Chapter

5
Trigonometric
Functions

Have you had days when your physical, intellectual, and emotional potentials were
all at their peak? Then there are those other days when we feel we should not even bother
getting out of bed. Do our potentials run in oscillating cycles like the tides? Can they be
described mathematically? In this chapter, you will encounter functions that enable us to
model phenomena that occur in cycles.

Here’s where you’ll find this

application:
Graphs of functions showing a person’s
biorhythms, the physical, intellectual,
and emotional cycles we experience in
life, are presented in Exercises 75–82
of Exercise Set 5.5.

541
542  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Section 5.1 Angles and Radian Measure

The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art was constructed

in 1995 to illustrate how art and architecture can enrich one
What am I another. The exterior involves geometric shapes, symmetry,
supposed to learn? and unusual facades. Although there are no windows,
After studying this section, you natural light streams in through a truncated cylindrical
should be able to: skylight that crowns the building. The architect worked
with a scale model of the museum at the site and
❶ Recognize and use the observed how light hit it during different times of
vocabulary of angles. the day. These observations were used to cut the
❷ Use degree measure. cylindrical skylight at an angle that maximizes
❸ Use radian measure. sunlight entering the interior.
❹ Convert between degrees Angles play a critical role in creating modern
and radians. architecture. They are also fundamental in
trigonometry. In this section, we begin our study of
❺ Draw angles in standard trigonometry by looking at angles and methods for
position. measuring them.
❻ Find coterminal angles.
❼ Find the length of a Angles
circular arc.
The hour hand of a clock suggests a ray, a part of a line that has only one endpoint
❽ Use linear and angular and extends forever in the opposite direction. An angle is formed by two rays
speed to describe motion that have a common endpoint. One ray is called the initial side and the other the
on a circular path. terminal side.
A rotating ray is often a useful way to think about angles. The ray in Figure 5.1
rotates from 12 to 2. The ray pointing to 12 is the initial side and the ray pointing to 2
is the terminal side. The common endpoint of an angle’s initial side and terminal side
❶ Recognize and use the is the vertex of the angle.
vocabulary of angles. Figure 5.2 shows an angle. The arrow near the vertex shows the direction and
the amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side. Several methods
can be used to name an angle. Lowercase Greek letters, such as a (alpha), b (beta),
g (gamma), and u (theta), are often used.
Ray

C A
u
Ray
6GTOKPCNUKFG +PKVKCNUKFG
B
8GTVGZ

Figure 5.2 An angle; two rays with a

common endpoint

Figure 5.1 Clock with hands

forming an angle Many angles in trigonometry are located in standard position.

Standard Position of Angles

An angle is in standard position if
• its vertex is at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system and
• its initial side lies along the positive x@axis.
 Section 5.1 Angles and Radian Measure   543

The angles in Figure 5.3 are both in standard position.

y y

+PKVKCNUKFGCNQPI
a RQUKVKXGxCZKU
6GTOKPCNUKFG 8GTVGZ
x x

8GTVGZ 6GTOKPCNUKFG
+PKVKCNUKFGCNQPI
RQUKVKXGxCZKU u

Figure 5.3 Two angles in standard

position (a) a in standard position; a positive (b) u in standard position; u negative

When we see an initial side and a terminal side in place, there are two kinds of
rotations that could have generated the angle. The arrow in Figure 5.3(a) indicates
that the rotation from the initial side to the terminal side is in the counterclockwise
direction. Positive angles are generated by counterclockwise rotation. Thus, angle
y a is positive. By contrast, the arrow in Figure 5.3(b) shows that the rotation from
the initial side to the terminal side is in the clockwise direction. Negative angles are
generated by clockwise rotation. Thus, angle u is negative.
b
When an angle is in standard position, its terminal side can lie in a quadrant. We say
x
that the angle lies in that quadrant. For example, in Figure 5.3(a), the terminal side of
angle a lies in quadrant II. Thus, angle a lies in quadrant II. By contrast, in Figure 5.3(b),
the terminal side of angle u lies in quadrant III. Thus, angle u lies in quadrant III.
Must all angles in standard position lie in a quadrant? The answer is no. The
terminal side can lie on the x@axis or the y@axis. For example, angle b in Figure 5.4
has a terminal side that lies on the negative y@axis. An angle is called a quadrantal
angle if its terminal side lies on the x@axis or on the y@axis. Angle b in Figure 5.4 is
Figure 5.4 b is a quadrantal angle. an example of a quadrantal angle.

❷ Use degree measure. Measuring Angles Using Degrees

Angles are measured by determining the amount of rotation from the initial side to
the terminal side. One way to measure angles is in degrees, symbolized by a small,
raised circle °. Think of the hour hand of a clock. From 12 noon to 12 midnight, the
hour hand moves around in a complete circle. By definition, the ray has rotated
through 360 degrees, or 360°. Using 360° as the amount of rotation of a ray back onto
1
itself, a degree, 1°, is 360 of a complete rotation.
Figure 5.5 shows that certain angles have special names. An acute angle measures
less than 90° [see Figure 5.5(a)]. A right angle, one quarter of a complete rotation,
measures 90° [Figure 5.5(b)]. Examine the right angle—do you see a small square at
the vertex? This symbol is used to indicate a right angle. An obtuse angle measures
more than 90° but less than 180° [Figure 5.5(c)]. Finally, a straight angle, one-half
a complete rotation, measures 180° [Figure 5.5(d)].
A complete 360° rotation

u 180°
90°
u

(a) Acute angle (b) Right angle (c) Obtuse angle (d) Straight angle
(0° < u < 90°) ( 14 rotation) (90° < u < 180°) ( 12 rotation)
Figure 5.5 Classifying angles by their degree measurement

We will be using notation such as u = 60° to refer to an angle u whose measure

is 60°. We also refer to an angle of 60° or a 60° angle, rather than using the more
precise (but cumbersome) phrase an angle whose measure is 60°.
544  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Technology
Fractional parts of degrees are measured in minutes and seconds.
1 1
One minute, written 1′, is 60 degree: 1′ = 60 °.
1 1
One second, written 1″, is 3600 degree: 1″ = 3600 °.
For example,
47 12 °
31°47′12″ = a31 + + b
60 3600
≈ 31.787°.

Many calculators have keys for changing an angle from

degree-minute-second notation (D°M′S″) to a decimal
form and vice versa.

❸ Use radian measure. Measuring Angles Using Radians

Another way to measure angles is in radians. Let’s first define an angle measuring
6GTOKPCNUKFG 1 radian. We use a circle of radius r. In Figure 5.6, we’ve constructed an angle whose
vertex is at the center of the circle. Such an angle is called a central angle. Notice that
this central angle intercepts an arc along the circle measuring r units. The radius of
r r the circle is also r units. The measure of such an angle is 1 radian.

r
TCFKCP +PKVKCNUKFG Definition of a Radian
One radian is the measure of the central angle of a circle that intercepts an arc
equal in length to the radius of the circle.
Figure 5.6 For a 1-radian angle, the
intercepted arc and the radius are equal.

The radian measure of any central angle is the length of the intercepted arc
divided by the circle’s radius. In Figure 5.7(a), the length of the arc intercepted by
angle b is double the radius, r. We find the measure of angle b in radians by dividing
the length of the intercepted arc by the radius.
length of the intercepted arc 2r
b = = = 2
radius r
Thus, angle b measures 2 radians.

r r

r g
b r r

r r

(a) b = 2 radians (b) g = 3 radians

Figure 5.7 Two central angles measured in radians

In Figure 5.7(b), the length of the intercepted arc is triple the radius, r. Let us find
the measure of angle g:
length of the intercepted arc 3r
g = = = 3.
radius r
Thus, angle g measures 3 radians.
 Section 5.1 Angles and Radian Measure   545

Radian Measure
Consider an arc of length s on a circle of radius r. s
The measure of the central angle, u, that intercepts
the arc is u
r
s
u = radians. r
r

15 inch Example 1 Computing Radian Measure

es
A central angle, u, in a circle of radius 6 inches intercepts an arc of length 15 inches.
What is the radian measure of u?
u

Solution
6 inches
Angle u is shown in Figure 5.8. The radian measure of a central angle is the length of
the intercepted arc, s, divided by the circle’s radius, r. The length of the intercepted
arc is 15 inches: s = 15 inches. The circle’s radius is 6 inches: r = 6 inches. Now we
use the formula for radian measure to find the radian measure of u.
Figure 5.8
s 15 inches
u = = = 2.5
r 6 inches
Thus, the radian measure of u is 2.5. l l l

Great Question! In Example 1, notice that the units (inches) cancel when we use the formula
When determining radian for radian measure. We are left with a number with no units. Thus, if an angle u has
measure, do the units for the a measure of 2.5 radians, we can write u = 2.5 radians or u = 2.5. We will often
length of the intercepted arc and include the word radians simply for emphasis. There should be no confusion as to
the radius have to be the same? whether radian or degree measure is being used. Why is this so? If u has a degree
Yes. Before applying the formula measure of, say, 2.5°, we must include the degree symbol and write u = 2.5°, and
for radian measure, be sure that not u = 2.5.
the same unit of length is used
for the intercepted arc, s, and the
radius, r. Check Point 1 A central angle, u, in a circle of radius 12 feet intercepts an arc
of length 42 feet. What is the radian measure of u?

