CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

In the early 1900s, conflict was seen as an indicator of poor

organizational management which needed to be avoided, in the mid 1950’s, it
was accepted passively and perceived as normal and expected; manager focused
on resolving conflict, while in the 1970’s, conflict was viewed necessary as not
good or bad but could be used to promote growth in the 1990’s, managers
needed to confront and manage conflict appropriately (Algert and Watson,
2002). Conflict has historically been viewed as undesirable, something to be
avoided (Esquivel 1997). The classical organization theorist believed that
conflict produced inefficiency and was therefore undesirable, detrimental to the
organization and should be eliminated or at least minimized to the extent
possible (dysfunctional conflict). Perceptions about conflict changed with the
emergence of social systems and open system theory. According to the social
system theories, conflict is one of the central forms of interaction.

Conflict is normal and positive as well as negative. This view was

supported by Emile Durkheim that conflict ids normal and functional because it
brings about positive changes in an organization. Conflict, however, becomes
negative if it is not managed and allows reaching a dysfunctional stage. Conflict
in an employment relationship has been an issue of continuing interest and
debate. Conflict is a common occurrence in organizational life. It occurs when a
desire goal or objectives, the desire to obtain more in both economic (wages and
benefit) and non-economic (contract provisions and operation practices) areas.
Labour union also expects to make these gains via the bargaining process, the
grievance and arbitration procedure and management default. The organized

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private sector on the other hand, resists all effort on the union to restrict
management freedom to make decision necessary to run business profitability.

Human beings are by nature social animals that interact, feel, learn, work
and relate with each other in an organization. They are the most valuable
resources as well as the source of most problem and conflicts in organizations.
Conflict can be challenging and dysfunctional. It is inevitable due to the
complex and unique qualities people bring to the organization. Inability to
satisfy needs, interest or goals can result to conflict depending on personalities,
choices, decisions, behaviors, and understanding of others. Conflict is a
recurring decimal in all human relationships, be it in the family, institutions,
organizations, (Uchendu, Anijaobi, and Odigwe, 2013). Fadipe (2000) sees
conflict as a form of disagreement in an establishment between two individuals
or groups who have cause to interact formally or informally. It is basically the
disagreement between two or more individuals or group over compatible goals.
Conflict therefore involve behavior that can mean interference or disruption by
one person or group of persons in a manner that makes the other party less
likely to be effective. Conflict means that people are working against each
other, in such a manner that what one wants is incompatible with that which
another wants. It could bring about competition in the pursuit of goals (Deutsch,
1973).

Conflict could be viewed as a situation of competition in which the

parties are aware of the incomparability of potential future position in which
each party wish of other. Conflict could arise because of the employees
continuous improved condition of living for their members. Conflict could arise
as a result of failure to honour agreed items on collective bargaining. Damachi,
(1999), emphasizes that if those workers right and employee prerogative are
trampled upon, could also cause conflict. These include pay, condition of
service, and fringe benefits among others. Azamosa, (2004) observed that

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conflicts involve the total range of behaviors and attitude that is in opposition
between the owners/manager on one hand, and working people on the other. It
is a state of disagreement over issues of substances or emotional antagonism
and may arise due to anger, mistrust or personality clash, it is believed that
managers spend a considerable portion of their time dealing with conflict and
that conflict management becomes increasingly important to their effectiveness.

Conflict among workers in an organization is inevitable. If it manages

properly, it will bring catalyst for change and can have a positive impact on
employee satisfaction and performance of the organization. Conversely,
unmanaged conflict negatively impacts both employee satisfaction and job
performance. When organizational leaders ignore workplace conflict, they send
a message that unsatisfactory job performance and inappropriate behavior are
acceptable. Awan and Ajum (2015) opined that properly managed conflict
promotes open communication, collaborative decision making, regular
feedback, and timely resolution of conflict. Open communication and
collaboration enhance the flow of new ideas and strengthen work relationship,
which can have a positive effect on employees morale. Regular feedback and
timely resolution of conflict has the potential of improving employee
satisfaction and job performance. Awan and Ibrahim (2015) content that if the
individual do not have the communication or interpersonal skills to resolve their
disputes, the conflict can grow and spread to others, eventually affecting their
job performance, which in turn, affects the job satisfaction of others, as well in
addition to the staff not having communication skills to address their disputes,
their leaders often lack the necessary skilled to be effective in conflict
resolution.

Once human resources personnel are involved, the process becomes

punitive and results in disciplinary action, which contributes to an even greater
reduction in employee morale and employee satisfaction. Within any

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organization, there are usually different positions and jobs. People occupying
these positions have different perceptions, goals, thought and concerns. It is
difficult to conceptualize society or an organization without inherent differences
and contradictions and these leads to conflict. Awan and Ahson (2015) say that
conflict is a natural and inevitable part of people working together and should
be kept at a manageable level where it will not disorganize the activities of the
organization towards the attainment of its objectives. While some conflicts are
functional others are not. It can also affect the organization negatively when it is
associated with decreased employees satisfaction, insubordination, decreased
productivity, leads to economic loss, fragmentation to mention but a few. It is
the management major responsibility to device strategies in bringing down
conflict as low as possible, which will enable the organization to still function to
succeed (Robbins & Sanghi, 2006).

