9.

Reliability and Maintainability

9.1 Reliability Concept and Objectives
• Reliability is the probability that an item will perform
its stated mission satisfactorily for the given time
period when used under the specified conditions. It is
an important factor in equipment maintenance because
lower equipment reliability means higher need for
maintenance.
• The reliability of a product can be expressed as:
=
Where
• R(t) = the reliability at any time t
• e = the base of napierian logarithms = 2.303
• λ = the total number of failures per operating period
• t = planned operating time 1
 Reliability is the probability that unsatisfactory
performance or failure will not occur. Since, the
reliability is expressed as probability; its value will vary
from zero to unity thereby giving quantitative measure.

 Unreliability increases with time.

R(t) + F(t) = 1

2
Cont…
9.2 Objectives of Reliability
i. Trouble free running of system/equipment
ii. Adequate performance for a stated period of time
iii. Work under the specified environmental conditions
iv. Minimization of downtime of equipment/system
v. Maintainability of device/components.
Reliability and Quality are complementary.
• High quality may mean reliability, but not the reverse -
reliability is retaining quality during usage.
– Quality with the manufacture (cannot be improved
after fabrication). whereas,
– Reliability is with design/material can be built using
redundant component/system,
3
Cont…
Reliability terms and Definitions
 Some of the important reliability related terms and
definitions are:
• Reliability: it is the probability that an item will carry
out its stated function adequately for the specified time
interval when operated according to the designed
conditions.
• Failure: This is the inability of an item to function
within the specified guidelines.
• Hazard rate: This is the rate of change in the number of
failed items divided by the number of items that have
not failed at time t.
• Active redundancy: This term indicates that all
redundant items are functioning simultaneously. 4
 9.3 Root Cause of Equipment Reliability Problems and
Bathtub Hazard Rate Concept
• In reliability analysis of engineering systems it is often
assumed that the hazard or time-dependent failure rate of
items follows the shape of a bathtub as shown in Fig. 9.1.
• The curve shown in Fig. 9.1 has three distinct regions:
burn-in period, useful life period, and wear-out period.

Figure 9.1 Bathtub hazard rate curve

5
 Cont…
Burn-in period
• The burn-in period is also known as “infant mortality
period,” “break-in period,” or “debugging period.” Occur at
the beginning of life and then disappear. During this time
frame the hazard rate (time dependent failure rate) decreases
with time and the failures occur due to causes such as:
• Poor/inadequate quality control
• Poor manufacturing methods
• Human error
• Poor debugging
• Substandard materials and workmanship
• Wrong handling or packaging
• Poor processes
6
Cont…
Useful life period
• In the useful life period the hazard rate is constant and
the failures occur randomly or unpredictably. Some of
the causes of failures in this region include:
• Insufficient design margins,
• Incorrect use environments,
• Undetectable defects,
• Higher than expected random loads
• low safety factors,
• Human error and abuse, and
• Unavoidable failures (i.e., ones that cannot be
avoided by even the most effective preventive
7
maintenance practices).
 Cont…
Wear-out region
• In the wear-out region the hazard rate occur late in life and
increase with age. It begins at the end of the useful life period
of the item. Some causes for the occurrence of wear-out
region failures are:
• wear due to aging,
• inadequate or improper preventive maintenance,
• limited-life components,
• wear due to friction,
• misalignments,
• corrosion and creep, and
• Incorrect overhaul practices.
• Wear out period failures can be reduced significantly by
executing effective replacement and preventive maintenance
policies and procedures. 8
 9.4 Reliability Measures
Reliability function
• The reliability of an item can be obtained by using any of
the following three equations:
• 1. …equation 1
Where:
R(t) = reliability at time t
F(t) = cumulative distribution function,
f(t) = failure density function
• 2. ……………equation 2

• 3. ……….. equation 3

Where λ(t) = hazard rate or time-dependent failure rate. 9

Cont…
Example
An electric motor times to failure are described by the
following probability density function:

where
t= time, and λ = motor failure rate.
• Obtain an expression for motor reliability by using
equations (1) and (2). Comment on the result.

Both equations are identical

10
Mean time to failure (MTTF)
 This is defined by:

……equation 4
 The following two expressions also yield identical
result:
….. equation 5

….. equation 6
where:
S = Laplace transform variable
R(s)=Laplace transform of the reliability function, R(t)
11
 Formulas for obtaining item Reliability, Hazard rate, and
MTTF

12
 Cont…
Example: Assume that the reliability of a mechanical device is
defined by:
where
λ = 0.0004 failures per hour.
• Calculate the device MTTF by using equations (4) and (6).
Comment on the end result.
• Substituting in to equation 4 yields:

• Substituting in to equation 6 yields:

13
Cont…
• taking Laplace transform of we get

• Equations (4) and (6) give identical results for the

mechanical device mean time to failure, i.e., 2500 h.
14
 9.5 Reliability Networks
9.5.1 Series network
• In this case k number of units forms a series system. If
any one of the units fails, the system fails. All system
units must work normally for successful operation of
the system.

