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 Floyd Bax

PYTHON DATA ANALYTICS

 Copyright © 2023 by Floyd Bax

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise without written
permission from the publisher. It is illegal to copy this book, post it to a
website, or distribute it by any other means without permission.

First edition

This book was professionally typeset on Reedsy

Find out more at reedsy.com
 Contents

1. Introduction

2. Conceptual Approach to Data Analysis

3. Data Analysis in Python

4. Statistics in Python - NumPy

5. Data Manipulation in Pandas

6. Data Cleaning

7. Data Visualization with Matplotlib in Python

8. Testing Hypotheses with SciPy

9. Data Mining in Python

10. Conclusion
 1

Introduction

In today’s discussions, data is a topic that dominates conversations.

Chances are, you encounter the term “data” numerous times in a single
day. Data, as a concept, is incredibly expansive. There exists a depth to
data that may elude complete comprehension, at least within our lifetimes.
However, one undeniable aspect of data is its capacity to narrate a story,
whether it involves explaining an event or forecasting the future.

Data stands as the cornerstone of the future. Businesses, governments,

organizations, and even malevolent actors all seek data for various
purposes. Entities are investing in diverse data strategies to gain insights
into their current circumstances and equip themselves for the unknown.
The world of technology is advancing toward an open-source paradigm,
facilitating the free exchange of ideas. This represents the initial stride
toward dismantling monopolies and decentralizing innovative concepts.
Consequently, the tools, techniques, and data utilized in analysis are
readily accessible for anyone seeking to decipher datasets and derive
meaningful interpretations.

Numerous tools are available for conducting data analysis, making the
ultimate choice a daunting task for most individuals. To set yourself on the
right trajectory, the initial step involves selecting the programming
language you wish to acquire and then building upon that foundation.
Novice programmers often grapple with this decision, as elucidated in
prior volumes of this series. Nevertheless, as a proficient data analyst,
your path is likely well-established. Nonetheless, there is no harm in
embracing novelty, as the world of technology often reveals unexpected
utility.

For the majority, Python has supplanted older languages like C as the
primary language of choice. Python’s surging popularity can be attributed
to its user-friendly nature, simplicity, and its classification as a high-level
programming language. Being high-level means it closely resembles
human languages. Your familiarity with Python’s syntax and functions
over the years likely underscores your appreciation for this aspect.
Furthermore, a burgeoning community of developers, data scientists, and
experts continually collaborates to enhance Python and provide mutual
support.

Python finds extensive application across various domains, with a

particular emphasis on data analysis. Data scientists have increasingly
embraced Python due to its effectiveness in exploring and comprehending
extensive datasets. Consequently, experts have developed specialized
libraries tailored to data manipulation and analysis within Python. These
libraries offer an array of powerful tools for data processing and analysis.
Such is the growth of data science that tech giants like Microsoft and
Google are heavily invested in supporting open-source projects and
initiatives in this domain.

A pivotal concept in data analysis, particularly in Python, is simplicity.

Python stands out among programming languages for its simplicity,
ensuring clarity in code definitions. Other developers who encounter your
work should not struggle to decipher it, simplifying its integration into
their projects. Your code should be easily comprehensible to anyone
perusing it.

Thanks to Python’s simplicity and streamlined code flow, the focus

typically shifts towards efficient memory utilization rather than script
performance. This further streamlines the data analysis process. Utilizing
Python for data analysis necessitates access to an array of tools
specifically designed for scientific, numerical, and visual computations
and representations, as these constitute the crux of data comprehension.

As an adept data analyst, your mastery of Python libraries proves

invaluable on various occasions. NumPy, for instance, facilitates tasks
involving linear algebra, vectors, random variables, and matrices.
Matplotlib enables diverse data visualization methods, enhancing the
data’s accessibility and understanding. Pandas offers reliable, fast, and
easily comprehensible data structures crucial for data manipulation and
computations.

To simplify your work, IPython notebooks within the Anaconda

environment provide an exceptional platform for Python code execution
without the need for extensive manual coding. The notebooks incorporate
Python code within visual elements, allowing for instant visualization of
results. These tools collectively empower your journey in data analysis.

Data analysis and data science are inherently evolutionary fields where
each new skill acquired contributes to something greater. Beginning with
the fundamentals of data analysis, you can progress into machine learning.
In fact, Python-based data analysis serves as the foundation for venturing
into machine learning. Proficiency in logistic and linear regression and
familiarity with the Scikit-learn library in Python represent initial steps
toward advancing into machine learning and predictive science.

One essential lesson gleaned from experience in utilizing Python for

data analysis is that analytics rarely exists in isolation. Consequently, you
must acquire proficiency in other programming languages. The advantage
is that Python knowledge is transferable to numerous programming
environments.

Python remains the optimal choice for anyone captivated by the world
of data. Whether it involves data retrieval, web scraping, data processing,
or data analysis, Python simplifies these tasks. It stands as an accessible
language equipped with a plethora of tools, offering limitless possibilities
for data exploration and utilization.
 2

Conceptual Approach to Data Analysis

Data surrounds us constantly, and we engage with it throughout our daily

routines. Every individual and organization leaves traces of data on their
frequently used devices. Both parties rely on this data for making informed
decisions. So, how do they transform raw data into valuable insights that can
guide credible business choices? This is where the process of data analysis
comes into play.

Data analysis is a comprehensive procedure wherein analysts employ

statistical and analytical tools to draw meaningful deductions from a given
dataset. Various analytical techniques are at the disposal of data analysts for
this purpose, including data visualization, business intelligence, and data
mining.