However, considering the past history of Nigeria industrial relations, one

may conclude that industrial conflict is a dominant factor and could affect the
nations productive capacity if neglected. It is against this background the study
will be being carried out on the effect of good conflict management on
employees performance in power holding company of Nigeria, Mubi District
Office.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Industrial conflicts have led to economic hardship now evident in the

country as the gross domestic product has steadily depleted which has led to job
retrenchment. There have been many disputes and disagreement between the
Nigeria workers and their employers, including decreased employees
satisfaction, insubordination, decreased productivity, economic loss
fragmentation to mention but a few, this disagreement as a result has led to
industrial actions, crises and its pathetic result is the poor performance of the

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economy as millions of naira is lost each time Nigerian workers embark on
strike or industrial actions.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to examine the effect of conflict

management on employee performance, using Kaduna Electricity
Distribution Company (KAEDCO) as a case study.

i. To determine the effect of interpersonal conflict management on

employee performance in KAEDCO.
ii. To investigate the effect of intra-group conflict management on
employee performance in KAEDCO.
iii. To examine the effect of inter-group conflict management on
employee performance in KAEDCO.
iv. To assess the effect of intra-personal conflict management on
employee performance in KAEDCO.

1.4 Research Question

The following research questions were formulated for the study:

i. What is the effect of inter-personal conflict management on employee’s

performance in KAEDCO?

ii. How does intra-group conflict management influence employee

performance in KAEDCO?

iii. What impact does inter-group conflict management have on employee

performance in KAEDCO?

iv. How does intra-personal conflict management affect employee

performance in KAEDCO?
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1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following hypothesis were design for this research purpose

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between inter-personal conflict

management and employees performance in KAEDCO.

Ho2: There is no significant relationship between intra-group conflict

management and employee performance in KAEDCO

Ho3: There is no significant relationship between inter-group conflict

management and employee performance in KAEDCO

Ho4: There is no significant relationship between intra personal conflict

management and employee performance in KAEDCO

1.6 Significance of the study

This study would be immensely significant to the management of the

Kaduna Electricity Distribution Company, management of sister organization,
student researcher and the general body of knowledge.

The management of Kaduna Electricity Distribution Company

(KAEDCO) would find this study outcome useful as it would give a more
robust scientific findings, the effect of good conflict management on employees
performance which can be used in day to day decision and general
administration of the company. The study will be beneficial to human resource
manager in recognizing the need to develop a common language that helps
people to think effectively and communicate clearly about the conflict and its
management, the result of the study will also be a value to organizations both
public and private in order for them to identify some silent causes of conflict in
power sector with a view to designing a conflict management system for
resolving and promoting industrial relations in the work environment.

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 To the researcher, this study would serve as part of the requirement for
obtaining Higher National Diploma (HND) in Business Administration and
management Certificate.

Also, as an academic exercise, the study will afford us the opportunity to

contribute to knowledge, improve upon our research experience and provide a
basis for further research. And at same time the researcher result would help in
widening the frontiers of the existing literatures.

1.7 Scope and Limitation of the study

The scope of this study centered on the effect of good management

conflict on employee performance in Kaduna Electricity Distribution Company
(KAEDCO) Kaduna State. KAEDCO cover part of the North- Western state of
Nigeria. However, for the purpose of this study this research will concentrate
most on Makera, Doka, Mando, Tudun Wada andch Rigasa business offices of
the KAEDCO.

The study will inevitably limit by some factors such as:

1. The major limitation of the research is lack of experience on the side of

the researcher since this is his first exposure to research activities alone.
2. Employees as well as managers may not will to provide information as
required because many people do not publicize internal problems to
external practice even if there is real problem in the organization. Also
some database which could also generate relevant scientific papers might
have been missed out for the literature search.
3. The study requires a remarkable resource to investigate in details.s
4. The researchers delimited the study to the factors that contribute towards
conflict in one circuit in Kaduna Electricity Distribution Company
(KAEDCO) of Kaduna State. The respondents were management and
staff of KAEDCO. Other stakeholders like customers as well as Trade
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 Unions representatives were outside the preview of this study, this
equally constitute a limitation to the study.

1.8 Definition of common Terms

The following are the definitions of some of the terms used in this study.

Conflict: This refers to all forms of opposition, disagreement, internal discord,

friction or quarrel between two or more parties. Conflict manifests in form of
arguments, strikes, protests, unrests, boycott of lectures, demonstration,
aggression, turbulence, destructive behaviors etc. however, conflict in this study
means a clash of interest, ideas, beliefs, values et cetera, and their affects,
between employees and/or staff and the organizations authorities.

Industrial Conflict: This refer to as the dissatisfaction arising from the

interaction between the labour and the management in the work place.

Conflict management: This refers to strategies employed to prevent, resolve,

suppress or end conflict by the authorities, both within and outside the
campuses.

Negotiation: This is the formal discussion between people who are trying to
reach an agreement.

Strike: This is a temporary refusal by workers to work in accordance to the

prevailing employment contract or other conditions that may have been
specified or implied in the contract of employment.

Industrial Action: This is the reaction of either party to conflict in any attempt
to make the other party succumb to its demand.

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Management Strategy: It refers to methods employed by the management team
to avoid, prevent, limit, resolve or end conflicts within and outside the
organization.

Employee Performance: This refers to individual work achievement after

exerting required effort on the job which is associated through getting a
meaningful work, engage profile and compassionate colleagues/ employers
around.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review

In this chapter, literature will be reviewed according to the research

questions used in the study. Information will be extracted from various books,
journals, website/internet for the study.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

Conflict is central to human relations, and human interactions are based

on conflict (Tessier, 2002). Conflict occurs between people in all kinds of
human relationships and in all social settings. Because of the wide range of
potential differences among people, the absence of conflict usually signals the
absence of meaningful interaction. Conflict by itself is either good nor bad.
However, the manner in which conflict is handled determines whether it is
constructive or destructive (Deutsch and Coleman, 200). Every human being
represent an expression of values, meaning, attributes perspectives, biases and
roles. This is the basis for the uniqueness of human identity.

