and organizing qualitative data, particularly in
support researchers in moving from data collection to the final larger studies, supports the rigor and trustworthiness of the
report – whether it be the dissertation, the first article, or the study (White et al., 2012). As such, it is important to have
hundredth. Although the analysis process outlined in this sound organizational practices in place. The first phase of
paper is perhaps better suited to linear analytic methods rather analysis thus relies on deductive strategies to support data
than methods that require a more recursive approach, the organization and management. In the first phase of coding, a
stages of analysis I present here can be used as cycles as well, form of organizational coding called ‘attribute coding’ (Miles
and researchers can spiral through these stages as needed. et al., 2020) is used to sort the data into categories, in order to
Additionally, this analytic process is flexible – researchers can develop an organizational schema. The coding and labeling
draw on one or all of the phases as appropriate for their study suggested here can also be accomplished by using detailed file
and methodology. labels when importing data into qualitative data analysis
In presenting this five-phase analysis approach, I aim to software programs, such as NVivo, Atlas.ti, Quirkos, De-
offer a systematic process that can support transparency in doose, etc. The organizational schema created in this phase
data analysis toward conducting a trustworthy qualitative (whether developed by hand or within some kind of qualitative
study. I also provide some guidance around how to use an- data analysis software) supports the researcher in identifying
alytic questions to create useful memos and support the de- where particular excerpts or evidence came from, and offers
velopment of findings from coding and analysis. I discuss how the opportunity to sort data by type, source, location, or time
to move from codes to themes to findings statements in order period.
to identify clearer findings, make a more substantial contri- The first step in this phase is to develop attribute codes that
bution to the existing knowledge base, include clear and identify data type, source, time, and location. The researcher
4 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Figure 1. The five-phase process. Adapted from Bingham and Witkowsky (2022).

then tags the data associated with each of these attribute codes for the researcher to (re)familiarize themselves with the data
to categorize and manage the data. For example, codes for a they have collected.
piece of data might include ‘Interview’ (data type), ‘Dr. Memoing during phase one is mostly focused on proce-
Hernandez’ (participant), ‘School for the Arts’ (location), dures and processes, though of course, the researcher can also
‘Fall 2017’ (time period). See Figure 2 for an example of this record any thoughts generated in looking at the data. This
method of coding. might include initial impressions and thoughts on data col-
In this example, which is an excerpt from field notes taken lection and the analysis process. A process of memoing during
during a site visit and observation of a competency-based attribute coding can help with keeping track of analytic
learning school, I used Microsoft Word to tag the data using a procedures and building trustworthiness. This round of
priori codes representing organizational categories. This memoing, for example, supports the initial development of an
process of organizational attribute coding makes it easier for audit trail – a detailed description of the steps taken in the
the researcher to keep track of the data and to identify sources research – which can support the confirmability of the study’s
of evidence. This phase of analysis also offers the opportunity findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Tierney & Clemens, 2011).
Bingham 5

See Figure 3 for a sample memo, created during the first studies. During this coding phase, codes were then developed
analysis phase. from this proposition in order to sort the data into relevant
categories. This included codes like ‘Teacher data analysis’
and ‘Personalized objectives.’ This process sorts the data into
Phase 2: Sorting Data into Relevant Topical Categories
categories relevant to the propositions, which supports testing
The second phase also relies on deductive analysis processes. the propositions in later analysis phases. See Figure 4 for an
In this second phase of coding, the researcher develops a priori example of coding phase 2.
topic codes aligned to the study’s purpose, research questions, Phase 2 can help the researcher filter out data that is not
and/or propositions and then reads through the data more relevant to the research questions and can also help with
carefully, in order to sort and organize the data. The topic processes like identifying cross-coded data and examining
codes – sometimes referred to as descriptive codes (Saldaña, data for conceptual intersections. This phase also supports
2013; Wolcott, 1994) – should reflect broad categories of researchers in forming some initial impressions of the data, in
interest that represent the researcher’s purpose and the re- order to engage in more tailored, granular inductive analysis in
search questions and/or propositions aligned with that pur- later phases. If events, quotes, or passages are striking in some
pose. In the example study of data-driven instruction in a way, the researcher can engage in ‘pre-coding,’ in which
competency-based learning school, for example, the research significant quotes or passages are bolded, highlighted, un-
team created the following topic codes aligned to categories of derlined, or otherwise noted (Saldaña, 2013).
interest: ‘Data analysis,’ and ‘Data-driven classroom practice.’ In this phase, potential memoing strategies include re-
These kinds of codes help to maintain focus on the research cording decisions about code development and keeping track
questions and make it easier to identify pertinent data and of any ideas to follow up on in subsequent rounds of analysis,
facilitate subsequent cycles of inductive analysis. including anything identified in the pre-coding process. If
Similarly, if the researcher has developed propositions, ideas about potential patterns or themes begin to develop, for
they could follow a comparable process by creating categories example, the researcher can develop a memo to record these.
that reflect the substance of the proposition. For example, Then, in the third phase of coding, the researcher can de-
continuing with the study on data-driven instruction, the re- termine whether those ideas fully emerge during analysis.
search team developed a proposition that states ‘Teacher data Researchers can also begin to develop a codebook, or
analysis supports personalized learning objectives for stu- coding guide, to keep track of code development and to aid
dents.’ This proposition was developed from the existing in developing an audit trail, which can support the trust-
literature and from the findings of previously conducted worthiness and rigor of the research. This coding guide is an