Methods Employed in Data Analysis

 As mentioned earlier and in previous works within this series, data
analysis is a multifaceted process. The following offers an overview of some
of the techniques one encounters in data analysis:

Visualization of Data

Data visualization is primarily concerned with presentation. You are likely

familiar with many tools used in data visualization, such as pivot tables, pie
charts, and other statistical instruments. Beyond enhancing the presentation,
data visualization simplifies the comprehension of extensive datasets. Rather
than deciphering tables, for instance, you can quickly grasp the information
when it’s presented as a color-coded pie chart.

Humans are inherently visual beings, and visual representations tend to

linger longer in our memories compared to textual information. At a glance,
one can discern the essence of the information. Summarizing data through
visualization is swifter and more accessible than sifting through raw data. An
inherent strength of data visualization is its ability to expedite the decision-
making process.

Business Intelligence

Business intelligence encompasses the process of converting data into

actionable information aligned with the strategic objectives of end users.
While raw data may often appear daunting, business intelligence molds it into
a coherent narrative. Techniques within business intelligence aid in
identifying trends, analyzing them, and extracting valuable insights.

Many companies employ these techniques to inform decisions related to

pricing strategies, product placements, and the exploration of new markets.
Such data also contributes to assessing the sustainability of these markets.
Ultimately, this information enables companies to devise specific strategies
for thriving within each market segment.

Data Mining

Data mining involves the scrutiny of extensive datasets to identify

recurring patterns. These patterns enable analysts to recognize trends and
base decisions on their findings. Data mining methods include machine
learning, artificial intelligence, database utilization, and statistical
computations.

The outcome of data mining is the transformation of raw data into reliable
information suitable for informed business decisions. Beyond decision-
making, data mining is valuable for uncovering dependencies or anomalies
across different datasets. It is also instrumental in cluster analysis, where
analysts study specific data sets to identify distinct data groups.

Data mining can be combined with machine learning to gain insights into
consumer behavior, which is inherently dynamic, particularly in the context
of the ever-evolving e-commerce landscape. Through data mining, analysts
collect extensive information about consumer actions on websites, facilitating
the accurate or nearly accurate prediction of purchase behaviors and
frequencies. Such insights prove invaluable to marketing departments and
allied sectors, aiding them in creating targeted promotional content to attract
and retain customers.

Similar to how marketing experts often create niches within broader

market demographics, data mining can identify previously unidentified data
groups. Analyzing such data groups is crucial, as it allows analysts to
experiment with undefined stimuli, potentially uncovering new opportunities
for marketing strategies.

In addition to previously unidentified data, data mining is also effective

when dealing with well-defined datasets. This often involves elements of
machine learning, exemplified by modern email systems. Each email provider
employs systems that classify messages as spam or non-spam, effectively
filtering them into the appropriate inboxes.

Text Analysis

Text analysis, frequently considered a subset of other data analysis

methods, involves the examination of text messages to extract useful
information from their content. Beyond reading the text, the information
undergoes processing using specific algorithms to support decision-making.

The nature and process of text analysis vary based on organizational

needs. Information is extracted from diverse databases or file systems and
subjected to linguistic analysis. This approach facilitates the identification of
patterns by examining keyword frequencies. Pattern recognition algorithms
target specific elements, such as email addresses, street names, geographic
locations, or phone numbers.

Text analysis finds widespread application in marketing, as companies

analyze competitors’ websites to gain insights into their business operations.
This involves searching for specific target words that shed light on why a
competitor may outperform or underperform. Such analysis can yield
competitor keywords and phrases, aiding analysts in devising counter-
strategies for their own companies.

Data Analysis Procedure

 While the data analysis methods discussed above may differ in their
approaches, their ultimate goal remains largely consistent: supporting
decision-making within organizations at various levels. The following steps
outline the data analysis process:

1. Define the Objectives

Clearly delineate the objectives of your study, as they form the bedrock of
your analysis. The subsequent steps depend on the clarity of these objectives,
guiding your data collection efforts and determining the purpose of the
gathered data.

2. Pose the Right Questions

To fulfill the previously outlined objectives, seek answers to specific

questions. This focused approach ensures that your analysis centers on
relevant matters, preventing the collection of extraneous data. An efficient
data collection process is vital to avoid amassing irrelevant information.

3. Collect Data

Establish suitable data collection points, selecting appropriate statistical

methods or data collection techniques. Data can take various forms,
particularly when dealing with raw data. Once obtained, the data refinement
process commences, eliminating inaccuracies or irrelevant entries. Employ
appropriate tools for importing and analyzing the data.

4. Analyze Data
 Aggregate and cleanse the data using various tools. This stage enables the
study of data to identify patterns and trends, providing answers to the
questions posed earlier. “What if” analyses are often conducted at this
juncture.

5. Interpretation and Predictive Analysis

With the essential insights garnered from your analysis, the final step
involves drawing conclusions from the data. Predictive analysis entails
making informed decisions based on the analyzed data and integrating it with
other supporting information. Quantitative data is not the sole consideration;
qualitative elements also play a role. For instance, you may possess the
requisite numbers, but if market sentiment toward your business is negative,
predictions should encompass this qualitative dimension.

This stage also prompts a review of the initial objectives. Does the
collected data adequately address the posed questions? Are there potential
objections that the data can convincingly counter? Have any intentional
omissions or limitations affected the conclusions? And how does the
introduction of external factors impact the outcomes?

Approaches Utilized in Data Analysis

In today’s world, access to an abundance of data is commonplace. What

truly matters is the manner in which you employ your data. Data analysts
routinely grapple with copious amounts of data, the challenge lying in
discerning the significance within. To tackle this task, various tools and
techniques, primarily in statistical data analysis, come into play.

In a landscape where big data has reached its zenith, numerous tools can
alleviate your workload while concurrently enhancing the efficiency and
reliability of your data. The methods expounded upon here constitute the
bedrock of data analysis. Proficiency in these techniques serves as a stepping
stone toward more advanced methods and strategies:

1. Standard Deviation

Standard deviation quantifies the extent to which data deviates from the
arithmetic mean. In data analysis, it signifies the dispersion of data points
from the mean. A high standard deviation denotes a wide divergence from the
mean, while a low value indicates that the majority of the data closely aligns
with the mean.