This uniqueness then becomes the basis for expression and behaviours
that emphasize individual separateness. Yet at the same time each individual
identifies with groups both within and without the team/workplace, based on
attribute such as race, culture, religion, values, experience and professional role,
and injects these into the complex fabric of workplace interaction, leading to
divided loyalties. The continuous and endless diversity that this complexity
brings provides ample opportunity for conflict (Picker, 2003). The
understanding and meaning of the term “Conflict” are often based on the
theoretical perspectives of the various disciplines, usually reflecting its divers

10
forms and contexts. Thus conflict has been defined differently in different
circumstances.

Robbins (2005) defines conflict as a process that start when one party
perceives that another party has or is about to negatively affect its concerns.
(Hellriegel, Slocum & Woodman 1998) define conflict as a disposition to
disagreement about goals, thoughts or emotions within or between parties.
Inherent in these definitions is the perception of difference or disagreement by
one or both parties as well as the psychological and behavioral elements. This
implies that conflict could be perceived (subjective of objective) or felt, and
either not express (latent) or expressed differently (manifest) by the parties
involved. Conflict therefore, appears to be a multi-dimensional concept.

Conflict may be define as an expressed single between two or more

independent parties perceiving incompatible goals, scares resources, and
interference from others in achieving goals (Hocker & Wilmot, 2001). Conflict
is a social phenomenon which has been evident among humans since primordial
time (Keeley, 1996, Aminu, & Marfo, 2010). Conflict not only cuts across
every sphere of life – species, time, cultures and so on, its occurrence seems
inevitable as people socially interact with themselves (Spector, 2008). Conflict
generally is not a new concept. It is a term often mentioned in a wide range of
professional and academic disciplines t describe situations in which there is
some kind of disagreement between two related parties, be it individuals, groups
or organizations. It is a term which is often used interchangeably with words
like “disputes”, “violence” and so on (Almost, 2006). Bagshaw, (1998), opined
that conflict is a fact of life, as people compete for jobs, resources, power,
acknowledgement and security.

Clearly, conflict and differences of pinions always exist in all

organizations; from such differences new and better objectives methods of

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conflict resolution emerge (Mc Shane and Gilnow 200). Attempts to enhance
the beneficial attributes of conflicts have resulted in management devising
different policies, rules and regulations in the organizations. In modern
organizational systems, collective bargaining and problem solving are widely
used tools to resolve conflicts and strengthen the pact between employers and
employees. The essence of bargaining is to facilitates agreement on specific
terms, with both parties giving concessions in an objective manner, (Sev 2004).

Conflict is perceived divergence of interest or a belief that parties’

aspiration cannot be achieved simultaneously (Rahim, 2002). Disputes are
manifest disagreement often following legal or quasi-legal or otherwise
confrontational procedure such as complaints, charges, grievances and lawsuits.
Conflict is also a process that occurs when one person, groups or organizational
submit frustrate the attainment of another (Rahim, 2002). Moorhead and
Griffin, (1995) say conflict is a disagreement among parties. When two persons
or groups disagree over major issues, conflict is often the result. Often, it is
generated by political behavior or battles over limited resources. In particular, it
frequently occurs when a person or a group believes that its attempts to achieve
its goal are being blocked by another person or group.

Myers (1993) defines conflict as a perceived incompatibility of action or

goals. Whether their perception are accurate or not, inaccurate people in conflict
sense that one side gain is the loss of the other side. Vacchio (1991) is of the
opinion conflict is the process that results when one person (or a group of
people) perceive that another person or group is frustrating or about to frustrate
an important concern. Conflict involves incompatible differences between
parties that result in interference or opposition.

In defining conflict, Imaga (1999) differentiated between substantive

conflict and emotional conflict. The former he says, involves dispute over

12
policies, competition for scares resources and differing perceptions of roles and
task relationship. Emotional conflict on the other hand, involve negative
feelings of one party toward the other as distrust, resentment, inaccurate
interpretations of communication and acting on the basis of stereotypes.
Greenberg & Baron (1993, sees conflict as a process in which one party
perceives that another party has taken some action that will exert negative
effects on its major interest or is about to take such action.

2.2 Types of Conflict in an organization

There are several categorizations of conflict in literatures of

organizational conflict with considerable overlap of concepts. Nevertheless,
categorizing conflict helps create an awareness of its existence in organization
as well as gives insight into the source and form of the conflict. This will enable
managers keep track of the emerging conflict pattern and provide prompt
effective resolution approach. These categorizations however are based on the
different perspective of researchers/authors. Olakunle (2008) identified six
different levels of conflict: interpersonal, intra-group, intergroup, intrapersonal,
intra-organizational and inter-organizational levels.

i. Interpersonal conflict

This is a conflict between two or more individuals who do not share the
goals or values or who are in opposite to one another in the same organization.
In an organization, one manager might argue that the organization must hire
more MBA graduates in order to increase performance whiles other managers
may insist that MBAs are too expensive and not required given the objectives of
the organization.

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 ii. Intra-group conflict:

Conflict within persons. It occurs when individuals, often involves some

form of goals conflict or cognitive conflict. For instance, goal conflict occurs
for individuals when their behavior results in outcomes that are mutually
exclusive or have incomplete elements. Intrapersonal conflicts have the
following sub-dimension.

iii. Intergroup conflict:

Intergroup usually occurs among groups in an organization. This type of

conflict is most often seen between functional groups, teams or departments.
These groups may have diverse interest, and may not be willing to share
information freely. Members of groups might clash with member of other
groups as well.

iv. Intrapersonal conflict:

This type of conflicts arises within and among groups, teams or

departments. Members of the marketing department might experience conflict
over the allocation of resource made available to that department.

v. Inter-organizational conflict:

This type of conflicts emerges among organizations, for example, an

organization that has a mission to defend and protect wild life come into
conflict with builders who argue the need to clear large areas of wilderness in
order to develop properties. As one might expect, inter-organizaional conflict is
also often seen between business that operate in the same markets. Inter-
organizational conflict occurs in the competition and rivalry that characterized
firms operations employing their members, between governments regulatory
agencies and organizations subjected to their surveillance and between
organizations and suppliers of raw materials.