❹ Convert between degrees Relationship between Degrees and Radians

and radians. How can we obtain a relationship between degrees and radians? We compare the
s=pr number of degrees and the number of radians in one complete rotation, shown in
Figure 5.9. We know that 360° is the amount of rotation of a ray back onto itself.
The length of the intercepted arc is equal to the circumference of the circle. Thus,
1 rotation the radian measure of this central angle is the circumference of the circle divided
by the circle’s radius, r. The circumference of a circle of radius r is 2pr. We use the
r
formula for radian measure to find the radian measure of the 360° angle.
s the circle>s circumference 2p r
u = = = = 2p
r r r
Figure 5.9 A complete rotation Because one complete rotation measures 360° and 2p radians,
360° = 2p radians.
Dividing both sides by 2, we have
180° = p radians.
Dividing this last equation by 180° or p gives the conversion rules in the box on the
next page.
546  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Great Question!
Conversion between Degrees and Radians
When converting between degrees
and radians, which unit goes in Using the basic relationship p radians = 180°,
the numerator of the conversion p radians
factor? 1. To convert degrees to radians, multiply degrees by .
180°
The unit you are converting to 180°
appears in the numerator of the 2. To convert radians to degrees, multiply radians by .
p radians
conversion factor.

Angles that are fractions of a complete rotation are usually expressed in radian
measure as fractional multiples of p, rather than as decimal approximations. For
p
example, we write u = rather than using the decimal approximation u ≈ 1.57.
2
Example 2 Converting from Degrees to Radians
Convert each angle in degrees to radians:
a. 30° b. 90° c. -135°.

Solution
p radians
To convert degrees to radians, multiply by . Observe how the degree
180°
units cancel.
p radians 30p p
a. 30° = 30° ∙ = radians = radians
180° 180 6
p radians 90p p
b. 90° = 90° ∙ = radians = radians
180° 180 2
p radians 135p 3p
c . –135° = –135° ∙ =– radians = – radians
180° 180 4
&KXKFGVJGPWOGTCVQTCPFFGPQOKPCVQTD[
 l l l

Check Point 2 Convert each angle in degrees to radians:

a. 60° b. 270° c. -300°.

Example 3 Converting from Radians to Degrees

Convert each angle in radians to degrees:
p 5p
a. radians b. - radians c. 1 radian d. 2.3 radians.
3 3

Solution
180°
To convert radians to degrees, multiply by . Observe how the radian units
p radians
cancel.
p p radians # 180° 180°
a. radians = = = 60°
3 3 p radians 3
5p 5 p radians # 180° 5 # 180°
Great Question! b. - radians = - = - = -300°
3 3 p radians 3
Based on Example 3(c), can
c. 1 radian = 1 radian #
I conclude that 1 radian is 180° 180°
= ≈ 57.3°
approximately 57°? p radians p
2.3 # 180°
d. 2.3 radians = 2.3 radians #
180°
Yes. Keep in mind that a radian is = ≈ 131.8° l l l
much larger than a degree. p radians p

Check Point 3 Convert each angle in radians to degrees:

p 4p
a. radians b. - radians c. 6 radians d. -4.7 radians.
4 3
 Section 5.1 Angles and Radian Measure   547

❺ Draw angles in standard Drawing Angles in Standard Position

position. Although we can convert angles in radians to degrees, it is helpful to “think in
radians” without having to make this conversion. To become comfortable with
radian measure, consider angles in standard position: Each vertex is at the origin
and each initial side lies along the positive x@axis. Think of the terminal side of the
angle revolving around the origin. Thinking in radians means determining what part
of a complete revolution or how many full revolutions will produce an angle whose
radian measure is known. And here’s the thing: We want to do this without having to
convert from radians to degrees.
Figure 5.10 is a starting point for learning to think in radians. The figure illustrates
that when the terminal side makes one full revolution, it forms an angle whose radian
measure is 2p. The figure shows the quadrantal angles formed by 34 of a revolution,
1 1
2 of a revolution, and 4 of a revolution.

3 1 1
1 revolution 4
revolution 2
revolution 4
revolution
3 3p 1 1
2p radians 4
∙ 2p = 2
radians 2
∙ 2p = p radians 4
∙ 2p = p2 radians
y y y y

3p p p
2 2
2p
x x x x

Figure 5.10 Angles formed by revolutions of terminal sides

Example 4 Drawing Angles in Standard Position

Draw and label each angle in standard position:
p 5p 3p 9p
a. u = b. a = c. b = – d. g = .
4 4 4 4
VJGVC CNRJC DGVC ICOOC

Solution
Because we are drawing angles in standard position, each vertex is at the origin and
each initial side lies along the positive x@axis.
p
a. An angle of radians is a positive angle. It is obtained by rotating the
4
terminal side counterclockwise. Because 2p is a full-circle revolution, we
p
can express as a fractional part of 2p to determine the necessary rotation:
y 4

6GTOKPCNUKFG p 1
= ∙ 2p.
4 8
+PKVKCNUKFG p KU  QHCEQORNGVG
u = p4  
x TGXQNWVKQPQHpTCFKCPU

8GTVGZ p
We see that u = is obtained by rotating the terminal side counterclockwise
1 4
for of a revolution. The angle lies in quadrant I and is shown in Figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11 8
548  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Great Question!
1
In Figure 5.11, how did you locate of a complete revolution? And how am I supposed to locate terminal sides that involve, for
3 5 7 8
example, , , or of a revolution?
8 8 8
With denominators of 8, it is helpful to begin by dividing the rectangular coordinate system into eight equal sectors.
y y y y

 TGXQNWVKQP  TGXQNWVKQP  TGXQNWVKQP  TGXQNWVKQP

   

x x x x

5p
b. An angle of radians is a positive angle. It is obtained by rotating the
4
terminal side counterclockwise. Here are two ways to determine the
necessary rotation:
Method 1 Method 2
5p 5 5p p
= ∙ 2p =p+ .
y 4 8 4 4
p KU  QHCEQORNGVG p KU  QHC
  pKUCJCNHEKTENG  
TGXQNWVKQPQHpTCFKCPU TGXQNWVKQP EQORNGVGTGXQNWVKQP
a = 5p
4 +PKVKCNUKFG
5p
x Method 1 shows that a = is obtained by rotating the terminal side
4
5 5p
8GTVGZ
counterclockwise for of a revolution. Method 2 shows that a =
8 4
is obtained by rotating the terminal side counterclockwise for half of a
6GTOKPCNUKFG 1
revolution followed by a counterclockwise rotation of of a revolution.
8
Figure 5.12 The angle lies in quadrant III and is shown in Figure 5.12.

3p
c. An angle of - is a negative angle. It is obtained by rotating the terminal
4
3p 3p
side clockwise. We use ` - ` , or , to determine the necessary rotation.
4 4

Method 1 Method 2
y 3p 3 3p 2p p p p
= ∙ 2p = + = +
4 8 4 4 4 2 4
p KU  QHCEQORNGVG
  p KUCSWCTVGTEKTENG p KU  QHC
TGXQNWVKQPQHpTCFKCPU   
8GTVGZ +PKVKCNUKFG TGXQNWVKQP EQORNGVGTGXQNWVKQP
x
3p
b= – 3p Method 1 shows that b = - is obtained by rotating the terminal side
4
3 4 3p
clockwise for of a revolution. Method 2 shows that b = - is obtained
8 1 4
6GTOKPCNUKFG by rotating the terminal side clockwise for of a revolution followed by a
1 4
clockwise rotation of of a revolution. The angle lies in quadrant III and is
Figure 5.13 shown in Figure 5.13. 8
 Section 5.1 Angles and Radian Measure   549

9p
d. An angle of radians is a positive angle. It is obtained by rotating the
4
terminal side counterclockwise. Here are two methods to determine the
necessary rotation:
Method 1 Method 2
y 9p 9 9p p
= ∙ 2p = 2p + .
4 8 4 4
6GTOKPCNUKFG
p KU  QT  EQORNGVG p KU  QHC
   pKUCHWNNEKTENG
 
TGXQNWVKQPUQHpTCFKCPU TGXQNWVKQP EQORNGVGTGXQNWVKQP
+PKVKCNUKFG

x 9p
Method 1 shows that g = is obtained by rotating the terminal side
4
g = 9p
4 8GTVGZ 1 9p
counterclockwise for 1 revolutions. Method 2 shows that g = is
8 4
obtained by rotating the terminal side counterclockwise for a full-circle
1
revolution followed by a counterclockwise rotation of of a revolution.
Figure 5.14 The angle lies in quadrant I and is shown in Figure 5.14. 8 l l l

Check Point 4 Draw and label each angle in standard position:

p 3p 7p 13p
a. u = - b. a = c. b = - d. g = .
4 4 4 4

Great Question! Figure 5.15 illustrates the degree and radian measures of angles that you will
Any connection between the commonly see in trigonometry. Each angle is in standard position, so that the initial
radian measure denominators and side lies along the positive x@axis. We will be using both degree and radian measures
the location of the terminal sides? for these angles.
Yes. Denominators of 6 put p 3p
the terminal sides closer to the 2p
90°, 2 4p –270°, – 2 5p
120°, 3 60°, 3
p –240°, – 3 –300°, – 3
x-axis. Denominators of 3 put 3p
135°, 4 p 5p
–225°, – 4 7p
–315°, – 4
45°, 4
the terminal sides closer to the 5p 7p 11p
150°, 6 p
30°, 6 –210°, – 6 –330°, – 6
y-axis. Denominators of 4 put the
terminal sides midway between
the axes. 180°, p 0°, 0 –180°, –p 0°, 0

7p 11p 5p
210°, 6 330°, 6 –150°, – 6 –30°, – 6
p
7p
5p
225°, 4 315°, 4 3p
–135°, – 4 p
–45°, – 4
4p 5p 2p p
240°, 3 3p
300°, 3 –120°, – 3 p –60°, – 3
270°, 2 –90°, – 2