It is essential to employ standard deviation in conjunction with other

techniques to derive conclusive findings from your study, particularly when
dealing with datasets containing numerous outliers, as it may not be a reliable
determinant on its own.

2. Averages

Averages, often referred to as arithmetic means, are calculated by dividing

the sum of (n) items in a list by the total number of (n) items. Averages offer
insights into the general trends within a specific dataset. Computing averages
is straightforward, and from this information, one can glean valuable insights
about the dataset at a glance.

While using averages, caution is necessary to avoid relying on them in

isolation. Independent of other methods, averages can sometimes be
misconstrued and may not provide accurate information, especially when
dealing with data exhibiting skewed distributions.

3. Regression Analysis
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upon to accept a small benefice of one hundred and sixty livres a
year in the Vicomté of Orthez. He was glad, he said, to have
wherewith to shoe and clothe himself without being at any expense
to his congregation. His brother presented Bétharram with ten
thousand livres, on condition that the chaplains should give a
mission every ten years at Montaut.
The Revolution brought mourning to this peaceful mountain chapel,
and M. Cassiet, after trying in vain to propitiate the authorities,
became for the second time a confessor of the faith and sought
refuge in Spain. Somewhere in Biscay he met the Abbé St. Marc, a
young curé from Grenade-sur-l’Adour, also in exile, and persuaded
him to go to the Canadian mission, where he remained several
years, but finally died in 1845, at the age of ninety-one, at Mont-de-
Marsan, where his memory is still honored.
When the Catholic religion was re-established in France, the Abbé
Cassiet returned to his homestead at Montaut, being then too old
and infirm to undertake the restoration of Bétharram. Of the twelve
priests of Calvary in 1793, only two were living, and they were
advanced in years.
M. Cassiet’s last days were quietly spent in his native place. The
bishop of Bayonne allowed him to say Mass in his own apartments,
on account of his infirmities. He died in 1809, aged eighty-two years,
surrounded with the love and veneration of all, and was buried at
the foot of the cross in the public cemetery of Montaut.
The church of Notre Dame de Bétharram was saved from destruction
at the time of the Revolution by the efforts of the mayor of the
faithful town of Lestelle; but he was obliged to abandon the Calvary
to its fury. The oratories were demolished, the statues broken to
pieces, the paintings torn up, and the holy Way of the Cross
rendered a Via Dolorosa indeed. When the sacred image of Christ on
the Cross was overthrown, a swarm of bees issued from the opening
in the side, and one of hornets from that of the impenitent thief. An
unhappy individual who had the audacity to knock off the head of
the Virgin at the chapel of the Holy Sepulchre became from that
moment the object of divine malediction, and some time after was
beheaded.
The sacraments of the church were administered at Lestelle during
this sad period by Père Joseph, a Franciscan friar, who sought in
anything but “Franciscan weeds to pass disguised.” His various
escapes from danger have become almost legendary. Wherever
there was a person in danger of death or a child to be baptized, he
suddenly made his appearance, and then as mysteriously
disappeared—concealed, no doubt, by the good people of the
village. Nine of the citizens purchased the hill of Bétharram, and
some others the church. They were redeemed by the ecclesiastical
authorities as soon as better days arrived, and a Petit Séminaire was
established in the residence and hospice. Here was educated
Bertrand Lawrence, the restorer of Notre Dame de Garaison,
afterwards bishop of Tarbes. The devout chapel was now reopened
for public devotion; the oratories on the mount were hastily restored
and once more frequented, in spite of the rude scenes of the Passion
painted by the Père Joseph.
In 1823 the Duchess of Angoulême, accompanied by the bishop of
the diocese and a numerous procession of clergy, came here to
make the Way of the Cross and pray for a blessing on the royal army
under the duke in Spain. The duchess presented the church with a
monstrance of rich workmanship. Four years after her sister-in-law,
the Duchess of Berry, also came to Bétharram, and was received
with the same demonstrations of joy.
The most noted chaplain of Bétharram in this century was a holy
Basque priest of great austerity—the Abbé Garicoïts, a genuine
Cantabrian, to whom his fellow-priests loved to apply the words of
Sidonius Apollinaris:
“Cantaber ante omnes hiemisque, ætusque, famisque,
Invictus.…”
He founded the Prêtres du Sacré Cœur, who continue to serve the
church. He restored the Calvary to its ancient beauty, and repeopled
its cells. While he was superior of the house the sanctuary was
visited by the Abbé de Salinis, a distinguished Béarnais priest, who
had inherited a special devotion to Notre Dame de Bétharram. He
afterwards received the pallium, as archbishop of Auch, at her feet,
and thenceforth came here regularly to make his annual retreat. It
was he who sent Alexander Renoir, a Christian artist imbued with the
love and spirit of the middle ages, to design the bas-reliefs that now
adorn the Stations of the Cross. This sculptor spent five years at the
work, after passing whole days on the sacred mount looking down
on the enchanting valley of the Gave and meditating on the scenes
he has so ably depicted in the first eight oratories. His figures are
dignified, the faces full of character, and the draperies graceful. The
Saviour has everywhere the same superhuman expression. In the
Garden of Olives he is supported by an angel whose outspread
wings surround him like a glory. It is evidently by his own will he
suffers himself to be sustained. In the Flagellation his face wears a
wonderful expression of patience; in the Crowning with Thorns, of
inexpressible suffering and divine submission. He stands in all the
majesty of innocence and sorrow before Pilate, whose thoughtful,
anxious face as he looks at him reveals the struggle within. Perhaps
the most touching scene is when Christ meets his Blessed Mother.
The Virgin is kneeling with arms yearningly stretched up towards
him, with a look of ineffable tenderness and pity, and he for an
instant seems to forget the weight of the overwhelming cross in the
sense of his filial love. The Crucifixion is terribly real. The sacred
Body visibly palpitates with suffering; the feet and hands quiver with
agony; the face is filled with a divine woe. Mary, at the foot of the
cross, is sustained by a form of enchanting youth and beauty.
The fourteen oratories of the Via Crucis are of various styles of
architecture, and built, with an artistic eye to effect, on admirable
points of view. Visible at a great distance, they seem to sanctify the
whole valley. Some of them are surmounted with a dome, others