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2.3 Causes of conflict in an organization

Conflict in an organization can arises due to many factors which include:

Poor communication:

Employees experience continual surprises, for example, they are not

informed of major decisions that affect their work place. Employees do not
understand the reason for the decision; they are not involved in the decision-
making. As a result, they “rumor mill” more than their management
(Osabuohien, 2010).

i. Leadership Problem

Leadership problems are a common source of conflict. They can include

avoiding conflict instead of addressing problems with subordinates. This allows
conflict to faster. In other instances, supervisors “play favorites” with some
employees. This can make it difficult to rally the help of subordinates in times
of need. Inconsistency in decision making can also cause problems, such as
confusion about expectations when supervisors also do not understand the jobs
of their subordinates (Osabuohien, 2010).

ii. Deadlines

In projects, deadlines are very important. Deadlines can easily cause

conflict when the employee thinks that a deadline given to him or her or as a
group to meet a particular target is limited by management but management
thinks it is enough and that can result in conflict or when groups start to push
deadline limits as the conflicts become more important than reaching their
deadlines. When both sides think they are right and the conflict is not brought to
check, the idea that each side must think they are right before they can move on
well begin to affect important deadlines (Osabuohien, 2010).

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 iii. Lack of teamwork/poor performance

This can be another cause of conflict if some in the term believe other
colleagues are not pulling their weight or not competent in the job they do.
Overall, conflict often arises when there is a non-acceptance of differences
which there is a high level of uncertainty or where there are poor industrial
relations. The atmosphere that this causes can often be resulting to in a rising of
tension levels and consequentially poor relationship at work (Osabuohien,
2010).

iv. Poor Organizational Structure

Where people may feel alienated or isolated, thus the spirit of

competitiveness and non-cooperation may be strong, this will also clash with
the organizational policies and strategies due to different styles of interaction or
different values or believes as well as culture is not considered (Osabuohien,
2010).

v. Lack of Role Definition

Conflict can occur when employees do not understand their role or job
functions. Uncertainty about “who does what” can lead co-workers to feel they
are working disproportionally harder than others. It can also lead to where an
employee perceives a co-worker in infringing upon their duties, clearly defining
roles and responsibilities. Policies and procedures in work place bring order and
improve efficiency. In a policy environment, employees usually do not perform
ton management expectations. It can also lead to safety issues. Conflicts can
occur between co-worker and management when employee divert from required
policies, procedures or work rules. It is important for supervision to monitor
policy compliance and take corrective actions in the early stages of an
compliance.

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2.4 Conflict Management

Virtually all organization regardless of their complexity or size are

involved in one form of conflict or another and thus have mechanism built into
the structures of the organization to help manage conflict. Hellriegel and
Slocum (1996), state that conflict management is a process that involves actions
taken not only to minimize conflict, but also to increases insufficient
(functional) conflict. It involve the planning and implementation of organization
procedures and policy for effective management. According to Van Tonder et al
(2008), the way individuals, groups and organizations conceptualize conflict
especially the event which leads to conflict and the anticipated potential
consequences largely affect the way conflict is approached and managed. Thus,
regardless of the origin of the conflict, management approach to conflict is a
potential moderator between the evolution of conflict and the likely outcome
(Tjosvold, 2008).

The problem of workplace conflict is immense. Conflict management

needs to be incorporated into personal skill set as a fundamental problem
solving tool, along with other basic skill requisites for power sector workers.
Essential elements of such a program should include the concept of human
nature, diversity, interaction and conflict, dynamics of conflict and the element
of resolution, the organizational conflict policy and structure and a clear
understanding of systematic approaches to addressing conflict as part of
everyday business (Porter-O’Grady, 2004). This should address issues between
organization and employees, management and employees, and between
employees. Issues include productivity, performance,, collegiality, and
absenteeism, and coverage, quality of work life, harassment and bullying,
discrimination, discipline and termination procedures. These tend to be the
situations in which much of conflict arises.

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 The difference between resolution and management of conflict is more
than sematic (Robbins, 1978). Conflict resolution implies reduction,
elimination, or termination of conflict. A large number of studies on
negotiation, bargaining, mediation, and arbitration fall into the conflict
resolution category (Robbins, 1978). What we need for contemporary
organizations is conflict management and not conflict resolution. Conflict
management does not necessarily imply avoidance, reduction, or termination of
conflict. It involves designing effective macro-level strategies to minimize the
dysfunctions of conflict and enhancing the constructive functions of conflict in
order to enhance learning and effectiveness in an organization.

Several researchers however suggest that for effective management, the

substantive and affective dimensions of workplace conflict should be
considered (Jehn, 1997; Amason, 1996). While the affective dimension entails
issues that are caused by the negative reactions of members of the organizations
(for example personal attacks and racial discordance), the substantive dimension
entails issues relating to tasks, organizations policies and so on. However, some
scholars believe that these two dimensions are one entity which should not be
considered separately (Rahim, 2002). Whatever the strategy employed, conflict
management aims at containing or minimizing the destructive effects of conflict
as well as finding satisfactory and acceptable solution to the conflict.