Figure 5.15 Degree and radian measures of selected positive and negative angles

Great Question!
Any hints for drawing the angles in Figure 5.15?
Yes. It is helpful to first divide the rectangular coordinate system into
y eight equal sectors: y or 12 equal sectors:

 TGXQNWVKQP
  TGXQNWVKQP

x x
550  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

2p
90°, 2
p Table 5.1 describes some of the positive angles in Figure 5.15 in terms of
120°, p
60°, 3
3p
3 revolutions of the angle’s terminal side around the origin.
135°, 4 p
45°, 4
5p p
150°, 6
30°, 6
Table 5.1
180°, p 0°, 0 Terminal Side Radian Measure of Angle Degree Measure of Angle
1 1 # p 1 #
7p 330°,
11p revolution 2p = 360° = 30°
210°, 6 6 12 12 6 12
7p
225°, 4
5p 315°, 4
4p 5p
300°, 3 1 1# p 1#
240°, 3
270°,
3p revolution 2p = 360° = 45°
2 8 8 4 8

–270°, –
3p 1 1# p 1#
–240°, –
4p 2 5p
–300°, – 3 revolution 2p = 360° = 60°
5p
3
7p
6 6 3 6
–225°, – 4 –315°, – 4
–210°, –
7p 11p
–330°, – 6 1 1# p 1#
6 revolution 2p = 360° = 90°
4 4 2 4
–180°, –p 0°, 0 1 1# 2p 1#
revolution 2p = 360° = 120°
3 3 3 3
5p p
–150°, – –30°, – 6
6
3p 1 1# 1#
–135°, – 4 p
–45°, – 4 revolution 2p = p 360° = 180°
2p
–120°, – 3
p
–60°, – 3 2 2 2
p
–90°, – 2
2 2# 4p 2#
Figure 5.15 (repeated) Degree and revolution 2p = 360° = 240°
3 3 3 3
radian measures of selected positive
and negative angles 3 3# 3p 3#
revolution 2p = 360° = 270°
4 4 2 4
7 7# 7p 7#
revolution 2p = 360° = 315°
8 8 4 8

1 revolution 1 # 2p = 2p 1 # 360° = 360°

❻ Find coterminal angles. Coterminal Angles

Two angles with the same initial and terminal sides but possibly different rotations
are called coterminal angles.
Every angle has infinitely many coterminal angles. Why? Think of an angle in
standard position. If the rotation of the angle is extended by one or more complete
rotations of 360° or 2p, clockwise or counterclockwise, the result is an angle with the
same initial and terminal sides as the original angle.

Coterminal Angles
Increasing or decreasing the degree measure of an angle in standard position by
an integer multiple of 360° results in a coterminal angle. Thus, an angle of u° is
coterminal with angles of u° { 360°k, where k is an integer.
Increasing or decreasing the radian measure of an angle by an integer multiple
of 2p results in a coterminal angle. Thus, an angle of u radians is coterminal with
angles of u { 2pk, where k is an integer.

Two coterminal angles for an angle of u° can be found by adding 360° to u° and
subtracting 360° from u°.

Example 5 Finding Coterminal Angles

Assume the following angles are in standard position. Find a positive angle less
than 360° that is coterminal with each of the following:
a. a 420° angle b. a -120° angle.
 Section 5.1 Angles and Radian Measure   551

Solution
We obtain the coterminal angle by adding or subtracting 360°. The requirement
to obtain a positive angle less than 360° determines whether we should add or
subtract.
a. For a 420° angle, subtract 360° to find a positive coterminal angle.
420° - 360° = 60°
A 60° angle is coterminal with a 420° angle. Figure 5.16(a) illustrates that
these angles have the same initial and terminal sides.
b. For a -120° angle, add 360° to find a positive coterminal angle.
-120° + 360° = 240°
A 240° angle is coterminal with a -120° angle. Figure 5.16(b) illustrates that
these angles have the same initial and terminal sides.

y y

60° 240°
x x
420° –120°

(a) Angles of 420° and 60° (b) Angles of –120° and 240°
Figure 5.16 Pairs of coterminal angles are coterminal. are coterminal. l l l

Check Point 5 Find a positive angle less than 360° that is coterminal with
each of the following:
a. a 400° angle b. a -135° angle.

Two coterminal angles for an angle of u radians can be found by adding 2p to u

and subtracting 2p from u.

Example 6 Finding Coterminal Angles

Assume the following angles are in standard position. Find a positive angle less
than 2p that is coterminal with each of the following:
17p p
a. a angle b. a - angle.
6 12

Solution
y We obtain the coterminal angle by adding or subtracting 2p. The requirement to
obtain a positive angle less than 2p determines whether we should add or subtract.
5p
6 17p 17 5
a. For a angle, note that = 2 , so subtract 2p to find a positive
6 6 6
x coterminal angle.
17p 17p 17p 12p 5p
6 - 2p = - =
6 6 6 6
17p 5p
(a) Angles of 6 and 6
5p 17p
are coterminal. A angle is coterminal with a angle. Figure 5.17(a) illustrates that
6 6
Figure 5.17 Pairs of coterminal angles these angles have the same initial and terminal sides.
552  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

p
b. For a - angle, add 2p to find a positive coterminal angle.
12
p p 24p 23p
- + 2p = - + =
12 12 12 12
23p p
A angle is coterminal with a - angle. Figure 5.17(b) illustrates that
12 12
these angles have the same initial and terminal sides.
y

23p
12

p
x
– 12

p
(b) Angles of – 12 and 23p
12
are coterminal.
Figure 5.17 Pairs of coterminal angles l l l

Check Point 6 Find a positive angle less than 2p that is coterminal with each
of the following:
13p p
a. a angle b. a - angle.
5 15

To find a positive coterminal angle less than 360° or 2p, it is sometimes necessary
to add or subtract more than one multiple of 360° or 2p.

Example 7 Finding Coterminal Angles

Find a positive angle less than 360° or 2p that is coterminal with each of the
following:
22p 17p
a. a 750° angle b. a angle c. a - angle d. a −10.3 angle.
3 6

Solution
a. For a 750° angle, subtract two multiples of 360°, or 720°, to find a positive
coterminal angle less than 360°.
750° - 360° # 2 = 750° - 720° = 30°
A 30° angle is coterminal with a 750° angle.
22p 22 1
Discovery b. For a angle, note that = 7 , so subtract three multiples of 2p, or
3 3 3
Make a sketch for each part of 6p, to find a positive coterminal angle less than 2p.
Example 7 illustrating that the

- 2p # 3 =
coterminal angle we found and 22p 22p 22p 18p 4p
the given angle have the same - 6p = - =
3 3 3 3 3
initial and terminal sides.
4p 22p
A angle is coterminal with a angle.
3 3
17p 17 5
c. For a - angle, note that - = -2 , so add two multiples of 2p, or
6 6 6
4p, to find a positive coterminal angle less than 2p.

+ 2p # 2 = -
17p 17p 17p 24p 7p
- + 4p = - + =
6 6 6 6 6
7p 17p
A angle is coterminal with a - angle.
6 6
 Section 5.1 Angles and Radian Measure   553

d. For a -10.3 angle, it is helpful to remember that 1 radian ≈ 57°. Therefore,

-10.3 ≈ -10.3(57°) = -587.1°.
For a -587.1° angle, we need to add two multiplies of 360° to find a positive
coterminal angle less than 360°. Equivalently, for a -10.3 angle, we need to
add two multiples of 2p, or 4p, to find a positive coterminal angle less than 2p.
-10.3 + 2p # 2 = -10.3 + 4p ≈ 2.3
A 2.3 angle is approximately coterminal with a -10.3 angle. l l l

Check Point 7 Find a positive angle less than 360° or 2p that is coterminal
with each of the following:
17p
a. an 855° angle b. a angle
3
25p
c. a - angle d. a 17.4 angle.
6

❼ Find the length of a circular arc. The Length of a Circular Arc

s
We can use the radian measure formula, u = , to find the length of the arc of
r
a circle. How do we do this? Remember that s represents the length of the arc
intercepted by the central angle u. Thus, by solving the formula for s, we have an
equation for arc length.

Great Question! The Length of a Circular Arc

Can I apply the formula s = rU if Let r be the radius of a circle and u the nonnegative s=CTENGPIVJ
U is expressed in degrees? radian measure of a central angle of the circle.
No. The formula can only be used The length of the arc intercepted by the central
when u is expressed in radians. angle is u
If u is given in degrees, you’ll
need to convert from degrees to s = ru.
radians before using s = ru to r
determine s, the length of the
circular arc.

Example 8 Finding the Length of a Circular Arc

A circle has a radius of 10 inches. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central
angle of 120°.