with turrets. The royal chapel of St. Louis, built between two cells,
has three Oriental domes that swell out on the tops of slender,
minaret-like towers and are extremely striking from the railway.
Twenty-eight stone steps—a Scala Santa—lead up to the sixth
oratory, that of the Ecce Homo. The seventh looks like a castle with
its crenellated towers. The eighth has a hexagonal tower flanked by
four turrets. The ninth is of the Roman style.
The three crosses on the summit of the mount were cast at Paris
and exhibited with success at the Exposition Universelle of 1867. In
the Doric chapel beyond is a fine painting of the Descent from the
Cross, saved from the revolutionists of ’93. It is intensely realistic.
The Pietà of Carrara marble opposite is the work of M. Dumontet, of
Bourges—an ex voto from the Marquis d’Angosse and his wife. Our
Saviour’s form is of marvellous beauty. The fourteenth oratory is of
the Doric style. There is a touching grief in the faces of the disciples
bearing the dead body of Christ to the tomb. Mary stands in
speechless sorrow. Magdalen is a prey to violent grief.
The top of the hill is a long plateau. The Crucifixion is at the east
end, so that the Christ, according to ancient tradition, may face the
west. At the left is the chapel of the Holy Sepulchre, where lies the
holy Abbé Garicoïts, who died on the Festival of the Ascension, 1863.
At the west end of the esplanade, facing the Crucifixion, is the most
imposing of all the chapels—that of the Resurrection. Two fine
towers rise on each side of the gable on which stands the rapt form
of our Saviour ascending to heaven, the work of M. Fabisch, the
sculptor who executed the Virgin in the grotto at Lourdes.
Since the admirable restoration of the hill new devotion has sprung
up among the people. Pilgrims to the grotto of Marie Immaculée, in
the cliff of Massabielle, come to end their pilgrimage by weeping
with Marie désolée on the solemn heights of Bétharram. On great
festivals crowds may be seen coming from all the neighboring
villages in festive array, with a joyful air, singing psalms on the way.
They carry their shoes in their hands, but put them on on their
arrival at church. The women carefully lift their dresses with
characteristic eye to economy. During Holy Week thousands often
ascend the mount, group after group, chanting old Béarnais hymns
of the Passion, the men wrapped in their mountain cloaks, and the
women veiled in their long black capuchons, looking like Maries at
the Sepulchre.
On the 21st of October, 1870, his Holiness Pius IX. granted the
Calvary of Bétharram all the indulgences attached to the Holy Places
at Jerusalem, as well as special ones to all who visit the devout
chapel. Pope Gregory XVI.. also paid his tribute of homage to Our
Lady of Bétharram.
The royal family of France seems to consider devotion to this
venerable shrine as hereditary. In 1843 the Countess of Chambord
presented her wedding-dress and veil to the Virgin of Bétharram;
and the Duchess of Angoulême, in memory of her pilgrimage here in
1823, sent the communion-veil of her mother, the unfortunate Marie
Antoinette.
The statue of Mary by Renoir, over the high altar of the church,
represents her seated, looking at the divine Child on her knee, who
leans forward to point out the beth arram—the beautiful branch—of
gold at her feet. It is a statue full of grace. We were once more
praying at this favored altar when we heard the sound of a chant,
and, going to the door of the church, saw the long procession of six
hundred pilgrims from Marseilles coming with silver crosses glittering
in the sun and gay banners wrought with many a holy device. The
priests wore their surplices and stoles. The pilgrims were evidently
people of very respectable condition, and the utmost order and
decorum prevailed. They were singing the litany of the Virgin, and
seemed impressed with the religious nature of the act they were
performing. As they entered the church the organ, given by
Napoleon III. and Eugénie at their visit in 1859, solemnly joined in
their salutation to Mary, and, after a short exercise of devotion, they
began the ascent of the Calvary. We followed them up the winding
path to the top of the mount, stopping at every turn before the
beautiful chapels. Nothing could be more solemn, more affecting,
and at the same time more fatiguing than climbing this steep, rough
Way of the Cross in the hot sun and amid the dense crowd of
pilgrims. We went from one oratory to another, chanting the Stabat
Mater, and at each station a curé from Marseilles, with a powerful
voice, made a short meditation on the sufferings of Christ, every
word of which could be heard far down the hill where wound the
long train. He identified these sufferings with the actual crucifixion of
the church: “To-day also there are Pilates—sovereigns of Europe
who wash their hands of the woes they might have prevented.
Herod has set a guard at the very door of the Vatican. Rulers and
learned men scoff at the church and give perfidious counsel to its
members; and Christ is again raised on the cross in the person of his
Vicar, whose heart is bleeding for the iniquities of the world. But
faithful disciples rally around him. Devoted women pray. Yes, a
sinner clings to the foot of the cross—France, the poor Magdalen of
nations, wrapped in immeasurable woe, her head buried in her
hands, bewailing her guilt, and destined to become the invincible
heroine of the church!”
Nothing could be more impressive than this long file of pilgrims
slowly winding up the sad way; the chants in the open air, the
mournful plaint of the Virgin, which always goes to the heart, the
stirring appeal of the priest calling on us to mourn over the divine
Sufferer. The woods were odorous, the ground purple with heather,
lovely ferns nodded, and harebells and herb-Robert bloomed by the
wayside, giving out sweet inspirations to those who know how to
find God in everything he has made. Clouds had gathered in the
west by the time we reached the top of this Mount of Sorrows, and
the sight of the immense cross with its pale Christ against the wild,
stormy sky was something never to be forgotten, reminding us of
Guido Reni’s Crucifixion in the church of San Lorenzo-in-Lucina at
Rome. No one could behold it without being startled. It seemed to
strike terror into the soul, and we gathered around it with tearful
eyes and, let us trust, with contrite hearts.
We could hardly give a glance at the superb view unrolled before us
—the immense plain with the beautiful Gave winding through it, the
Pyrenees lost in the clouds, white villages scattered on every side,
and Pau on a distant height.
O sacred hill of Bétharram! which has so often seen the cross
overthrown and set up again in the land; mountain of perfumes,
which so many generations have ascended on their knees with
streaming eyes; predestined land, so beloved of Mary that on the
shore of the same river, in the side of the same range of hills, she
has opened two marvellous sanctuaries, how good it is to pray, to
meditate, to hope, on thy heights!