The conflict management process encompasses a wide range of activities,

including communication, problem solving, dealing with emotions and
understanding positions (Brett, 2001; Pondy 1992). Previous research in this
tradition has shown that different conflict management orientations such as
collaborating, competing and accommodation affect success at the individual,
teams, and organizational levels (Edmondson, 1999).

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 Various conflict management theories opined that a healthy conflict
management system should integrate the internal sub-system with the higher
level of the organization hierarchy while ford (2007) provide a four-way
process which include assessment and inquiry, addresses and design,
implementation and evaluation aimed at reaching a valid and objective conflict
management decision.

Conflict management involves doing things to limit the negative aspects of

conflict and to increase the positive aspects of conflict. The aim of conflict
management is to enhance learning and group outcomes including effectiveness
or performance in organizational setting (Rahim, 2002). Overall, conflict
management should aim to minimize affective conflicts al all levels, attain and
maintain a moderate amount of substantives conflict and use the appropriate
conflict management strategy- to effectively bring about the first two goals and
also to match the status and concerns of two parties of conflict (Rahim, 2002).
In other for conflict management strategies to be effective, they should satisfy
certain criteria. The below criteria are particularly useful for not only conflict
management but also decision making management.

a) Organizational Learning and Effectiveness- In order to attain this

objective, conflict management strategies should be designed to enhance
critical and innovative thinking to learn the process of diagnosis and
intervention in the right problems.
b) Needs of Stakeholders- Sometimes multiple parties are involved in a
conflict in an organization and the challenge of conflict management
would involve these parties in a problem solving process that will lead to
collective learning and organizational effectiveness. Organizations should
institutionalize the positions of employee advocate customer and supplier
advocate as well as environmental and stakeholder advocates.

19
c) Ethics – A wise leader must behave ethically and to do so, the leader
should be open to new information and be willing to change his or her
mind. The same token subordinates and other stakeholders have an
ethical duty to speak out against the decisions of supervisors when
consequences of these decisions which are likely serious. “Without an
understanding of ethics, conflict cannot be handled (Bachelor, 2000).

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2.5 Conflict Management Strategy

Friedman et al (2000) view a style as a response to a particular situation.

While some scholars view conflict management styles as individual characters
or behaviors which are stable across situations and over time, others view them
not as stable inherent qualities or traits but as strategic choices individuals make
to deal with the conflict situation they face. Different approaches to conflict
management in power sector settings have been identified in the literature.
These are mainly conflict management by resolution which includes avoidance,
accommodation, compromise, competition and collaboration and conflict
management by stimulation techniques. It is however convenient to explore
how often these approaches are employed, the factors which determine the
approach of choice and the consequences of their use in power sector
organizations.

a) Avoidance Strategy

This is a conflict handling style in which one party has a low concern for self
and other, that is, the party is unassertive about his/her interest and at the same
time uncooperative with the other party in reaching the solution. This implies
that the concerned party does not have the will or desire to resolve the problem
at first. Also referred to as inaction or withdrawal, managers that employ this
style postpone, fail to confront, or simply ignore the problem and pretend they
do not exist and therefore fail to address the root cause(s) of the conflict
(Olekalns et al., 2007). Because the root causes are not addressed, the conflict
remains unresolved and consequently impart negatively on future relations and
on organizational goals. Therefore, this style is not effective in dealing with
conflict and managers who employ this strategy may not be well equipped to
handle conflict that actually needs their audience. However, it has the advantage
of creating opportunity for disputants to diffuse tensions and reflect on the

21
conflicts situations during which they can both decide to start a new but
constructive negotiation or decide to put an end to dispute.

b) Accommodation Strategy

It is a style in which a disputant has low concern for self and a high concern for
other. Thus, one party shows greater concern for the needs of the other than for
his or her own needs, leading to a lose-win situation. It also referred to as a
smoothing or yielding, it is a strategy in which the disputant is unassertive but
highly cooperative with other disputant, playing down the conflict, overlooking
their differences and obliging to the other disputant for a peaceful resolution
(Schermerhorn, 2000; Olekalns et al., 2007). This style is desirable in situations
when one realizes his or her wrongs and learns from his or her mistakes, when
one is willing to allow the other party (especially a subordinate) to learn from
his or her mistakes, to minimize loss when one perceives that he or she cannot
win, when both parties with common interest are more important and outweigh
their differences, when the conflict is difficult to resolve, especially ideological
and value conflict, when the issue at stake is of less importance to one party
than to the other and when keeping peace is extremely important for individual
and team performance (Hellriegel & Slocum 1996). Although, it has the
advantage of resolving conflict within a short time, it does not address the root
cause of the conflict, thus the quality of agreement might be low and this could
worsen future relations. Also, because this style requires one of the parties for
example the manager to be unassertive his or her ideas might not get attention
and therefore his or her authority and incredibility could be undermined.

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 c) Competition Strategy

Also referred to as dominating or contending or power oriented strategy in

which the disputant has high concern for self and low concern for others. Thus,
the disputant becomes very assertive and uncooperative, adopts a win-lose
orientation and therefore uses any form of power coercive or position
(authority) at his or her disposal to subjugate the other party (Schermerhorn,
2000). Positional commitment, verbal dominance including threats, use of force,
holding back information could give the other party a competitive edge,
exploitation of the other party’s weakness, persuasive or persistent debate or
argument for one’s needs and reiteration of goals are some of the behaviors
shown. Disputants who adopts this style may either have the power or authority
are higher is hierarchical chain or are connected to powerful groups sufficient to
force their opponents to accept their resolutions.