Solution
The formula s = ru can be used only when u is expressed in radians. Thus, we begin
p radians
by converting 120° to radians. Multiply by .
180°

120° = 120° #
p radians 120p 2p
= radians = radians
180° 180 3
Now we can use the formula s = ru to find the length of the arc. The circle’s
radius is 10 inches: r = 10 inches. The measure of the central angle, in radians,
Great Question! 2p 2p
is :u = . The length of the arc intercepted by this central angle is
What unit do I use when 3 3
expressing the length of a
2p 20p
circular arc? s = ru = (10 inches)a b = inches ≈ 20.94 inches. l l l
3 3
The unit used to describe the
length of a circular arc is the same Check Point 8 A circle has a radius of 6 inches. Find the length of the arc
unit that is given in the circle’s intercepted by a central angle of 45°. Express arc length in terms of p. Then round
radius. your answer to two decimal places.
 554  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

❽ Use linear and angular speed Linear and Angular Speed

to describe motion on a A carousel contains four circular rows of animals. As the carousel revolves, the
circular path. animals in the outer row travel a greater distance per unit of time than those in
the inner rows. These animals have a greater linear speed than those in the inner
rows. By contrast, all animals, regardless of the row, complete the same number of
revolutions per unit of time. All animals in the four circular rows travel at the same
angular speed.
Using y for linear speed and v (omega) for angular speed, we define these two
kinds of speed along a circular path as follows:

Definitions of Linear and Angular Speed

If a point is in motion on a circle of radius r through an angle of u radians in
time t, then its linear speed is
s
y = ,
t
where s is the arc length given by s = ru, and its angular speed is
u
v = .
t

The hard drive in a computer rotates at 3600 revolutions per minute. This angular
speed, expressed in revolutions per minute, can also be expressed in revolutions
per second, radians per minute, and radians per second. Using 2p radians =
1 revolution, we express the angular speed of a hard drive in radians per minute as
follows:

3600 revolutions per minute

3600 revolutions # 2p radians 7200p radians

= =
1 minute 1 revolution 1 minute
= 7200p radians per minute.

We can establish a relationship between the two kinds of speed by dividing both
sides of the arc length formula, s = ru, by t:

s ru u
= =r .
t t t

6JKUGZRTGUUKQPFGƂPGU 6JKUGZRTGUUKQPFGƂPGU
NKPGCTURGGF CPIWNCTURGGF

Thus, linear speed is the product of the radius and the angular speed.

Linear Speed in Terms of Angular Speed

The linear speed, y, of a point a distance r from the center of rotation is given by
y = rv,
where v is the angular speed in radians per unit of time.
In words: Linear speed is the radius times the angular speed.

M10_BLIT3216_06_SE_C05_541-668v3.0.3.indd 554 11/10/16 6:19 pm

 Section 5.1 Angles and Radian Measure   555

Example 9 Finding Linear Speed

A wind machine used to
generate electricity has blades
that are 10 feet in length (see
Figure 5.18). The propeller is
10 feet
rotating at four revolutions per
second. Find the linear speed,
in feet per second, of the tips of
the blades.

Solution
We are given v, the angular
speed.
v = 4 revolutions per second
We use the formula y = rv to
find y, the linear speed. Before
applying the formula, we must
express v in radians per second. Figure 5.18

4 revolutions # 2p radians 8p radians 8p

v = = or
1 second 1 revolution 1 second 1 second

The angular speed of the propeller is 8p radians per second. The linear speed is

y = rv = 10 feet #
8p 80p feet
= .
1 second second

The linear speed of the tips of the blades is 80p feet per second, which is
approximately 251 feet per second. l l l

Check Point 9 Long before iPods that hold thousands of songs and play
them with superb audio quality, individual songs were delivered on 75-rpm and
45-rpm circular records. A 45-rpm record has an angular speed of 45 revolutions
per minute. Find the linear speed, in inches per minute, at the point where the
needle is 1.5 inches from the record’s center.

Concept and Vocabulary Check

Fill in each blank so that the resulting statement is true.

1. An angle in a rectangular coordinate system is in 4. The radian measure of u

standard position if its vertex is at the and its shown in the figure is s
initial side lies along the positive .   u = .
r u
2. Positive angles are generated by rotation.
Negative angles are generated by rotation.
3. If 0° 6 u 6 90°, u is a/an angle. r
If u = 90°, u is a/an angle.
If 90° 6 u 6 180°, u is a/an angle.
If u = 180°, u is a/an angle.

M10_BLIT3216_06_SE_C05_541-668v3.0.3.indd 555 11/10/16 6:19 pm

556  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

5. To convert degrees to radians, multiply degrees 8. Using the figure shown, the length
s
by . of the arc intercepted by the central
6. To convert radians to degrees, multiply radians angle u is s = . r u

by . 9. True or false: If r = 10 r
7. Two angles with the same initial and terminal sides centimeters and u = 20°, then
but possibly different rotations are called s = 10 # 20 = 200 centimeters.
angles. Increasing or decreasing the
degree measure of an angle in standard position by 10. The linear speed, y, of a point a distance r from the
an integer multiple of results in such an center of rotation is given by y = ,
angle. Increasing or decreasing the radian measure of where v is the speed in radians per
an angle in standard position by an integer multiple unit of time.
of results in such an angle.

Exercise Set 5.1

Practice Exercises In Exercises 35–40, convert each angle in radians to degrees.
Round to two decimal places.
In Exercises 1–6, the measure of an angle is given. Classify the
angle as acute, right, obtuse, or straight. 35. 2 radians 36. 3 radians
p p
1. 135° 2. 177° 37. radians 38. radians
13 17
3. 83.135° 4. 87.177°
p 39. -4.8 radians 40. -5.2 radians
5. p 6.
2
In Exercises 41–56, use the circle shown in the rectangular
In Exercises 7–12, find the radian measure of the central angle of
coordinate system to draw each angle in standard position. State
a circle of radius r that intercepts an arc of length s.
the quadrant in which the angle lies. When an angle’s measure is
given in radians, work the exercise without converting to degrees.
Radius, r Arc Length, s
7. 10 inches 40 inches y
8. 5 feet 30 feet
9. 6 yards 8 yards
10. 8 yards 18 yards
11. 1 meter 400 centimeters
x
12. 1 meter 600 centimeters

In Exercises 13–20, convert each angle in degrees to radians.

Express your answer as a multiple of p.
13. 45° 14. 18° 15. 135°

16. 150° 17. 300° 18. 330° 7p 4p 3p

41. 42. 43.
6 3 4
19. - 225°   20. -270°
7p 2p 5p
44. 45. - 46. -
In Exercises 21–28, convert each angle in radians to degrees. 4 3 6
5p 7p 16p
p p 2p 47. - 48. - 49.
21. 22. 23. 4 4 3
2 9 3 14p
50. 51. 120° 52. 150°
3p 7p 11p 3
24. 25. 26. 53. -210° 54. -240° 55. 420°
4 6 6
27. - 3p 28. -4p 56. 405°

In Exercises 29–34, convert each angle in degrees to radians. In Exercises 57–70, find a positive angle less than 360° or 2p that
Round to two decimal places. is coterminal with the given angle.

29. 18° 30. 76° 31. -40° 57. 395° 58. 415° 59. - 150°
32. - 50° 33. 200° 34. 250° 60. -160° 61. -765° 62. - 760°
 Section 5.1 Angles and Radian Measure   557

19p 17p 23p 89. The minute hand of a clock is 8 inches long and moves from
63. 64. 65. 12 to 2 o’clock. How far does the tip of the minute hand
6 5 5
25p p p move? Express your answer in terms of p and then round to
66. 67. - 68. - two decimal places.
6 50 40
31p 38p 90. The minute hand of a clock is 6 inches long and moves from
69. - 70. -
7 9 12 to 4 o’clock. How far does the tip of the minute hand
In Exercises 71–74, find the length of the arc on a circle of move? Express your answer in terms of p and then round to
radius r intercepted by a central angle u. Express arc length in two decimal places.
terms of p. Then round your answer to two decimal places. 91. The figure shows a highway sign that warns of a railway
crossing. The lines that form the cross pass through the circle’s
Radius, r Central Angle, U
center and intersect at right angles. If the radius of the circle
71. 12 inches u = 45° is 24 inches, find the length of each of the four arcs formed by
72. 16 inches u = 60° the cross. Express your answer in terms of p and then round
to two decimal places.
73. 8 feet u = 225°
74. 9 yards u = 315°

In Exercises 75–76, express each angular speed in radians

per second.
75. 6 revolutions per second
76. 20 revolutions per second

Practice Plus
Use the circle shown in the rectangular coordinate system to solve
Exercises 77–82. Find two angles, in radians, between -2p and 2p
such that each angle’s terminal side passes through the origin and 92. The radius of a wheel rolling on the ground is 80 centimeters.
the given point. If the wheel rotates through an angle of 60°, how many
y centimeters does it move? Express your answer in terms of p
and then round to two decimal places.
A
How do we measure the distance between two points, A and B, on
B Earth? We measure along a circle with a center, C, at the center of
Earth. The radius of the circle is equal to the distance from C to
C the surface. Use the fact that Earth is a sphere of radius equal to
x
approximately 4000 miles to solve Exercises 93–96.

D F
E
A
4000 miles
77. A 78. B u C
79. D 80. F
B
81. E 82. C

In Exercises 83–86, find the absolute value of the radian measure of the
angle that the second hand of a clock moves through in the given time.
83. 55 seconds 84. 35 seconds 93. If two points, A and B, are 8000 miles apart, express angle u
in radians and in degrees.
85. 3 minutes and 40 seconds 94. If two points, A and B, are 10,000 miles apart, express angle u
86. 4 minutes and 25 seconds in radians and in degrees.
95. If u = 30°, find the distance between A and B to the nearest
Application Exercises mile.
87. The minute hand of a clock moves from 12 to 2 o’clock, or 16 96. If u = 10°, find the distance between A and B to the nearest
of a complete revolution. Through how many degrees does it mile.
p
move? Through how many radians does it move? 97. The angular speed of a point on Earth is radian per hour.
12
88. The minute hand of a clock moves from 12 to 4 o’clock, or 13 The Equator lies on a circle of radius approximately
of a complete revolution. Through how many degrees does it 4000 miles. Find the linear velocity, in miles per hour, of a
move? Through how many radians does it move? point on the Equator.