[106]Others think it one of the numerous names left in the country by the
Moors, the Arabic word Beit Haram signifying the Sacred Abode. But the
old chroniclers of Béarn, who attribute the foundation of the church to
Gaston IV., believe the name brought from the Holy Land, the Hebrew
words Beth Aram meaning the House of the Most High.
[107]The statue remained in its niche until 1841, when it was replaced by
the more beautiful one of Renoir. The gilt Virgin of Mgr. de Trappes is still
to be seen on the wall of the left aisle near the chapel of the Pastoure.
[108] Marca enters into a long dissertation to establish the truth of this
wonderful event, which may be thus summed up: There were five persons
to witness it, four of whom were still alive when he wrote. They were
cultivators of the soil—an innocent occupation that has often led divine
Providence to make choice of those who pursue it to publish the wonders
of his grace, as when shepherds were chosen to announce the Nativity.
They were natives of Béarn, where the people are free from any undue
credulousness, and where the Catholic religion had been proscribed for
more than forty years, so that of course they had not been brought up
with the care that would have rendered them particularly susceptible of
religious impressions. Moreover, they knew a statement of this kind would
be sifted to the bottom by Protestants as well as Catholics. They could
have no interest in the matter, as Bétharram belonged to Lestelle, with
which Montaut was often at rivalry. The chaplains were absent, and wholly
ignorant of the affair. And these five men were people of probity, who
swore to the truth of their statements on the Holy Gospels before the
magistrates of Lestelle and Montaut.
[109] Arnauld d’Andilly was the eldest son of the Antoine Arnauld who,
under Henry IV., pleaded for the University against the Jesuits, and whose
twentieth and youngest child was the second Antoine Arnauld—the oracle
of Jansenism. D’Andilly is looked upon as belonging to the first generation
of Jansenists, though he had nothing of the austerity and repulsiveness of
that sect. He scarcely broaches polemics. He celebrates in elegant verse
the praises of the Blessed Virgin and the prerogatives of St. Peter, and
after translating all that is grandest and sweetest in Christian literature—
such as the works of St. Augustine, St. John Climacus, St. Teresa, etc.—
reposed from his labors by tending the espaliers of Port Royal, of which
the beautiful and pious Anne of Austria always had the first fruits.
[110] M. de Beyries, a nephew of the Abbé de Lalanne, and a prominent
citizen of Montaut, has many precious memorials of his uncle.
 SIR THOMAS MORE.
A HISTORICAL ROMANCE.
FROM THE FRENCH OF THE PRINCESSE DE CRAON.

VIII.