Figure 2. Phase 1: Attribute coding.

Figure 3. Phase 1 memo.

6 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

ever-evolving record of the codes the researcher developed/ analyze the data and develop codes to describe that data, all
applied to the data and their definitions, as well as what should the while comparing the newly analyzed data to the previ-
be included and excluded from each code. The codebook is ously analyzed data and determining either that the data can
especially useful when there is more than one researcher on the be described by existing codes, or that new codes need to be
project, as it can help with interrater reliability and can ensure created. This process of open coding and constant com-
that codes are being applied in a consistent manner. That being parison continues throughout the third phase, until the re-
said, sometimes a single researcher returning to the data at searcher has reviewed all of the data. See Figure 6 for an
different timepoints can see things differently as well. Keeping example of codes applied in coding phase 3.
a coding guide ensures that the researcher maintains consis- The codes shown in the example above were developed
tency in code application throughout the study and keeps a inductively – created and applied to the data in the course of
record of any changes. See Figure 5 for an example of a coding the analysis, not a priori. As the codes were developed, they
guide entry. were entered into the coding guide. This round of coding
requires the researcher to continue to record and define codes
and refine their coding guide by outlining and defining the
Phase 3: Open/Initial Coding codes generated in this phase. This process provides a record
Because the data have been sorted into categories aligned to of codes – how codes definitions evolve and how codes are
the research questions in phase 2, in phase 3, the researcher condensed.
can focus on those research questions by inductively ana- In this phase, it’s useful to create a memo that includes each of
lyzing the data within and across each topical category. Thus, the research questions or propositions. This memo can serve as a
the third phase begins with a process of open coding, in which running log of possible answers to the research questions, po-
the researcher reviews the data within the topic codes applied tential evidence from field notes and interviews, and supporting
in the first and second phases of coding. The researcher reads quotes. The memo can be digital, like a Microsoft Word doc-
through the data in each category, creating, defining, and ument, or a document created within Qualitative Data Analysis
applying codes as they read. Codes may be created and applied Software, such as NVivo or Atlas.ti, or it can be fully analog,
across the initial topic categories. This process supports the such as notecards, or post-it notes. Whichever way the researcher
researcher in identifying emerging topics or concepts that may prefers to do it, the document should include each research
later be developed into themes and findings. question and/or proposition, followed by possible answers, ideas,
This phase is where researchers draw on the process of constant and supporting evidence. Although, coding is the primary form
comparison. Throughout this phase, the researcher engages in the of analysis in this phase, the memos are critical to how well the
constant comparative method (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). They researcher is able to develop and support their findings in

Figure 4. Topic codes.

Figure 5. Coding guide Entries.