M10_BLIT3216_06_SE_C05_541-668v3.0.3.indd 557 11/10/16 6:19 pm

558  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

98. A Ferris wheel has a radius of 25 feet. The wheel is rotating 118. When an angle’s measure is given in terms of p, I know that
at two revolutions per minute. Find the linear speed, in feet it’s measured using radians.
per minute, of a seat on this Ferris wheel. 119. When I convert degrees to radians, I multiply by 1, choosing
99. A water wheel has a radius of 12 feet. The wheel is rotating p
180° for 1.
at 20 revolutions per minute. Find the linear speed, in feet 120. Using radian measure, I can always find a positive angle
per minute, of the water. less than 2p coterminal with a given angle by adding or
100. On a carousel, the outer row of animals is 20 feet from the subtracting 2p.
center. The inner row of animals is 10 feet from the center. 121. If u = 32, is this angle larger or smaller than a right angle?
The carousel is rotating at 2.5 revolutions per minute. What 122. A railroad curve is laid out on a circle. What radius should
is the difference, in feet per minute, in the linear speeds be used if the track is to change direction by 20° in a
of the animals in the outer and inner rows? Round to the distance of 100 miles? Round your answer to the nearest
nearest foot per minute. mile.
123. Assuming Earth to be a sphere of radius 4000 miles, how
Explaining the Concepts
many miles north of the Equator is Miami, Florida, if it is
101. What is an angle? 26° north from the Equator? Round your answer to the
102. What determines the size of an angle? nearest mile.
103. Describe an angle in standard position.
104. Explain the difference between positive and negative angles. Retaining the Concepts
What are coterminal angles? x 3 3
124. Solve: = - .
105. Explain what is meant by one radian. x - 3 x - 3 4
106. Explain how to find the radian measure of a central angle. (Section 1.2, Example 5)
107. Describe how to convert an angle in degrees to radians. 125. Solve: x 2 + 4x + 6 = 0.
108. Explain how to convert an angle in radians to degrees. (Section 1.5, Example 7)
109. Explain how to find the length of a circular arc. x 2 + 2x - 1 if x Ú 2
126. Let f(x) = e
110. If a carousel is rotating at 2.5 revolutions per minute, explain 3x + 1 if x 6 2.
how to find the linear speed of a child seated on one of the Find f(5) - f( - 5). (Section 2.2, Example 6)
animals.
p
111. The angular velocity of a point on Earth is radian per Preview Exercises
12
hour. Describe what happens every 24 hours.
Exercises 127–129 will help you prepare for the material covered
112. Have you ever noticed that we use the vocabulary of angles
in the next section. In each exercise, let u be an acute angle in a
in everyday speech? Here is an example:
right triangle, as shown in the figure. These exercises require the
My opinion about art museums took a 180° turn after use of the Pythagorean Theorem.
visiting the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.
Explain what this means. Then give another example of the
vocabulary of angles in everyday use. .GPIVJQHVJG
J[RQVGPWUG
B
Technology Exercises .GPIVJQHVJG
c UKFGQRRQUKVGu
In Exercises 113–116, use the keys on your calculator or graphing a
utility for converting an angle in degrees, minutes, and seconds u
(D°M′ S″) into decimal form, and vice versa. A C
b
In Exercises 113–114, convert each angle to a decimal in degrees.
Round your answer to two decimal places. .GPIVJQHVJGUKFGCFLCEGPVVQu
113. 30°15′10″ 114. 65°45′20″
In Exercises 115–116, convert each angle to D°M′ S″ form. Round 127. If a = 5 and b = 12, find the ratio of the length of the side
your answer to the nearest second. opposite u to the length of the hypotenuse.
115. 30.42° 116. 50.42° 128. If a = 1 and b = 1, find the ratio of the length of the side
opposite u to the length of the hypotenuse. Simplify the ratio
Critical Thinking Exercises by rationalizing the denominator.
Make Sense? In Exercises 117–120, determine whether each a 2 b 2
129. Simplify: a b + a b .
statement makes sense or does not make sense, and explain your c c
reasoning.
117. I made an error because the angle I drew in standard
position exceeded a straight angle.
 Section 5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry   559

Section 5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry

In the last century, Ang Rita Sherpa

climbed Mount Everest ten times, all
What am I without the use of bottled oxygen.
supposed to learn?
After studying this section, you
should be able to: Mountain climbers have
forever been fascinated by
❶ Use right triangles to
evaluate trigonometric reaching the top of Mount
functions. Everest, sometimes with
tragic results. The mountain,
❷ Find function values for on Asia’s Tibet–Nepal border,
p p
30° a b , 45° a b , and is Earth’s highest, peaking at an incredible 29,035 feet. The heights of mountains
6 4 can be found using trigonometry. The word trigonometry means “measurement
p of triangles.” Trigonometry is used in navigation, building, and engineering. For
60° a b .
3 centuries, Muslims used trigonometry and the stars to navigate across the Arabian
❸ Recognize and use desert to Mecca, the birthplace of the prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam.
fundamental identities. The ancient Greeks used trigonometry to record the locations of thousands of stars
and worked out the motion of the Moon relative to Earth. Today, trigonometry is
❹ Use equal cofunctions of
used to study the structure of DNA, the master molecule that determines how we
complements.
grow from a single cell to a complex, fully developed adult.
❺ Evaluate trigonometric
functions with a calculator.
The Six Trigonometric Functions
❻ Use right triangle
trigonometry to solve We begin the study of trigonometry by defining six functions, the six trigonometric
applied problems. functions. The inputs for these functions are measures of acute angles in right
triangles. The outputs are the ratios of the lengths of the sides of right triangles.
Figure 5.19 shows a right triangle with one of its acute angles labeled u. The side
opposite the right angle is known as the hypotenuse. The other sides of the triangle
are described by their position relative to the acute angle u. One side is opposite u
❶ Use right triangles to evaluate
and one is adjacent to u.
trigonometric functions.
The trigonometric functions have names that are words, rather than single letters
such as f, g, and h. For example, the sine of U is the length of the side opposite u
*[RQVGPWUG
5KFGQRRQUKVGu divided by the length of the hypotenuse:

length of side opposite u

u sin u = .
length of hypotenuse
5KFGCFLCEGPVVQu +PRWVKUVJGOGCUWTG 1WVRWVKUVJGTCVKQQH
QHCPCEWVGCPING VJGNGPIVJUQHVJGUKFGU
Figure 5.19 Naming a right triangle’s
sides from the point of view of an acute
angle u
The ratio of lengths depends on angle u and thus is a function of u. The expression
sin u really means sin(u), where sine is the name of the function and u, the measure
of an acute angle, is the input.
Here are the names of the six trigonometric functions, along with their
abbreviations:

Name Abbreviation Name Abbreviation

sine sin cosecant csc
cosine cos secant sec
tangent tan cotangent cot
560  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

.GPIVJQHVJG Now, let u be an acute angle in a right triangle, as shown in Figure 5.20. The length
J[RQVGPWUG
B
of the side opposite u is a, the length of the side adjacent to u is b, and the length of
the hypotenuse is c.
c .GPIVJQH
a VJGUKFG
QRRQUKVGu
u
A C
b

.GPIVJQHVJGUKFGCFLCEGPVVQu
Figure 5.20

Right Triangle Definitions of Trigonometric Functions

See Figure 5.20. The six trigonometric functions of the acute angle U are defined as follows:
length of side opposite angle u a length of hypotenuse c
sin u = = csc u = =
length of hypotenuse c length of side opposite angle u a
length of side adjacent to angle u b length of hypotenuse c
cos u = = sec u = =
length of hypotenuse c length of side adjacent to angle u b
length of side opposite angle u a length of side adjacent to angle u b
tan u = = cot u = = .
length of side adjacent to angle u b length of side opposite angle u a

Each of the trigonometric functions of the acute angle u is positive. Observe that the
ratios in the second column in the box are the reciprocals of the corresponding ratios
in the first column.

Great Question!
Is there a way to help me remember the right triangle definitions of any of the
trigonometric functions?
The word
SOHCAHTOA (pronounced: so@cah@tow@ah)
may be helpful in remembering the definitions for sine, cosine, and tangent.
S OH
()* C AH
()* T OA
()*
æ æ æ
opp adj opp
hyp hyp adj

Sine Cosine Tangent

“Some Old Hog Came Around Here and Took Our Apples.”

Figure 5.21 shows four right triangles of varying sizes. In each of the triangles, u is
the same acute angle, measuring approximately 56.3°. All four of these similar triangles
have the same shape and the lengths of corresponding sides are in the same ratio.
In each triangle, the tangent function has the same value for the angle u: tan u = 32.

6
4.5
a=3
1.5
u u u u

Figure 5.21 A particular acute angle b=2 4 1 3

always gives the same ratio of opposite to a 3 6 3 1.5 3 4.5 3
tan u = = tan u = = tan u = = tan u = =
adjacent sides. b 2 4 2 1 2 3 2

In general, the trigonometric function values of U depend only on the size of

angle U and not on the size of the triangle.
 Section 5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry   561

A Brief Review • The Pythagorean Theorem B

The sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs of

a right triangle equals the square of the length of the c a
hypotenuse. Hypotenuse Leg
If the legs have lengths a and b, and the hypotenuse
has length c, then
A b C
a 2 + b2 = c 2 . Leg
For more detail, see Section 1.5, Objective 7, Example 11.