Meanwhile, a great agitation prevailed in the heart of the kingdom, at

the court, and in every mind. The new favor of the new favorite; the
discontent, ever growing but more and more repressed, of the
queen’s partisans; the restless and shifting humor of those who in
secret held fast to the new religious opinions; the uncertainty of
events, new fears, new hopes, seemed to have communicated to the
intriguing and ambitious of every degree a boldness and activity
hitherto unknown. Delivered from the yoke imposed on him for so
long a time by a man at once adroit and yielding, Henry VIII. had at
last encountered a vile and abject creature who would gradually
encourage him to display all the natural ferocity of his character.
Already he was no longer able to separate himself from Cromwell,
who, artfully flattering each one of his passions, constantly said to
him: “To please you, to obey you—that is the sole end toward which
all should aim, or they should fall!”
Every day, in consequence of their determined efforts, new
complaints against the clergy were reported to the House of
Commons. The time had come, they said, to distribute among the
truly poor the treasures accumulated by the priests, and to destroy
the abuses they had made of their power. These accusations,
together with calumnies of a blacker character, emanating from
sources always scrupulously concealed, were artfully disseminated
among the people, circulated from mouth to mouth, and served
wonderfully to irritate the stupid and ignorant masses; while in the
House of Lords nothing was left undone to secure the influence and
suffrages of the most influential members of that body.
Confident of success in all their designs, Henry VIII. and his favorite
decided that it was time to strike the first blow; and while the
attorney-general was in receipt of the order to carry to the King’s
Bench an accusation which included the entire clergy of the kingdom
as having become amenable to the penalties attached to the
Præmunire statutes, a measure and petition were presented to
Parliament to prohibit every bishop from paying dues to the see of
Rome; secondly, that for the future their body should neither
promulgate nor execute any of its laws without the co-operation of
the royal authority; and, finally, that all those laws which had been in
force until that time should be re-examined by a committee whose
members would be named and chosen by the king, in order that he
might abolish them if he deemed expedient.
These measures at first excited universal murmurs of dissatisfaction;
but people were not slow to perceive that such expressions could
not be indulged in without danger, for it was no longer a matter of
doubt that Parliament would yield to the slightest wish of the king.
The fear inspired by this prince, together with his incessant threats
and menaces, secured him the submission of those even whom
avarice had not been able to corrupt.
Henry triumphantly congratulated himself on his success. The
courageous firmness of one single man, however, sufficed to
embitter all his pleasure; for, since the king had openly and boldly
announced his intention of compelling the divorce to be granted, no
matter by what means, More had scrupulously held himself aloof, no
longer appearing at court, except when summoned by the king or
when the duties of his office obliged him to be formally present. This
was a source of deep chagrin and displeasure to Henry VIII., and the
cold and reserved manner of the lord chancellor kept him, when in
his presence, in a state of painful restraint.
“What!” he said to himself, “everything goes according to my wishes,
and yet the silent reproaches of this man alone annoy me
unceasingly. It would be better for him to yield,” he cried in his
frenzy, “or I shall be compelled to force him into submission!”
But when More again appeared before him, he listened to the report
of affairs which he had to submit, no longer knowing what to say to
him, and he dared not even pronounce the name of Anne Boleyn in
his presence. This day, however, he had summoned Cromwell at a
very early hour, and appeared to be in an exceedingly joyful mood;
he laughed aloud, then, suddenly resuming a serious expression, he
exclaimed, slapping the head of a superb greyhound that held his
black nose extended across his knees:
“You will see, Cromwell, what a good effect this will produce on the
people; because it is useless to conceal that More is a man of such
exalted character and brilliant worth that all the eyes of my kingdom
are fixed upon his conduct.”
“Ah!” said Cromwell, whom this very just opinion of the king
displeased mightily,” I do not believe it will be thus when your
majesty has spoken.”
“Yes, yes,” replied the king; “and that is why I congratulate myself
on the expedient which suggested itself last night. How can you
imagine, after he has read in open Parliament the decisions of the
universities in my favor, that the people will believe he does not
favor the divorce? And it is most necessary to counteract by this
means the effect produced by the promulgation of the papal bull.”
“Bah! that bull,” said Cromwell, “is no more than a scrap of waste
paper. The pope forbids any of the clergy from celebrating your
marriage before the queen’s suit is decided. Now, marry Lady Anne
to-morrow!”
“To-morrow!” exclaimed the king.
At that moment the curtain of scarlet silk which hung in heavy folds
before the entrance of the royal apartment was drawn aside, and Sir
Thomas More appeared.
The king paused surprised; his fingers were entwined among the
links of the gold chain suspended around the neck of Cromwell, and
he was familiarly patting the breast of that base-born creature, now
seated close beside him.
“Ah! it is you, Sir Thomas,” said Henry, affecting an air of unconcern;
“you are always most welcome here. I believe this is one of your
friends,” he added, pointing to Cromwell.
More made no reply; he simply inclined his head in response to the
king’s salutation.
“Yes, yes, you understand each other very well,” continued the king,
without appearing to remark that More made no reply. “Is it not so,
Cromwell?”
“I hope so,” replied Cromwell, casting a furtive glance around him.
For he was not able to encounter the penetrating gaze of More,
whom he secretly feared and detested; and from the time he
believed that More could no longer be of use to him he had ceased
to overwhelm him with visits and continual solicitations, as he had
formerly been in the habit of doing.
“Well, good Sir Thomas,” continued Henry, always indulging in
badinage, “what would you have with us?”
“I would speak with your majesty alone for a few moments,” replied
More.
“A reasonable request,” answered the king; “and you know we
always grant anything you ask.”
He made a sign to Cromwell, who immediately withdrew, his heart
fired with rage at the welcome always extended by the king to More.
“If ever I come into power,” murmured he in his heart, “More, thou
shalt know me!”
“What, then, is it, More?” asked the king, and he regarded him with
an impatient expression.
“Your majesty,” replied More, “this morning sent me an order to
present myself in the House of Commons, and carry thither the
decisions of the universities. Up to this time I have been loath to
speak; but to-day, at the moment of giving such authenticity to
these documents, I consider it my duty to make known to your
majesty that they have been extorted by force and are far from
being regular; a great many of the signatures are wanting, while
others are counterfeit.”
“Counterfeit!” exclaimed the king angrily.” Who has told you that?”
“I am sure of it,” replied Sir Thomas quietly and in the calmest of