Bingham 7

subsequent rounds of analysis. See Figure 7 for an example their analysis. Themes may be presented as one word, a short
memo from coding phase 3. phrase, or full sentences. Other researchers prefer to develop a word
or a short phrase to represent themes, after which the themes can be
condensed into findings, or the themes can be elaborated on to turn
Phase 4: Identifying Patterns, Themes, and Findings
them into findings. One way to ensure that findings are clear and
The ultimate goal of the fourth coding phase is to develop the actionable is to present findings as more nuanced, more specific
findings of the analysis. This requires some inductive analytic phrases or sentences. For example, drawing on the example data,
work, which includes pattern coding to identify themes, and codes, and memos presented thus far, one of the emergent themes is
coalescing themes into findings statements. In this phase, the ‘Real Time Data Analysis,’ a code developed in the third phase.
researcher first reviews the data that was coded in the third Another theme is ‘Data Transparency.’ A findings statement de-
phase, looking for patterns that emerge within and across data veloped from these themes might be something like ‘Data trans-
sources in order to develop themes. This process is sometimes parency supports real time data analysis.’ See Figure 8 for a visual
referred to as pattern coding, a method of collapsing the codes representation of this coding phase.
created during open/initial coding to separate the data into Memoing during the fourth phase of coding is similar to
fewer analytic concepts (Miles et al., 2020; Saldaña, 2013). In memoing in phase 3 and focuses on recording possible responses
the process of pattern coding, some of the inductive codes to research questions, and further identifying and organizing
developed during open coding in phase 3 as well as any pattern evidentiary support by research question. The researcher should
codes applied or created throughout this phase may be sub- also continue to record any analytic decisions, including how
sumed, revised, or eliminated altogether (Saldaña, 2013). In codes are collapsed and why. Continuing to be diligent about
this process of identifying patterns and collapsing codes, the memoing during this phase can help immeasurably in writing up
researcher can begin to identify themes. Themes are developed the final report. See Figure 9 for an example.
by synthesizing the remaining inductive codes into theme
statements that describe the patterns seen in the data.
How the researcher presents their findings may differ depending
Phase 5: Applying Theory and Explaining Findings
on their methodology, or just their preference. Some researchers The fifth coding phase combines deductive and inductive
stop at the theme stage, presenting the themes as the findings of analytic practices to support what many researchers find to be

Figure 6. Open coding example.

Figure 7. Research question memo.

8 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Figure 8. Pattern coding to develop themes and findings.

Figure 9. Research question and data analysis memo.

the most difficult part of the article or dissertation – the the researcher can sort the qualitative data into categories
discussion of findings (Bitchener and Basturkmen, 2006; aligned to the literature, providing a foundation for under-
Chien and Li, 2022). In this phase, the researcher creates and standing how the researcher’s findings relate to the existing
applies codes aligned to the existing literature and to the research.
theoretical framework. Literature codes can be developed Similarly, theory codes are developed from the tenets and
from themes or constructs that the researcher identified in the key components of the researcher’,,s theoretical framework.
existing literature during their literature review. As an ex- For example, in the study from which the examples in this
ample, in the topic of data-driven instruction, some scholars paper came, sensemaking theory is the theoretical framework
have argued that an emphasis on the data generated from (Weick, 1995), and the concepts of assimilation and accom-
summative testing in the classroom leads to a focus on testing modation are used to frame the findings (Piaget, 1972, 1977).
and not critical thinking (Neuman, 2016). A literature code Assimilation is the process whereby individuals make sense of
developed from this theme in the literature might then be a reform (or an ambiguity, a discordance, etc.) by either
something like ‘Teaching to the Test.’ During this fifth phase, disregarding the aspects of the reform that do not fit within the
Bingham 9

Figure 10. Literature and theory coding.

Figure 11. Analytic questioning memo.