Conflict is often resolved through unilateral action taken by powerful

party without any consideration for the view of the other party. This style is
desirable when quick decisive actions that affect organizational performance are
vital particularly when the enforcer is right. For example, the decision to lay off
an unproductive staff, cut budget and so on which may improve organizational
effectiveness it can also be used when there is a need to stand for one’s rights.
On the other hand, when over used or when the enforcer is wrong, this style has
the disadvantage of straining relationships between individuals and groups in
the organization, creates retaliatory tendencies, resentment, hostilities and
sabotage, negatively affects health and well-being and leads to overall poor
performance (Lussier, 1997). Thus, what started as a win-loss approach might
result in a win-lose outcome if not wisely handled.

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d) Collaboration Strategy
This style is also referred to as integrating or problem solving in which
case the disputant has high concern for self and other. Though disputant
shows a high level of assertiveness and cooperativeness, they seek to
resolve their conflict by adopting win-win orientation. Hence, there is a
willingness to collaborate, a high sense of mutuality, personal flexibility,
a willingness to share information and engage in constructive argument
and work through their differences for the benefit of both parties
(Olekelnset, 2007). Lusssier (1998) prescribes five steps for dispute
resolution through the use of collaborative style:
1) Designing a (joint) plan to define the problem and ensure
“ownership” of the process and decision.
2) Presenting the plan and working towards a solution often
highlighting and emphasizing common grounds and de-
emphasizing their differences.
3) Presenting possible resolution options which reflect mutual trust
and respect and concerns for both parties.
4) Agreeing on a resolution
5) Evaluation or follow up to ensure compliance and maintenance of
their solution.

Collaborative style fosters ownership of decision making and

improves quality decision making. It enhances good working
relationship and group cohesiveness, builds mutual trust and respect
and improve overall performance at workplace. On the contrary, it is
a time consuming strategy and may inappropriate when dealing with
important issues which require quick decision making.

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e) Compromising Strategy
This is a style in which the disputant has moderate concern for self and
other. That is, disputants show moderate degree of assertiveness and
cooperativeness during resolution process. Thus, they approach each
other in a “win some- lose some” manner and a willingness to resolve the
conflict by ‘reconciling or splitting the difference’. Therefore, both
parties engage in making some concessions of their interests, usually
those interests, usually those interest which are fundamental to the
positions they adopted and thus settle for a middle ground that partly
satisfies their needs. Reaching a compromise could be achieved through
direct communication with the other party (negotiation). It could also be
achieved by involving a third party as a facilitator or a mediator for
example, high ranking personnel or as an arbitrator especially when
negotiation fails and thus the need to seek the intervention of a neutral
third party (Ivancevich and Matteson, 1996).

2.6 Theories of Conflict in an Organization

For decades, scholars been trying to understand why conflict
emerges between people as they relate with each other. Several theories
have been put forward by scholars from different professional disciplines
to explain how conflict could emerge from human interactions.
Although, there is no single theory that captures the whole essence of the
myriad of factors responsible for the occurrence of this multi-
dimensional, pervasive phenomenon, it is however important to provide
perspectives that explain the origin of conflict between individuals,
groups and organization. In this regard, three leading theoretical
perspectives are highlighted to explain why and how issues which cut
across cultures and are considered fundamental to human co-existence
and interactions could lead to conflict in a wide range of contexts

25
including the work environment. These perspectives are presented
below:
a) Interdependence Theory

This theory was put forward by Rusbult and Van Lange (2003) following
earlier work by Kelly and Thibaut, to explain how resources can be the
cause of conflict at the individual, group or organizational level. This
theory assumes, that individuals depend on each other to obtain
beneficial or positive outcomes. Therefore, their choice of behaviors
evolving interaction pattern and the extent to which they reach their
goals are determined by how their interest are or perceived to be related.
An individual’s outcome is maximized from social dilemma and mixed
motive perspectives when he or she is uncooperative while collective
outcomes are maximized when both parties cooperate; but both are
worse off when they do not cooperate with each other (Messick, 2004).

b) Social Identity Theory

The core assumption of this theory is that individuals not only

define or think of themselves on the basis of their unique personal
characteristic (personal identity) but on the basis of their perceptions
about the groups which they belong (social identity). Thus, an individual
may think, feel and act differently and therefore present with multiple
social identities depending on the social contexts. It explains the basis of
group discrimination in value and relationship conflict and gives insight
as to individuals of a group favor their group and strive to develop and
maintain positive group identity in relation to another group. According
to Hogg and Vaughan (2007), social identity describes the conception of
an individual about his or herself due to his or her perceived membership
of social group(s).

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c) Social- Cognitive Conflict Theory
This theory lies in the assumptions that people have accurate
intuitive understanding about themselves, others, the surrounding
world and the task facing them; that people lack relevant information
and capability to process information and are also limited to their
rationality thereby, resulting in diverse opinions, understanding by
others and that, differences in others’ insights and perceptions could
lead to conflict. This theory provides the basis for addressing the
differences in understanding and interpretation of reality, even
conflicts arising from such differences, how people deal with sudh
conflict and its implication for learning accuracy of perception and
predicting influencing behaviors. Thus, cognitive conflict is also
referred to as task related conflict that could emerge in organizations
from beliefs, opinions and insights not shared by others. (De Dreu &
Gelfand, 2007).