tones; “and I have thought it my duty to inform the king of the fact
before asking his permission to retire.”
“You retire!” cried Henry VIII.
“I had already requested the Duke of Norfolk,” continued More, “to
express to your majesty how painful it was to me to quit your
service and to find myself obliged to cease from fulfilling the office
with which you have honored me; but my health is so feeble as not
to permit me to hold it longer.” And he was silent.
The king sat stupefied. But surprise very soon changed into extreme
displeasure; for he saw perfectly well why More retired, and felt that
he had nothing to hope from a man so firm and as inaccessible to
fear as to self-interest. It was for this he dissembled and evinced
none of the vexation he felt.
“I am sorry,” he said coldly, “that you should leave me; because you
were that one of my servants whom I have most esteemed and
loved. But, nevertheless, since you wish it, I will not oppose your
going. I shall always remember the services you have rendered me,
and be assured that any request you may make shall certainly be
granted.”
More made no reply, but the tears came into his eyes; he loved the
king sincerely, and would have made any sacrifice to have saved him
from the unhappy passion that had enchained him.
“You weep, More,” said the king. “If it gives you pain, why do you
leave me?”
“Because I cannot do otherwise.”
“As you please,” replied the king curtly. “I force nobody to remain in
my service. You will one day, perhaps, repent this step. You are rich
now, I suppose?”
“Your majesty knows very well to the contrary,” replied More. “In
losing the salary of the office I now resign, I am not sure that I shall
have sufficient means remaining to provide becomingly for the wants
of my many children. During the time I filled a lucrative employment
at the bar, I saved enough to purchase a small tract of land which I
now own; but when your majesty called me into your service, I was
naturally obliged to abandon my profession, and since then I have
saved nothing.”
“What!” said the king, “you have nothing remaining from the income
of your office?”
“Not so much as one hundred gold crowns,” replied Sir Thomas.
“More,” said the king thoughtfully, “you are an honest man.”
“I endeavor to be so, sire.”
“It grieves me that you leave me. Why approve not of my
marriage?”
“Because, sire, you may not have two wives at once.”
“Begone!” said Henry VIII.…
And Cromwell found the king in a state of excitement impossible to
describe.
“I regret it! I regret it!” he exclaimed. “This will work me evil! A man
of such integrity, such worth! No one can doubt it. I have done
wrong in sending him to the Parliament; it was plain that he would
refuse me.”
“What says he?” thought Cromwell to himself, surprised and anxious.
“Cromwell,” said the king, “he leaves me!”
“Who?”
“More.”
“More!” cried Cromwell, scarcely able to conceal his delight. “Well, is
it only that that troubles you? It is a happiness rather. The hypocrite
unmasks himself at last; it has been long since the happiness of his
sovereign was that for which he cared the least.”
“You are mistaken, Cromwell; he loved me sincerely.”
“Ah!” cried Cromwell, “this is the way in which your majesty’s
goodness of heart unceasingly opposes itself to your own interests.
Sir Thomas More has never lost an occasion of sustaining the
ridiculous pretensions of Queen Catherine. I heard him myself
exclaim aloud in the presence of the legates assembled to try her:
“May the queen triumph over all her enemies!” Would he have done
this had he not presumed (if I may dare to say it) upon your
majesty’s weakness? This is the opinion expressed to me by the
illustrious Machiavelli: ‘It is always safer for a prince to inspire his
subjects with fear than with love’; love holds men by that very feeble
link called gratitude, while the bond of fear it is almost impossible to
sunder.”
“And where has the fuller’s son known Machiavelli?” asked Henry
VIII. disdainfully. “Truly,” he continued, with that ironical smile which
was habitual with him, and that haughty and scornful tone with
which he often chose to crush those who believed they stood high in
his favor, “I was not aware that you had studied politics under
Machiavelli.”
“I knew him in Italy,” replied Cromwell, profoundly humiliated. The
recollection of the lowliness of his origin was a continual torment to
the soul of this parvenu; nevertheless, without permitting the
slightest emotion to appear in his countenance, he continued the
conversation. “We often,” he said, “walked together in the gardens
of the Oricellari Palace, which Machiavelli was in the habit of
frequenting, and where multitudes of young men of the most
distinguished families of the city eagerly came to listen to the words
of this celebrated man. He had the kindness to notice me among
them all, and received me with particular affection. He sometimes
spoke successively of all the princes of Europe; but in mentioning
the name of your majesty he could not conceal his admiration. ‘I do
not know,’ he said, ‘any prince of our day who can be compared to
him, either for courage or exalted ability.’”
“I feel flattered,” replied the king; “for he was a man of great
discernment and superior judgment.”
And Henry’s gratified vanity brought to his features an expression of
pleasure that did not escape the notice of the adroit liar. There was
no truth in the statement he had made to Henry VIII. of having met
the Florentine secretary, at least in his own society, as he wished to
insinuate to the king, but in a public drinking-house where
Machiavelli (whose tastes were not always the most elevated or
refined) went to enjoy the amusements of the common people, in
order to be relieved of the ennui that devoured him when at his
country seat and not absorbed in business.
“These gardens of the Oricellari Palace have a great reputation,” said
Henry VIII. carelessly, after a considerable silence.
“Very great and very justly,” replied Cromwell with enthusiasm,
“since they have been embellished by the famous Alberti—he who
introduced again into Europe a taste for the pure and beautiful
Grecian architecture. The celebrated Bernard Rucellai, to whom they
belong, has collected there besides a great quantity of the precious
fragments of antiquity—”
Cromwell paused—he thought the king was going to speak; but,
finding he said nothing, he continued:
“Your majesty has seen, in the beginning of Machiavelli’s book on
the art of war, the portrait he has drawn and his eulogies on the
young Count Rucellai, the same to whom he has dedicated his
discourse on Livy.”
“Possibly,” said Henry VIII. He turned his head and slightly yawned.
Cromwell was silent immediately and racked his brain for another
subject of conversation, regretting that the one he had already
introduced had been so speedily exhausted.
* * * * *
After leaving the king Sir Thomas More returned to the bank of the
Thames, wishing, as soon as possible, to reach his home at Chelsea.
In going down to his barge, which awaited him above Westminster
bridge, he saw a crowd collected on the quay inspecting the boat,
which, glittering gorgeously in the rays of the sun, seemed in every
respect worthy of the exalted rank of her illustrious owner. Eight
rowers dressed in uniform managed her with great dexterity; a large
pavilion of purple silk protected the interior against injury from light
and air; the bottom was covered with a heavy tapestry carpet; and
the spacious seats, capable of accommodating a large number of
persons, were supplied with rich crimson velvet cushions. The
exterior was not less rich, and the ivory and little bands of gold with
which the stern was encrusted gave it the appearance of being