Figure 9.2 a k-unit series system.

• The series system (shown in Figure 9.2) reliability is
expressed by:
……equation 1

15
Cont…
• Where Ej denotes the successful operation (i.e., success event)
of unit j for j = 1, 2, 3, …., k; Rs is the series system reliability;
and P(E1E2E3…Ek) is the occurrence probability of events E1,
E2, E3, …, and Ek.
• For independently failing units

….equation 2
where P(Ej) is the probability of occurrence of event Ej for j
= 1, 2, 3, …, k.
• If we let Rj = P(Ej) for j = 1, 2, 3,…, k

…………. equation 3

where Rj is the unit j reliability for j = 1, 2, 3, …, k.

16
Cont…
• For constant failure rate j of j (i.e., for j(t) =j), we
get
……. equation 4
where Rj (t) is the reliability of unit j at time t.
• Substituting Equation 4 into Equation 3 yields

where Rs (t) is the series system reliability at time t.

where MTTFs is the series system mean time to failure.

17
Example
• Assume that the constant failure rates of tires 1, 2, 3, and
4 of a car are λ 1 = 0.00001 failures per hour, λ 2 =
0.00002 failures per hour, λ 3 = 0.00003 failures per hour,
and λ 4 = 0.00004 failures per hour, respectively. For
practical purposes, the car cannot be driven when any one
of the tires punctures. Calculate the total tire system
failure rate and mean time to failure of the car with
respect to tires.
• λS(t) =
λS = 0.00001 + 0.00002 + 0.00003 + 0.00004
= 0.0001 failures per hour

18
9.5.2 Parallel Network
• In this case, the system is composed of k simultaneously
operating units, and at least one of these units must
operate normally for system success. The block diagram
of a k-unit parallel system is shown in Figure 9.3, and
each block in the diagram represents a unit.

Figure 9.3 block diagram of a k-unit

parallel system.
• The parallel system (shown in Figure 9.3) failure probability is
given by:
where Fps is the parallel system failure probability, denotes the
failure (i.e., failure event) of unit j, for j = 1, 2, …, k, and
is the occurrence probability of events
19
Cont…
• For independently failing parallel units, the equation
becomes:

Where is the probability of occurrence of event

for j = 1, 2, …., k.
• If we let for j = 1, 2, …., k, the equation
becomes

where Fj is the unit j failure probability for j = 1, 2, …, k.

• By subtracting from unity

20
Cont…
where Rps is the parallel system reliability.
• For constant failure rate j of unit j, subtracting from
unity and then substituting yields:

• For identical units,

• Where MTTFps is the parallel system mean time to failure and

λ is the unit constant failure rate. 21
Example
• A system is composed of three independent and identical
subsystems. At least one of the subsystems must operate
normally for the system to work successfully. Calculate
the system’s reliability if each subsystem’s probability of
failure is 0.1.
• Rps = 1 – (0.1) (0.1) (0.1)
= 0.999
Thus, the system’s reliability is 0.999.
Example
• A system is composed of two independent and active
units, and at least one unit must work normally for the
system success. The constant failure rates of units 1 and 2
are λ1 = 0.004 failures per hour and λ2 = 0.006 failures per
hour, respectively. Calculate the system mean time to
failure.
22
• From the equation:

• To find the MTTF, using the equation

• This means expect a failure after every 316.67 h of operation.

23
9.5.3 Standby System
• In this case only one unit is operating and k units are in
standby mode. As soon as the operating unit fails, it is
immediately replaced with one of the standby units. More
specifically, the system contains a total of k + 1 units, and
as soon as the operating unit fails, the switching
mechanisms or other means detect the failure and then
replace the failed unit with one of the standby units.

Figure 9.4 block diagram of a standby system with one operating and k
standby units. 24
Cont…
• For independent and identical units, perfect detection,
switching mechanisms and standby units, and time-
dependent unit failure rate, the expression for system
reliability is:

• where Rsb (t) is the standby system reliability at time t and

λ (t) is the unit time dependent failure rate.
• For constant unit failure rate, (i.e., λ (t) = λ), the equation
becomes:

25
 Cont…

Where MTTFsb is the standby system mean time to failure.