2.7 Effects of Conflict Management on the Organization

As organization strive to achieve their goals they are often
met with challenges they must overcome as a team. Challenges leave
room for conflict between members, other organization, communities
and other parties involved in organizational mission. While
“conflict”, often as a negative connotation, its effect in an
organization can be positive or negative.
a) Decline in productivity
When an organization spends much of its time dealing with
conflict, members take time away from focusing on core goals
they are tasked with achieving. Conflict causes members to focus
less on project at hand and more on gossiping about a conflict
situation in work environment or vent about frustration as a result

27
 organization can lose money, donors and acess to essential
resources.
b) Poor Quality of Decisions
Traditional wisdom holds that, conflict hinders decision
making. Thus, conflict can disrupt the exchange of information
among the decision makers, reducing the quality decision made.
Conflict can undermine the commitment needed to get decision
properly implemented. Finally, conflict can reduce satisfaction and
affective performance among team members, threatening cohesion
and prospect for future decision.
c) Decreases Job Satisfaction and Commitment levels
The impact of conflict in any organization cannot be
ignored, this is because it decreases the level of job satisfaction
and commitment among employees. Conflict brings about unstable
work environment, enabling animosity to thrive in the
organization. With such conflict issues in workplace, the level of
job satisfaction declines as employees become uncomfortable with
the work environment, this also reduces workers commitment in
the level of efforts and energy put into their work. This ultimately
reduces the level of productivity.
2.8 Employee Performance
Performance is a multicomponent concept and a fundamental level
one can distinguish the process aspect of performance, that is,
behavioral engagements from an expected outcome (Borman &
Motowidlo, 1993; Campbell et al., 1993; Roe. 1999). The term
“Employee performance” signifies individual’s work achievement
after exerting required effort on job which is associated through
getting meaningful work, engaged profile and compassionate
colleagues/employers around (Hellriegel, Jackson & Slocum,

28
1999; Karakas, 2010). In order to utilize human resource fully and
argument organizational success, effective employee performance
management system is imperative for an organization. The
performance driven objective is expected to be aligned with the
organizational policies so that the entire process moves away from
being event-driven to become more strategic and a people centric
perspective (Jena & Pradhan, 2014; London, 2003; Mone &
London, 2009). Borman and Motowidlo (1997) defined job
performance in the context of task performance as “ Effectiveness
with which the job occupants execute their assigned tasks, that
realizes the fulfilment of organization’s vision while rewarding
organization and individual’s proportionality”.
In an organizational context, task performance is a
contractual understanding between manager and subordinate to
accomplish an assigned task. The expected job performance
comprising of planning, organizing and administering the day to
day work through one’s technical- administrative task
performance. Leadership task performance is labeled through the
setting of strategic goals, upholding the necessary performance
standard, motivating and directing subordinates to accomplish the
job through encouragement, recognition and constructive
criticisms (Borman & Brush, 1993; Tripathy, 2014). Employees
are also expected to adjust their interpersonal behavior in such
changed circumstances to work successfully with a wide range of
peers subordinates.

2.9 Brief History of the Case Study (KAEDCO)

The electrical industry in Nigeria started before independence
when the colonial government established the Electricity

29
Corporation of Nigeria (ECN) by ordinate 15 of 1950. Isolated
Power Stations at Ijora in Lagos, Challawa in Kano, Oji in Enugu
and Port Harcourt in Rivers were Merged with the Niger Dam
Authority by decree No, 24 of 1972 to form the national Electric
Power Authority (NEPA).
Since 1972, the electricity industry spread to various parts of the
country giving rise to increased demand for limited supply of
electricity in the country. Thus, government made effort in
liberalizing the power sector in order to meet up with the
increasing demand of electricity in the country. On March 11,
2005 (ESPR) unbundled NEPA replacing it with 18 companies
categorized into 3 broad groups: 6 power Generation companies
(GenCos), 1 Transmission company (TranCos) and 11 Distribution
companies (DisCos).
Yola electricity Distribution Company (KAEDCO) is the
distribution company responsible for the distribution of energy to
Adamawa, Taraba, Borno, Yobe and some part of Gombe state of
Nigeria. With the successful conclusion of the privatization
process of the poer sector, Yola Electricity Distribution Company
was formally privatized in November 1st 2013.
It is with great zest and positive outlook that the new management
team of Yola Electricity Distribution company took over the
operation of disbursing electricity within North Easthern Nigeria,
comprising Adamawa, Taraba, Yobe and Borno state in November
2013. KAEDCO is the electricity distribution company covering 4
states in Northern Nigeria with a combined area of approximately
195,000km2 and an estimated 2-3 million households forming part
of a customer base that includes a significant agri-business
industry. As part of the initial round of power sales. KAEDCO

30
was formally handed over in November 2013 to a consortium of
investors led by Integrated Energy Distribution and Marketing
Company (IEDMC).
As a result of operational difficulties arising from insurgency in
the region, IEDMC declared force majeure as permitted under the
acquisition documentation, following with a negotiated settlement
of $87.8 million was agreed with FGN. Subsequently, the FGN
took over KAEDCO in the interim. With the insurgency problems
now more or less non-existent, the NCP has authorized the launch
of new privatization exercise for KAEDCO. Further, the
significant population of the North-Eastern region covered by
KAEDCO’s distribution network could make this an attractive
investment at the right place and tariff levels.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter deals with the description of the procedure adopted in

carrying out this study. It describes the research design, the population of the
study, sample size, sampling techniques, sources of research data, instrument of
data collection, instrument of data analysis and finally the validity and
reliability of the instrument used.

3.1 Research Design

Research design is the plan for a research project. It provide guidelines

which direct the researcher towards solving the research problem and it may
vary depending on the nature of the problem being studied. The research design
for this study was A Survey Research Design. A Research Design is the blue
print for the study (Odekunle, 2013). Panneerselva, (2010), explain that a
research design is a complete guideline for data collection. It entails the
selection of research approach; design of sample plan and the questionnaire. A
survey research design is selected because it makes use of questionnaire to
describe a given state of affairs of an element of interest in a study at a
particular time. It mostly depend on primary data and involves a clear definition
of the problem being studied, collection of adequate and relevant data, careful
analysis and interpretation of the data are also the skillful reporting of the
findings (olayiwola, 2007). Other aspects of the study design include the
population of the study, sample size of the study, method of data collection,
instrument of data collection, method of data analysis and measurement of
variable

32
3.2 Population of the Study

Population is the totality of items under consideration. It is made up of all

conceivable elements, subject or observations to a particular phenomenon of
interest (Gupta, 2010). Asika (2012), population is an aggregation of all element
that share a common characteristic. In this definition, the concept “element”
refers then variables such as workers, managers, growth rates profits and so on.