Example 1 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

B
Find the value of each of the six trigonometric functions of u in Figure 5.22.
c
a=5
u Solution
A C
b = 12 We need to find the values of the six trigonometric functions of u. However, we
Figure 5.22 must know the lengths of all three sides of the triangle (a, b, and c) to evaluate all
six functions. The values of a and b are given. We can use the Pythagorean Theorem,
c 2 = a2 + b2, to find c.
a= b=

Great Question! c2 = a2 + b2 = 52 + 122 = 25 + 144 = 169

Do I have to use the definitions of c = √169 = 13
the trigonometric functions to get
the function values shown in the
Now that we know the lengths of the three sides of the triangle, we apply the
second column? definitions of the six trigonometric functions of u. Referring to these lengths as
opposite, adjacent, and hypotenuse, we have
No. The function values in the
second column are reciprocals of opposite 5 hypotenuse 13
sin u = = csc u = =
those in the first column. You can hypotenuse 13 opposite 5
obtain each of these values by
interchanging the numerator and adjacent 12 hypotenuse 13
cos u = = sec u = =
denominator of the corresponding hypotenuse 13 adjacent 12
ratio in the first column.
opposite 5 adjacent 12
tan u = = cot u = = .
adjacent 12 opposite 5 l l l

B
Check Point 1 Find the value of each of the six trigonometric functions of
u in the figure.
c
a=3

u A Brief Review • Rationalizing the Denominator

A C • The process of rewriting a square root expression as an equivalent expression
b=4
in which the denominator no longer contains any square roots is called
rationalizing the denominator. If the denominator consists of the square root
of a natural number that is not a perfect square, multiply the numerator and
the denominator by the smallest number that produces the square root of a
perfect square in the denominator.
1
Example Rationalize the denominator: .
12
1 1 "2 "2 "2
= ∙ = = .
"2 "2 "2 "4 2

/WNVKRN[D[

For more detail, see Section P.3, Objective 6.

562  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

B Example 2 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

c=3 a=1 Find the value of each of the six trigonometric functions of u in Figure 5.23.
u
A
b C Solution
Figure 5.23 We begin by finding b.
a 2 + b2 = c2 Use the Pythagorean Theorem.
12 + b2 = 32 Figure 5.23 shows that a = 1 and c = 3.
1 + b2 = 9 12 = 1 and 32 = 9.
b2 = 8 Subtract 1 from both sides.
b = 28 = 222 Take the principal square root and simplify:
28 = 24 # 2 = 2422 = 222.

Now that we know the lengths of the three sides of the triangle, we apply the
definitions of the six trigonometric functions of u.
opposite 1 hypotenuse 3
sin u = = csc u = = = 3
hypotenuse 3 opposite 1
adjacent 222 hypotenuse 3
cos u = = sec u = =
hypotenuse 3 adjacent 222
opposite 1 adjacent 222
tan u = = cot u = = = 222
adjacent 222 opposite 1
Because fractional expressions are usually written without radicals in the
denominators, we simplify the values of tan u and sec u by rationalizing the
denominators:

1 1 "2 "2 "2 3 3 "2 3"2 3"2

tan u = = ∙ = = sec u = = ∙ = = .
2"2 2"2 "2 2∙2 4 2"2 2"2 "2 2∙2 4

9GCTGOWNVKRN[KPID[CPF 9GCTGOWNVKRN[KPID[CPF
 
PQVEJCPIKPIVJGXCNWGQH  PQVEJCPIKPIVJGXCNWGQH 
√ √
    l l l

B
Check Point 2 Find the value of c=5
each of the six trigonometric functions a=1
of u in the figure. Express each value A u
C
b
in simplified form.

❷ Find function values for Function Values for Some Special Angles
p p p
30° a b , 45° a b , and A 45°, or radian, angle occurs frequently in trigonometry. How do we find the
6 4 4
values of the trigonometric functions of 45°? We construct a right triangle with a
p
60° a b . 45° angle, as shown in Figure 5.24. The triangle actually has two 45° angles. Thus, the
3 triangle is isosceles—that is, it has two sides of the same length. Assume that each
leg of the triangle has a length equal to 1. We can find the length of the hypotenuse
using the Pythagorean Theorem.
(length of hypotenuse)2 = 12 + 12 = 2
length of hypotenuse = 22
√2
1
With Figure 5.24, we can determine the trigonometric function values for 45°.
45°
1 Example 3 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions of 45°
Figure 5.24 An isosceles right triangle Use Figure 5.24 to find sin 45°, cos 45°, and tan 45°.
 Section 5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry   563

Solution
We apply the definitions of these three trigonometric functions. Where appropriate,
we simplify by rationalizing denominators.

length of side opposite 45° 1 1 "2 "2

sin 45° = = = ∙ =
length of hypotenuse "2 "2 "2 2
Great Question!
Can I use my calculator to 4CVKQPCNK\GFGPQOKPCVQTU
evaluate trigonometric functions
and skip this part of the section? length of side adjacent to 45° 1 1 "2 "2
cos 45° = = = ∙ =
No. Later in the section you’ll length of hypotenuse "2 "2 "2 2
learn that calculators provide
approximate values of the length of side opposite 45° 1
trigonometric functions for tan 45° = = =1
length of side adjacent to 45° 1  l l l
most angles. The function values
obtained in this part of the section
are exact. When these exact Check Point 3 Use Figure 5.24 to find csc 45°, sec 45°, and cot 45°.
values are irrational numbers,
they cannot be obtained with a
calculator. When you worked Check Point 3, did you actually use Figure 5.24 or did you use
reciprocals to find the values?

csc 45° = "2 sec 45° = "2 cot 45° = 1

6CMGVJGTGEKRTQECN 6CMGVJGTGEKRTQECN 6CMGVJGTGEKRTQECN

QHUKP°=   QHEQU°=   QHVCP°=  
√ √ 

Notice that if you use reciprocals, you should take the reciprocal of a function value
before the denominator is rationalized. In this way, the reciprocal value will not
contain a radical in the denominator.
p
Two other angles that occur frequently in trigonometry are 30°, or radian, and
p 6
60°, or radian, angles. We can find the values of the trigonometric functions of
3
30° and 60° by using a right triangle. To form this right triangle, draw an equilateral
triangle—that is, a triangle with all sides the same length. Assume that each side has a
length equal to 2. Now take half of the equilateral triangle. We obtain the right triangle
in Figure 5.25. This right triangle has a hypotenuse of length 2 and a leg of length 1. The
30° other leg has length a, which can be found using the Pythagorean Theorem.
2 a2 + 12 = 22
√3 a2 + 1 = 4
a2 = 3
60° a = 23
1 With the right triangle in Figure 5.25, we can determine the trigonometric
Figure 5.25 30°–60°–90° triangle functions for 30° and 60°.

Example 4 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions of 30° and 60°

Use Figure 5.25 to find sin 60°, cos 60°, sin 30°, and cos 30°.

Solution
We begin with 60°. Use the angle on the lower left in Figure 5.25.
length of side opposite 60° 23
sin 60° = =
length of hypotenuse 2
length of side adjacent to 60° 1
cos 60° = =
length of hypotenuse 2
564  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

To find sin 30° and cos 30°, use the angle on the upper right in Figure 5.25.
length of side opposite 30° 1
30° sin 30° = =
length of hypotenuse 2
2 length of side adjacent to 30° 23
cos 30° = =  l l l
√3 length of hypotenuse 2

Check Point 4 Use Figure 5.25 to find tan 60° and tan 30°. If a radical appears
60°
in a denominator, rationalize the denominator.
1
Figure 5.25 (repeated) Because we will often use the function values of 30°, 45°, and 60°, you should learn
30°–60°–90° triangle
to construct the right triangles in Figure 5.24 on page 562 and Figure 5.25, repeated in
the margin. With sufficient practice, you will memorize the values in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Trigonometric Functions of Special Angles
P P P
U 30° = 45° = 60° =
6 4 3
1 22 23
sin U
2 2 2
23 22 1
cos U
2 2 2

tan U 23 1 23
3

❸ Recognize and use fundamental Fundamental Identities

identities. Many relationships exist among the six trigonometric functions. These relationships
are described using trigonometric identities. For example, csc u is defined as the
reciprocal of sin u. This relationship can be expressed by the identity
A Brief Review • Identities
1
An equation that is true for csc u = .
sin u
all values of the variable for
which both sides are defined This identity is one of six reciprocal identities.
is an identity.
Reciprocal Identities
Example
1 1
x + 3 = x + 2 + 1. sin u = csc u =
csc u sin u
For more detail, see Section 1.2, 1 1
Objective 4. cos u = sec u =
sec u cos u
1 1
tan u = cot u =
cot u tan u

Two other relationships that follow from the definitions of the trigonometric
functions are called the quotient identities.

Quotient Identities
sin u cos u
tan u = cot u =
cos u sin u

If sin u and cos u are known, a quotient identity and three reciprocal identities
make it possible to find the value of each of the four remaining trigonometric
functions.
 Section 5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry   565

Example 5 Using Quotient and Reciprocal Identities

2 221
Given sin u = and cos u = , find the value of each of the four remaining
5 5
trigonometric functions.

Solution
We can find tan u by using the quotient identity that describes tan u as the quotient
of sin u and cos u.

2
sin u 5 2 5 2 2 "21 2"21
tan u = = = ∙ = = ∙ =
cos u "21 5 "21 "21 "21 "21 21
5
4CVKQPCNK\GVJGFGPQOKPCVQT

We use the reciprocal identities to find the value of each of the remaining three
functions.
1 1 5
csc u = = =
sin u 2 2
5
1 1 5 5 "21 5"21
sec u = = = = ∙ =
cos u "21 "21 "21 "21 21
5
4CVKQPCNK\GVJGFGPQOKPCVQT

1 1 221 2 2221
cot u = = = We found tan u = . We could use tan u = ,
tan u 2 2 221 21
but then we would have to rationalize the
221
denominator. l l l

2 25
Check Point 5 Given sin u = and cos u = , find the value of each of the
3 3
four remaining trigonometric functions.