10 International Journal of Qualitative Methods

individual’s current knowledge frame or by reinterpreting planning, articulating, and executing systematic and trans-
those aspects to fit within their existing knowledge frame. parent qualitative data analysis; developing an audit trail to
Accommodation, on the other hand, is the sensemaking ensure study dependability and trustworthiness; and/or
process in which the individual changes their existing fleshing out aspects of analysis processes associated with
knowledge frame or develops entirely new knowledge frames specific methodologies. Although this five-phase data analysis
in response to a reform. Codes developed from sensemaking process is a more generic approach to qualitative analysis,
theory could thus include ‘Assimilation’ and ‘Accommoda- researchers may use aspects of this approach to support
tion.’ By sorting the qualitative data into theoretical categories analysis processes that are specific to particular methodolo-
during this phase, the researcher can get a sense of how the gies, including narrative inquiry, grounded theory, and phe-
data and the findings of the analysis fit within the concepts of nomenology. For example, the process of restorying in a
the theoretical framework, which provides the foundation for a narrative study – which involves gathering participants’
theoretically-informed analysis and a robust discussion of the stories through interviews and conversations; analyzing them
findings. If there is data that does not fit within concepts of the for narrative elements like characters, time, place, setting,
theoretical framing, then there may be additional theoretical actions, problems, and resolutions; and retelling the story
contributions to be made. chronologically (Ollerenshaw & Creswell, 2002) – may be
In the course of this phase, the researcher also draws on folded into the inductive phases of this data analysis process
inductive strategies by developing short phrases connecting the and can be included as a part of the memoing process. De-
findings to the theoretical framing and to the existing research. veloping analytic questions focused on narrative elements
For example, continuing with the data-driven instruction ex- could help the researchers develop participants’ narratives. As
ample, if the teachers were not changing their existing knowledge another example, although a traditional grounded theory study
frames as they made sense of and enacted data-driven instruction, would not draw on deductive analysis processes to apply a
the researcher can build the discussion on the following state- theoretical framework as recommended in phase 5, the first
ment: ‘Teachers made sense of the demands of real time data phase of this analysis process – organizing the data – could be
analysis through a process of assimilation, which is consistent applied as a data management strategy in a grounded theory
with other research.’ This process of interpreting the data through study, while phases 3 and 4 – understanding the data and
empirical and theoretical lenses can help researchers to make interpreting the data – draw on traditional grounded theory
sense of and explain findings and explore whether and how strategies like open coding and constant comparative analysis.
findings converge and diverge from the literature and the theory. Further, a researcher conducting a phenomenological study
This phase can support researchers in identifying precisely how typically engages in the process of horizonalization, in which
their study contributes to the literature and in building a more participant statements are turned into meaning clusters and
nuanced argument. See Figure 10 for an example of theory- and further developed into textural and structural descriptions,
literature-based coding, as well as how theory can be applied to which are then pulled together to develop a description of the
make sense of findings. essence of the experience under study (Creswell and Poth,
In memoing during this phase, the process of analytic 2016). This process of horizonalization may be completed
questioning can help researchers flesh out their findings during phases four and five. Similarly, for a researcher
(Neumann, 2006; Bingham, 2017; Bingham et al., 2018). An- drawing on Stake (1995) to conduct an analysis of case study
alytic questioning involves memoing in response to questions data, the phases offered in this paper – particularly phases 3
about the data based in existing research and theory. Throughout through 5 – provide a more structured presentation of the
this process, the researcher memos in response to questions stages of direct interpretation, categorical aggregation, cor-
designed to stimulate thinking around what the findings really respondence, and naturalistic generalization. Finally, the data
meant, why they mattered, and what they contributed. Analytic analysis process outlined in this article emphasizes a sys-
questions in this round of memoing could include: What do the tematic memoing process, a key aspect of any kind of
participant interviews say about [the topic]? What do these qualitative study. Although this process may not wholly apply
findings mean in context? How are they related to the larger across all methodologies, there are aspects of this analysis
existing literature base? Why did things happen as they did? process that can used in conjunction with many
What can be learned from these findings? This final phase of methodologies.
analysis helps the researcher to examine what the findings mean As noted at the beginning of this article, rigorous,
in the larger sense, in order to present them in context to the theoretically-grounded qualitative research can provide an in-
reader. See Figure 11 for an example of a memo using analytic depth, highly-contextualized understanding of a given policy,
questioning to develop ideas for the discussion section. reform, or intervention, which helps researchers better explain
associated practices and outcomes. The five-phase analysis
process outlined in this article supports qualitative researchers
Conclusion
in developing evidence-based findings to answer research
The five-phase process presented here is a technique that can questions and in explaining those findings in a theoretically-
be used as a whole or in part to support researchers in grounded manner. By engaging in a systematic, iterative
 Bingham 11

process of analysis such as the one outlined in this article, Lincoln, Yvonne S., & Guba, Egon G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry.
researchers can better organize their data, engage inductive SAGE Publications.
and deductive analysis strategies, increase the trustworthiness MacQueen, K. M., & Milstein, B. (1999). A systems approach to
and rigor of their study, and balance the demands of good qualitative data management and analysis. Field Methods, 11(1),
qualitative work. 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822x9901100103
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis:
Declaration of Conflicting Interests An expanded sourcebook. Sage Publications.
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to Miles, M. B., Huberman, M. A., & Saldaña, J. (2020). Qualitative
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. data analysis: A methods sourcebook. Sage Publications.
Neuman, S. B. (2016). Code red: The danger of data-driven in-
Funding struction. Educational Leadership, 74(3), 24–29.
Neumann, A. (2006). Professing passion: Emotion in the scholarship
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, au-
of professors at research universities. American Educational
thorship, and/or publication of this article.
Research Journal, 43(3), 381–424. https://doi.org/10.3102/
00028312043003381
ORCID iD
Nowell, Lorelli S., Norris, Jill M., White, Deborah E., & Moules,
Andrea J. Bingham  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1536-8751 Nancy J. (2017). Thematic Analysis: Striving to Meet the
Trustworthiness Criteria. International Journal of Qualitative
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