The population under this study consist of 265 employees who are staff of Yola
Electricity Distribution Company Adamawa State. The population comprises of
25 management staff, 55 senior staff, and 185 junior staff which sum up to 265
of the total population of (KAEDCO) Yola Electricity Distribution Company
Adamawa State.

3.3 Sample size

According to Kottrari (2011), a sample size is that part of the whole which is
selected for the purpose of investigation. In other words, the term “sample”
refers to the representative portion or part of the population that the researcher
choose for the study. The “sample size “ has to do with the magnitude of such a
portion of the population selected for the study. In determining the sample size,
the researcher has used “Yaro yamene’s fomrmula’’

N
N= 2
1+ N (e)

Where:

n= sample size required (sample size)

N= the element in the study (population size)

e= allowable error (%) (level) of precision that is p =0.05)

1 is constant

33
For the purpose of this research, we have a population size of 265 staff, and we
shall use 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, substituting in the formula stated
above, the sample size is calculated below:

245/1+265 (0.05)2

245/1+265 (0.0025)

245/1+ 0.6125

602/1.6125

n = 152

The sample size is calculated above is 152 staff of yola Electricity

Distribution Company. In sourcing for information from the sampled
population, the researcher distributed a well-structured questionnaire to the
selected business units of the KAEDCO for response.

3.4 Sources of Data Collection

The data for this study was collected from both primary and secondary
sources.

i. Primary Data:

Primary data was used for this study. Primary data was the information
that is collected specially for the purpose of research. The primary data was
collected using the survey method. These involved the distribution of
questionnaires and collection of data from key respondents. In other to achieve
the aim of the objectives the study well designed questionnaires with close
ended questions were formulated to gather information from appropriate
respondents.

34
 ii. Secondary Data:

Secondary data is the data collected by someone other than the user. A
benefit of this form of data is that most of the background work needed has
already been done. The secondary data include desk review of both published
and unpublished materials including journals, research papers, articles and
books. The secondary source was gathered to get a deeper inside on the impact
of good conflict management on employee performance. The information
gathered from this source helped to guide the structuring, distribution and
collection of data from the key responds.

3.4 Instruments of Data collection

The data used in this research were collected through primary data using
questioners. Also the researcher had some privileges of making observation in
connection with small scale business financing, as well as the attitude of some
of their employees. The data gathered through this method is used to triangulate
and complement the information gathered through other methods. In this study,
the key informants are the main actors of the study area such as small business
managers, business experts and small business development programme
officers.

3.5 Instrument of Data Analysis

The raw data collected from the primary source was presented using tables
and simple percentages. Charts were also used as supportive illustrative tools to
demonstrate the behavior of the data so presented. The hypothesis was tested
using both parametric and non-parametric statistical techniques. Specifically,
frieman chi-sqare was used in testing the formulated hypothesis. Given by the
formula below:
2
(0−e)
X2 =
e

35
were

x2 = chi-square statistics

fo = observation frequency

fe = expected frequency

∑ = summation sign

K = level of significance

D = Degree of freedom

The X2 will be tested at a degree of freedom given by

Df = (r – 1)( c – 1)

Were:

r = number of rows respondents

c = numbers of columns of respondents

Decision rules for hypothesis is; accepted if x 2 cal > x2tab at 0.05 level of
significance.

3.6 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments.

i. Validity

Validity is necessary because the measuring instrument sometimes do not

measure what they are supposed to measure. A measuring instrument is only
taken to be reliable and valid when it accurately measures what it is supposed to
measure. (Asika, 1991; Khothari, 2013; Olayiwola, 2007). Test of validity
measures content, criterion-related construct validity.

36
(a) Content validity: the measuring instrument is concern with the face
validity (that is, subjective evaluation of the study measuring) and
sampling validity which also measure whether a given population is
adequately sampled by the measuring instrument. To test this validity, the
researcher seek the assistance of scholars and expert in the field of
conflict and conflict resolution in review the instrument and making
quality input into the instruments and also compared the content of the
instruvment and the population content of the study.
(b) Criterion-related validity: this is a test to establish the relationship
between the measuring instruments and the measuring outcomes. The
measuring instrument will be compared with the instrument use for
similar studies.
(c) Construct validity: this measure the relationship between the measuring
instrument and the framework of the study, and use to ascertain whether
the instrument is tied to concept and theoretical assumption they are
employing. Also, ,Agburu (2001), is of the option that validity and
reliability of the research instrument depend on what extent it will
provide information or data that is relevant and appropriate for the
research work.
Therefore this study employ content validity for measuring the
instrument.
ii. Reliability

In research, the term reliability means “repeatability or consistency”. A

measure could be considered reliable if it would give the same result over
and over again (Trochim, 2006). The reliability test the content to which the
instrument contains variable errors, which inconsistently appears from
observations. Reliability is the degree of accuracy with which an instrument
measures what it is measuring (Olayiwola, 2009). In this research the, the

37
test-retest method of reliability was use (a repeated administering of the
question). But in doing so, the length of time given between the
administrations was given serious consideration because the shorter the time,
the higher the correlation and the longer the time gap, the lower the
correlation.

38