enveloped in a delicate network, each mesh of which seemed to
sparkle with gems and gold. The heavens were serene and
cloudless, and a multitude of small boats, painted green, darted
rapidly over the river, propelled by their light sails of gleaming white.
It was a festival day, and they were filled with citizens enjoying the
revivifying country air, and resting from their labors to refresh
themselves on the verdant and flowery lawns of Richmond,
Twickenham, or Greenwich. Arrayed in their most elegant robes of
worsted and silk, the women waved their handkerchiefs or sang to
amuse their children, while groups of sailors in varied costumes
representing different nations were engaged in playing boisterous
games, or, gathering around one of their older companions, listened
eagerly to the stories he told of expeditions he had joined or
shipwrecks he had escaped.
“To-day these people are happy!” thought More, saddened by the
contrast presented by their joy and the interior oppression he
himself experienced. “Let me return to a life of peaceful obscurity
like theirs, find again my plain wooden boat, take my seat on the
straw matting which covers the bottom, and row in my turn without
a fear of to-morrow; always sure of seeing my Margaret and my
other children coming along the bank to give me a joyous reception,
and hear them exclaim, ‘Here is our father!’ But why all these
apprehensions?” he continued, passing his hand across his brow, as
if to dispel some sad and painful reflection. “God reigns in heaven;
and have I not this day experienced his divine protection? The king
has given me a kinder reception than I had hoped to receive; he
has, at least, not permitted his wrath to break forth in all its
violence. Perhaps in the end it will only be more terrible; but never
mind, the will of the Lord be done! Nothing can happen on the earth
without his permission. I abandon myself to him; and when man, his
creature, casts himself into his arms, he will not withdraw nor permit
him to fall.”
In the meantime the tide began to rise, and the waves of the sea,
flowing into the great bed of the river, very soon extended it to the
surrounding banks. Carried along by the waves, More’s barge no
longer required other care than the slight attention necessary to
guide it. The tired sailors rested on their oars, while their eyes
wandered over the charming borders of the Thames.
“My lord,” said one of the sailors, turning towards Sir Thomas, “here
we are in front of Seat-House Gardens. We are passing the village of
Nine Elms.”
But More heard them not; he seemed entirely absorbed in his own
reflections.
The men were astonished, because ordinarily he conversed with
them when he was alone in the boat, and questioned them about
such subjects as interested them. Sir Thomas More thought it was
his duty as a master and a Christian to take especial care not only of
the bodies but also of the souls of his servants, in enlightening their
minds by good advice and wise exhortations. Consequently, they
were astonished at his silence, and, loving him as a father, they were
fearful some misfortune had befallen him of which they were not
apprised.
“There is the little point of Chelsea spire,” said the pilot, observing
him with an anxious eye.
“My lord, here is Chelsea,” they exclaimed all together.
“Well, my children,” he replied, “land me at the foot of the
crossroad.”
Sir Thomas thought, as it was the hour for evening devotion, his
family would surely be at the parish church, and he would take his
children back in the boat with him. He landed, therefore, and,
ordering the sailors to wait, slowly ascended the beach by a rugged
road, beyond which he encountered a worthy old peasant woman
driving a number of cows to the river. On perceiving Sir Thomas an
expression of satisfaction overspread her features, tanned and
furrowed by age and hard labor. She stopped to salute him as usual.
“My good lord,” she exclaimed, “I am very glad to see you. We every
day pray to the Lord to preserve you. Since you have been in this
country everything has prospered with us. We have not lost a single
calf nor had a bad crop since you rebuilt our barn, which was burnt
at the same time as your own; and the other day we were talking
among ourselves, and we said that you must be very rich to be able
to make so many around you happy.”
“The barn is a strong and substantial one, at least,” said More, who
could not avoid smiling at the idea of his reputed wealth.
“Oh! as to that, yes,” replied the simple woman; “it is of good stone,
and very much stronger and better than it was before. It will outlast
us all a long time.”
Having said this, she passed on, as she saw Sir Thomas wished to
be detained no longer, and the cows had wandered from the road to
graze on the surrounding pasture.
“Here comes the good lord chancellor,” said the village children in a
suppressed tone. The crowd kneeling without on the pavement of
the church, too small to accommodate the entire congregation on
festival days, opened respectfully, and Sir Thomas proceeded down
the aisle of the church to his pew, where he found all his family
seated.
He remained standing near, as the service was almost over, and he
did not wish to make any disturbance by opening the door of the
pew; but Margaret soon discovered the presence of her father, and
heard his voice mingling with those of the other faithful who sang
the praises of God. Her heart throbbed with joy, and she looked
around to try and get sight of him.
“William,” she said immediately to young Roper, “my father is here;
give him your seat.”
But Sir Thomas motioned him to sit still; and when the devotion was
ended, and the priests had left the altar, he approached, and,
opening the door of the pew where Lady More was seated,
presented his hand to lead her out, and said:
“Madam, my lord is gone.”
This woman, as disagreeable as she was coarse, raised her dull eyes
to her husband’s face.
“What do you mean?” she asked sharply.
She always received in this ungracious manner the pleasantries More
was so fond of indulging in, and it was customary for one of her
husband’s retinue to open the pew door in his absence and say:
“Madam, my lord is gone.”
“Come with me, nevertheless,” replied More, with imperturbable
gentleness; “I will explain to you now my lord is gone.”
Lady More followed him, still, however, murmuring between her
teeth because of this unusual mode of departure; and when they
had passed through the crowd, and More had returned the
salutations with which all greeted him, he called Margaret to his
side.
“Listen, my child,” he said. “Your mother here cannot understand
how my lord can be absent. Explain to her that I have conducted
him this morning to London, where I have left him for ever; in a
word, that I am no longer lord chancellor, having resigned my office
into the hands of the king. Do you understand now, my good Alice?”
he added, turning toward his wife.
Margaret, on hearing this explanation, looked at her father in
dismay. She immediately understood there was something behind
that she did not know, and her penetrating mind was filled with
alarm; but Lady More flew into an ungovernable passion.
“What is this you say?” she cried,” and what have you done? More of
your scruples, I warrant me. That tender conscience of yours will
land us all in the ashes yet. Is it not better to rule than to be ruled?
We are ten times worse off now than we have ever been before, and
here are you about to strip us of everything.”
“Dear heart,” said Sir Thomas, without being moved in the least, “it
would be impossible, I think, for me to strip you of your possessions;
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