 MTTF Formulas for Selected Reliability Networks

26
 9.6 Reliability Evaluation Tools
• Reliability evaluation begins in the conceptual design
phase of products.
• Some examples of these methods and techniques are:
 failure modes and effect analysis (FMEA),
 the network reduction method,
 the decomposition method,
 the delta–star method, and
 the supplementary variables method.
• The application of these methods and techniques
depends on factors such as the type of project under
consideration, the specific need, the inclination of the
parties involved, and the ease of use. 27
1. Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
• Is an approach for performing analysis of each system
failure mode to examine their effects on total system.
• When FMEA is extended to categorize the effect of each
potential failure according to its severity, the method is
called failure mode effects and criticality analysis (FMECA)
• Steps in performing FMEA:
1. Define system boundaries and associated requirements
in detail.
2. List all system parts and components and subsystems.
3. List all possible failure modes and describe and
identify the component or part under consideration.

28
Cont…
4. Assign appropriate failure rate or probability to each
component or part failure mode.
5. List effects of each failure mode on subsystems and the
plant.
6. Enter appropriate remarks for each failure mode.
7. Review each critical failure mode and take appropriate
action.

29
2. Network Reduction Method
• Is a simple and useful method for determining the
reliability of systems consisting of independent series
and parallel subsystems.
• The method sequentially reduces the series and parallel
configurations to equivalent units until the whole
system becomes a single hypothetical unit.
• Is easy to understand and use.
Example
• A network made up of four independents with reliability
of Ri of unit i; for i=1, 2, 3, 4, is given. Calculate the
network reliability by using the network reduction
method.
30
 Cont…

Fig 9.5- Diagrammatic steps of

the network reduction method:
(i) original network,
(ii) reduced network,
(iii) further reduced network,
and
(iv) single hypothetical unit

31
Cont…
• First, identify subsystems A (in series) and B. A reduce
to a single hypothetical unit:
Ra = R1 R2
RA =(0.8)( 0.4) =0.32
where RA = reliability of subsystem A.
• Now the network is composed of a parallel subsystem
(i.e., subsystem B) in series with a single unit. Thus,
reducing the parallel subsystem to a single hypothetical
unit gives:

Where RB is the reliability of subsystem B.

32
Cont…
• The system is reduced to a two-unit series network, and
its reliability is given by:
Rn = RB R4
= (0.796) (0.9)
= 0.7164
where:
Rn is the whole-network reliability.

•The single hypothetical unit represents the reliability of

the whole network. The entire network is reduced to a
single hypothetical unit with reliability of 0.7164.
33
3. Decomposition Method
• It decomposes a complex system into simpler
subsystems by applying the conditional probability
theory. The system reliability is obtained by combining
the reliability measures of subsystems.
• It assumes that key element, z, is replaced by another
that non-failing (i.e., 100% reliable) and the key
element is completely removed from the complex
system under consideration.
• The overall reliability of the complex system is
obtained by using:

34
Cont…
Where
RCS is the complex system or network reliability,
P(z) = reliability of the key element z,
is the failure probability of the key element z
and P is the probability.
Example
• An independent unit network representing a complex
system. Each block and letter Ri denote a unit and
unit I reliability, for I = 1, 2, …, 5. Obtain an
expression for the network reliability by using the
decomposition technique.
35
Cont…

36
Cont…
• Choosing a unit falling between nodes C and D as key
element z, and replacing it with a bad (failed) element;
thus, the network reduces. It is a parallel-series network,
and its reliability is given by:

Where Rps is the parallel-series network reliability.

• Similarly, we replace the key element with a perfect
element that never fails; thus, the Figure 4.2a network
reduces to the one shown in Figure 4.2c. It is a series
parallel network, and its reliability is given by:

Where Rsp is the series-parallel network reliability.

37
 Cont…
• The reliability and failure probability, respectively, of the key
element z are given by:
and
Where R3 is the reliability of the key element z.
• By substituting the equations into

yields:

Where RN is the reliability of the network shown in Figure 4.2a.

• For identical units (i.e., R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = R), the equation
simplifies to: RN = 2 R5 − 5 R4 + 2 R3 + 2 R2 Where RN is the
reliability of the network. 38
4. Delta–star Method
• This approach transforms a bridge network to its
equivalent network composed of series and parallel
configurations. Then, network reduction method can be
used to obtain network reliability.
• The reliabilities of units falling between nodes 1 and 2,
3 and 2, and 3 and 1 in the delta configuration in Figure
9.7 are R12, R32, and R31, respectively.

Figure 9.7 A delta–star

equivalent reliability
diagram.

39
Cont…
• Similarly, the reliabilities of units close to nodes 1, 2,
and 3 in the star configuration in Figure 9.7 are R1, R2,
and R3, respectively.
• The equivalent reliability equations for independent
unit networks falling between nodes 1 and 2, 3 and 2,
and 3 and 1, respectively:

40
Cont…
where

Example
A bridge network made up of five independent and
identical units is shown in Figure 6.8. Each block in the
figure denotes a unit with specified reliability R = 0.9.
Calculate the network reliability by using the delta–star
method. Use the reliability value (i.e.R=0.9) to obtain the
bridge network reliability. Comment on both results.
41
Cont…

Figure 9.8 a five

identical-unit bridge
network.
• Nodes 1, 2, and 3 denote the delta configuration. Using
the given data, we get the star equivalent reliabilities:

where

42
Cont…
• Using the above calculated values, the equivalent network
to the Figure 5.8 bridge network is redrawn in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9 equivalent

network to the bridge
configuration shown in
figure 5.8.