Other relationships among trigonometric functions follow from the Pythagorean

c Theorem. Using Figure 5.26, the Pythagorean Theorem states that
a
a 2 + b2 = c 2 .
u
To obtain ratios that correspond to trigonometric functions, divide both sides of this
b
equation by c 2.
Figure 5.26

a2 b2 a 2 b 2
+ = 1 or a b + a b =1
c2 c2 c c

a b
+P(KIWTGUKPu= c  +P(KIWTGEQUu= c 
UQVJKUKU UKPu  UQVJKUKU EQUu 

Based on the observations in the voice balloons, we see that

(sin u)2 + (cos u)2 = 1.
We will use the notation sin2 u for (sin u)2 and cos2 u for (cos u)2. With this notation,
we can write the identity as
sin2 u + cos2 u = 1.
566  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Two additional identities can be obtained from a2 + b2 = c 2 by dividing both

sides by b2 and a2, respectively. The three identities are called the Pythagorean
identities.

Pythagorean Identities
sin2 u + cos2 u = 1 1 + tan2 u = sec2 u 1 + cot2 u = csc2 u

Great Question! Example 6 Using a Pythagorean Identity

In Example 6, you mention that Given that sin u = 35 and u is an acute angle, find the value of cos u using a
the angle U is acute and then use
trigonometric identity.
this fact to conclude that cos U is
positive. Should I already know
why this is important? Solution
No. In fact, we’re just being very We can find the value of cos u by using the Pythagorean identity
careful here. In the next section, sin2 u + cos2 u = 1.
we extend the definitions of the
six trigonometric functions to 3 2 3
a b + cos2 u = 1 We are given that sin u = .
include all angles, not just acute 5 5
angles in a right triangle. When
9 3 3 2 32 9
we do this, the trigonometric + cos2 u = 1 Square : a b = 2 = .
functions will sometimes have 25 5 5 5 25
negative values. In this section, 9 9
we are only working with acute cos2 u = 1 - Subtract from both sides.
25 25
angles and all six trigonometric
functions have positive values at 16 9 25 9 16
cos2 u = Simplify: 1 - = - = .
any acute angle. 25 25 25 25 25
16 4
cos u = = Because u is an acute angle, cos u is positive.
A 25 5
4
Thus, cos u = . l l l
5

Check Point 6 Given that sin u = 12 and u is an acute angle, find the value of
cos u using a trigonometric identity.

❹ Use equal cofunctions Trigonometric Functions and Complements

of complements. p
Two positive angles are complements if their sum is 90° or . For example, angles of
70° and 20° are complements because 70° + 20° = 90°. 2
Another relationship among trigonometric functions is based on angles that are
complements. Refer to Figure 5.27. Because the sum of the angles of any triangle
is 180°, in a right triangle the sum of the acute angles is 90°. Thus, the acute angles
are complements. If the degree measure of one acute angle is u, then the degree
measure of the other acute angle is (90° - u). This angle is shown on the upper right
in Figure 5.27.
Let’s use Figure 5.27 to compare sin u and cos(90° - u).
c 90° − u length of side opposite u
a
a
sin u = =
length of hypotenuse c
u
length of side adjacent to (90° - u) a
b cos(90° - u) = =
length of hypotenuse c
Figure 5.27
Thus, sin u = cos(90° - u).
Because sin u = cos(90° - u), if two angles are complements, the sine of one
equals the cosine of the other. Because of this relationship, the sine and cosine are
called cofunctions of each other. The name cosine is a shortened form of the phrase
complement’s sine.
 Section 5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry   567

Any pair of trigonometric functions f and g for which

f(u) = g(90° - u) and g(u) = f(90° - u)
are called cofunctions. Using Figure 5.27, we can show that the tangent and cotangent
are also cofunctions of each other. So are the secant and cosecant.

Cofunction Identities
The value of a trigonometric function of u is equal to the cofunction of the
complement of u. Cofunctions of complementary angles are equal.
sin u = cos(90° - u) cos u = sin(90° - u)
tan u = cot(90° - u) cot u = tan(90° - u)
sec u = csc(90° - u) csc u = sec(90° - u)
p
If u is in radians, replace 90° with .
2

Example 7 Using Cofunction Identities

Find a cofunction with the same value as the given expression:
p
a. sin 72° b. csc .
3

Solution
Because the value of a trigonometric function of u is equal to the cofunction of
the complement of u, we need to find the complement of each angle. We do this by
p
subtracting the angle’s measure from 90° or its radian equivalent, .
2
a. sin 72° = cos(90° − 72°) = cos 18°

9GJCXGCHWPEVKQPCPF
KVUEQHWPEVKQP

p p p 3p 2p p
b. csc = sec a − b = sec a − b = sec
3 2 3 6 6 6
9GJCXGCEQHWPEVKQP 2GTHQTOVJGUWDVTCEVKQPWUKPIVJG
CPFKVUHWPEVKQP NGCUVEQOOQPFGPQOKPCVQT
 l l l

Check Point 7 Find a cofunction with the same value as the given expression:
p
a. sin 46° b. cot .
12

❺ Evaluate trigonometric functions Using a Calculator to Evaluate Trigonometric Functions

with a calculator. The values of the trigonometric functions obtained with the special triangles are
exact values. For most acute angles other than 30°, 45°, and 60°, we approximate the
value of each of the trigonometric functions using a calculator. The first step is to set
the calculator to the correct mode, degrees or radians, depending on how the acute
angle is measured.
Most calculators have keys marked SIN, COS, and TAN. For example, to find
the value of sin 30°, set the calculator to the degree mode and enter 30 SIN on most
scientific calculators and SIN 30 ENTER on most graphing calculators. Consult
the manual for your calculator.
568  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

To evaluate the cosecant, secant, and cotangent functions, use the key for the
respective reciprocal function, SIN, COS, or TAN, and then use the reciprocal
key. The reciprocal key is 1>x on many scientific calculators and x -1 on many
p
graphing calculators. For example, we can evaluate sec using the following
12
reciprocal relationship:
p 1
sec = .
12 p
cos
12
Using the radian mode, enter one of the following keystroke sequences:

Many Scientific Calculators

p ,  12  = COS1>x
Many Graphing Calculators

Discovery (COS(p , 12))x -1ENTER.

If you are using a graphing p
calculator, find the value of each
Rounding the display to four decimal places, we obtain sec ≈ 1.0353.
12
of the following expressions,
entering parentheses exactly as
shown. (Your calculator may Example 8 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions with a Calculator
automatically insert the left
Use a calculator to find the value to four decimal places:
parenthesis immediately following
cos.) Use radian mode. a. cos 48.2° b. cot 1.2.
(cos(p , 12))-1
cos(p , 12)-1 Solution
cos((p , 12)-1) Scientific Calculator Solution
Which two expression have Function Mode Keystrokes Display, Rounded to
the same value? What order of Four Decimal Places
operations does the calculator
follow when evaluating the second a. cos 48.2° Degree 48.2 COS 0.6665
expression? Do you think that the
second expression is ambiguous? b. cot 1.2 Radian 1.2 TAN 1>x 0.3888
Why do you think we used the
outer set of parentheses in the
Graphing Calculator Solution
keystrokes shown for the graphing
calculator solution in 8(b)? Function Mode Keystrokes Display, Rounded to
Four Decimal Places
a. cos 48.2° Degree COS 48.2 ENTER 0.6665

b. cot 1.2 Radian (TAN 1.2 )x -1ENTER 0.3888

 l l l

Check Point 8 Use a calculator to find the value to four decimal places:
a. sin 72.8° b. csc 1.5.

Great Question!
Now that I can use my calculator to evaluate trigonometric functions, do I have to use
pictures of right triangles to find function values for 30°, 45°, and 60°?
Yes. Don’t become too calculator dependent. If you need to find exact values of
trigonometric functions, leave the calculator alone. For most angles, the best that
your calculator can do for you is to provide approximate values. When directions in
trigonometry involve the word exact, put down the calculator and don’t bother to ask Siri.
 Section 5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry   569

❻ Use right triangle trigonometry Applications

to solve applied problems. Many applications of right triangle trigonometry involve the angle made with an
imaginary horizontal line. As shown in Figure 5.28, an angle formed by a horizontal
line and the line of sight to an object that is above the horizontal line is called the
angle of elevation. The angle formed by a horizontal line and the line of sight to an
object that is below the horizontal line is called the angle of depression. Transits and
sextants are instruments used to measure such angles.

er
Observer ob serv
located ab ove
here fsight
Li ne o
Angle of elevation
Horizontal

Lin Angle of depression

e of
sigh
t be
low
obs
erve
r

Figure 5.28

Example 9 Problem Solving Using an Angle of Elevation

Sighting the top of a building, a surveyor measured the angle of elevation to
be 22°. The transit is 5 feet above the ground and 300 feet from the building. Find
the building’s height.