• The reliability of the Figure 5.9 network, Rn, is given

by:

43
Cont…

• The two above reliability values, obtained by using the

exact method and the delta–star, approach are basically
same (i.e., 0.9785 and 0.9788). This demonstrates that
for practical purposes the delta–star method is quite
effective.

44
 9.7 Mechanical and Human Reliability
9. 7.1 General Mechanical Failure Causes and Modes
• Many different types of causes of mechanical failure are
associated with mechanical parts or items such as:
• Poor or defective design
• Manufacturing defect
• Incorrect application
• Wrong installation
• Wear-out
• Failure of other parts or components
• Gradual deterioration in performance
Safety Factors: Various safety factors are used during design
to ensure reliability of mechanical items. They can be quite
useful to provide satisfactory design if they are established
with utmost care. 45
Mechanical failure modes

46
5.7.2 Human Error Categories and Cause
Many times systems fail because of human errors rather than
because of hardware or software failures.

Fig. Human error categories. 47

Cont…
• There are many causes of human errors. Some of the
common ones are:
• poor training or skills of personnel,
• inadequate work tools,
• poor motivation of personnel,
• poorly written product and equipment operating and
maintenance procedures,
• Complex tasks,
• poor work layout,
• poor equipment and product design, and
• poor job environment (i.e., poor lighting, crowded
work space, high noise level, high or low temperature,
etc.) 48
 5.8 Reliability Management
• Failures are caused primarily by people (designers, suppliers,
assemblers, users, maintainers).
– Thus, reliability is a management task, to ensure that
people and other resources are applied to prevent failures.
• Reliability management is concerned with the direction and
control of an organization’s reliability activities such as
developing reliability policies and goals, facilitating
interactions of reliability manpower with other parts of the
organization, and staffing.
• It is an important element of reliability engineering because
of various factors including:
• system complexity, sophistication, and size;
• demanding reliability requirements; and
• cost and time constraints.
49
Cont…
5.8.1 General management reliability program
responsibilities
• Developing appropriate reliability goals.
• Providing appropriate funds, manpower, scheduled time,
and authority.
• Establishing an effective program to fulfill set reliability
objectives or goals and eradicating existing shortcomings.
• Developing a mechanism for accessing information
concerning current reliability performance of the
organization with respect to its operations and products.
• Monitoring the program regularly and taking appropriate
corrective measures with respect to associated policies,
procedures, organization, and so on.
50
 Cont…
Guidelines for developing reliability programs

51
 5.8.2 Reliability Management Tools and Documents

Reliability management uses a variety of tools and

documents.
Tools: configuration management, value engineering, and
critical path method.
1. Configuration Management:
• changes concerned with product performance, weight,
size, appearance, and so on during the development of
an engineering system or product to assure the customer
and the manufacturer that the end product will fully
satisfy the contract specification.
• Has an advantages such as reduction in overall cost,
effective channeling of resources, facilitation of accurate
data retrieval, elimination of redundant efforts, formal
establishment of objectives, and precisely identified
final product. 52
Cont…
2. Value Engineering
• Is a systematic, creative technique used to accomplish a
necessary function at the minimum cost.
• Useful areas: identifying areas requiring attention and
improvement, prioritizing, serving as a vehicle for
dialogue, increasing the value of good and services, and
generating new ideas to solve problems.
• It also serves as a useful tool to determine alternative
solutions to a concern, a useful procedure for assigning
dollars on high-value items, a means to document
rationales behind decisions, and a useful approach for
determining and quantifying intangibles.
53
Cont…
3. Critical Path Method
• The critical path method (CPM) along with the program
evaluation and review technique (PERT) is widely used
for planning and controlling projects.
• CPM are useful to determine project duration
systematically, show interrelationships in work flow,
improve communication and understanding, identify
critical work activities for completing the project on
time, monitor project progress effectively, and
determine the need for labor and resources in advance.
It is also useful in cost control and cost saving.

54
Cont…
Documents: are the reliability manual, international and
national specifications and standards, policy and
procedure documents, plans and instructions, and
reports and drawings.
Topics Covered in a Reliability Manual
 Company-wide reliability policy
 Organizational structure and responsibilities
 Relationship with suppliers and customers
 Product design phase procedures from the standpoint
of reliability
 Effective reliability methods, models, etc.
 Reliability test and demonstration approaches and
procedures
 Failure data collection and analysis methods and
procedures to be followed
55
Cont…
Tasks of Reliability Engineer

56