Solution
The situation is illustrated in Figure 5.29. Let a be the height of the portion of
the building that lies above the transit. The height of the building is the transit’s
height, 5 feet, plus a. Thus, we need to identify a trigonometric function that will
make it possible to find a. In terms of the 22° angle, we are looking for the side
opposite the angle. The transit is 300 feet from the building, so the side adjacent to
the 22° angle is 300 feet. Because we have a known angle, an unknown opposite
side, and a known adjacent side, we select the tangent function.

a h
6TCPUKV t
sigh
Line of 22° 5 feet
300 feet

Figure 5.29

.GPIVJQHUKFGQRRQUKVGVJG°CPING
a
tan 22° =
300 .GPIVJQHUKFGCFLCEGPVVQVJG°CPING

a = 300 tan 22° Multiply both sides of the equation by 300.

a ≈ 121 Use a calculator in the degree mode.
The height of the part of the building above the transit is approximately 121 feet.
Thus, the height of the building is determined by adding the transit’s height, 5 feet,
to 121 feet.
h ≈ 5 + 121 = 126
The building’s height is approximately 126 feet. l l l
 570  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Check Point 9 The irregular

blue shape in Figure 5.30 represents
a lake. The distance across the lake,
a, is unknown. To find this distance,
a surveyor took the measurements B
shown in the figure. What is the
distance across the lake?
a

24°
A
750 yd C
Figure 5.30

If two sides of a right triangle are known, an appropriate trigonometric function

can be used to find an acute angle u in the triangle. You will also need to use an
inverse trigonometric key on a calculator. These keys use a function value to
display the acute angle u. For example, suppose that sin u = 0.866. We can find u in
the degree mode by using the secondary inverse sine key, usually labeled SIN-1.
The key SIN-1 is not a button you will actually press. It is the secondary function
for the button labeled SIN.

Many Scientific Calculators:

.866 2nd SIN
2TGUUKPIPF5+0
CEEGUUGUVJGKPXGTUG Many Graphing Calculators:
UKPGMG[5+0–
2nd SIN .866 ENTER

The display should show approximately 59.997, which can be rounded to 60. Thus, if
sin u = 0.866, then u ≈ 60°.

Example 10 Determining the Angle of Elevation

A building that is 21 meters tall casts a shadow 25 meters long. Find the angle of
elevation of the Sun to the nearest degree.

Solution
The situation is illustrated in Figure 5.31. We are asked to find u.

21 m #PINGQHGNGXCVKQP

25 m

Figure 5.31

We begin with the tangent function.

side opposite u 21
tan u = =
side adjacent to u 25

M10_BLIT3216_06_SE_C05_541-668v3.0.3.indd 570 11/10/16 6:20 pm

 Section 5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry   571

21
We use tan u = 25 and a calculator in the degree mode to find u.

Many Scientific Calculators:

( 21 ÷ 25 ) 2nd TAN
2TGUUKPIPF6#0
CEEGUUGUVJGKPXGTUG Many Graphing Calculators:
VCPIGPVMG[6#0–
2nd TAN ( 21 ÷ 25 ) ENTER

The display should show approximately 40. Thus, the angle of elevation of the sun
is approximately 40°. l l l

Check Point 10 A flagpole that is 14 meters tall casts a shadow 10 meters

long. Find the angle of elevation of the sun to the nearest degree.

Blitzer Bonus  The Mountain Man

In the 1930s, a National Geographic team headed by Brad Washburn
used trigonometry to create a map of the 5000-square-mile region of
the Yukon, near the Canadian border. The team started with aerial
photography. By drawing a network of angles on the photographs,
the approximate locations of the major mountains and their rough
heights were determined. The expedition then spent three months on
foot to find the exact heights. Team members established two base
points a known distance apart, one directly under the mountain’s
peak. By measuring the angle of elevation from one of the base
points to the peak, the tangent function was used to determine the
peak’s height. The Yukon expedition was a major advance in the way
maps are made.

Concept and Vocabulary Check

Fill in each blank so that the resulting statement is true.

1. Using lengths a, b, and c in the right triangle shown, 4. According to the reciprocal identities,
the trigonometric functions of u are defined as 1 1 1
follows: = , = , and = .
csc u sec u cot u
B sin u = csc u = 5. According to the quotient identities,
sin u cos u
cos u = sec u = = and = .
c
a
cos u sin u
tan u = cot u = . 6. According to the Pythagorean identities,
u sin2 u + cos2 u = , 1 + tan2 u = ,
A C 2
b and 1 + cot u = .
2. Using the definitions in Exercise 1, we refer to a as 7. According to the cofunction identities,
the length of the side angle u, b as the length cos(90° - u) = , cot(90° - u) = ,
of the side angle u, and c as the length of and csc(90° - u) = .
the .   
3. True or false: The trigonometric functions of u in
Exercise 1 depend only on the size of u and not on the
size of the triangle.
572  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Exercise Set 5.2

Practice Exercises 9. cos 30° 10. tan 30°
In Exercises 1–8, use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the length 11. sec 45° 12. csc 45°
of the missing side of each right triangle. Then find the value of p p
each of the six trigonometric functions of u. 13. tan 14. cot
3 3
1. B 2. B p
15. sin - cos
p p
16. tan + csc
p
4 4 4 6

6
9 In Exercises 17–20, u is an acute angle and sin u and cos u are
u given. Use identities to find tan u, csc u, sec u, and cot u. Where
u A C necessary, rationalize denominators.
8
A C
12 8 15
17. sin u = , cos u =
3. B 4. B 17 17
17 3 4
18. sin u = , cos u =
5 5
u
29 A 1 222
C 15 19. sin u = , cos u =
3 3
6 213
u 20. sin u = , cos u =
A 7 7
C 21
5. B
In Exercises 21–24, u is an acute angle and sin u is given. Use the
26 Pythagorean identity sin2 u + cos2 u = 1 to find cos u.
10
u 6 7
C A 21. sin u = 22. sin u =
7 8
6. B 239 221
41 23. sin u = 24. sin u =
8 5
u
A
C 40
In Exercises 25–30, use an identity to find the value of each
7. B expression. Do not use a calculator.
35
A 25. sin 37° csc 37° 26. cos 53° sec 53°
u p p p p
27. sin2 + cos2 28. sin2 + cos2
9 9 10 10
21
29. sec2 23° - tan2 23° 30. csc2 63° - cot2 63°
C
In Exercises 31–38, find a cofunction with the same value as the
8. C
given expression.
24
31. sin 7° 32. sin 19°
u 33. csc 25° 34. csc 35°
B A
25 p p
35. tan 36. tan
In Exercises 9–16, use the given triangles to evaluate each 9 7
expression. If necessary, express the value without a square root in 2p 3p
37. cos 38. cos
the denominator by rationalizing the denominator. 5 8

In Exercises 39–48, use a calculator to find the value of the

trigonometric function to four decimal places.
30°
39. sin 38° 40. cos 21°
2 41. tan 32.7° 42. tan 52.6°
45° √3
43. csc 17° 44. sec 55°
√2
1 p 3p
45. cos 46. sin
10 10
45° 60° p p
47. cot 48. cot
1 1 12 18
 Section 5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry   573

In Exercises 49–54, find the measure of the side of the right In Exercises 69–70, express the exact value of each function as a
triangle whose length is designated by a lowercase letter. Round single fraction. Do not use a calculator.
answers to the nearest whole number.
p
49. B 50. B 69. If f(u) = 2 cos u - cos 2u, find f a b.
6
u p
70. If f(u) = 2 sin u - sin , find f a b.
a 2 3
a 1 p
37° 71. If u is an acute angle and cot u = , find tan a - u b.
4 2
A C
250 cm
1 p
61° 72. If u is an acute angle and cos u = , find csc a - u b.
3 2
A C
10 cm

51. B 52. B Application Exercises

73. To find the distance across a lake, a surveyor took the
220 in. 13 m measurements shown in the figure. Use these measurements
a
to determine how far it is across the lake. Round to the
nearest yard.
34° 34°
A C A C
b
53. B

c B
16 m
23°
A a=?
C

54. B 40°
A 630 yd C

74. At a certain time of day, the angle of elevation of the Sun

23 yd is 40°. To the nearest foot, find the height of a tree whose
shadow is 35 feet long.
44°
A C
b

In Exercises 55–58, use a calculator to find the value of the acute

angle u to the nearest degree.
55. sin u = 0.2974 56. cos u = 0.8771
57. tan u = 4.6252 58. tan u = 26.0307 h

In Exercises 59–62, use a calculator to find the value of the acute 40°
angle u in radians, rounded to three decimal places.
35 ft
59. cos u = 0.4112 60. sin u = 0.9499
61. tan u = 0.4169 62. tan u = 0.5117 75. A tower that is 125 feet tall casts a shadow 172 feet long. Find
the angle of elevation of the Sun to the nearest degree.
Practice Plus
In Exercises 63–68, find the exact value of each expression.
Do not use a calculator.
p
tan
3 1 1 2
63. - 64. -
2 p p p
sec cot csc 125 ft
6 4 6
2 2 2 2
65. 1 + sin 40° + sin 50° 66. 1 - tan 10° + csc 80°
u
67. csc 37° sec 53° - tan 53° cot 37°
68. cos 12° sin 78° + cos 78° sin 12° 172 ft
574  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

76. The Washington Monument is 555 feet high. If you are 83. Describe the triangle used to find the trigonometric functions
standing one quarter of a mile, or 1320 feet, from the base of 45°.
of the monument and looking to the top, find the angle of 84. Describe the triangle used to find the trigonometric functions
elevation to the nearest degree. of 30° and 60°.
85. What is a trigonometric identity?
Washington
Monument 86. Use words (not an equation) to describe one of the reciprocal
identities.
87. Use words (not an equation) to describe one of the quotient
555 ft identities.
u 88. Use words (not an equation) to describe one of the
1320 ft Pythagorean identities.
89. Describe a relationship among trigonometric functions that
is based on angles that are complements.
77. A plane rises from take-off and flies at an angle of 10° with
the horizontal runway. When it has gained 500 feet, find the 90. Describe what is meant by an angle of elevation and an angle
distance, to the nearest foot, the plane has flown. of depression.
91. Stonehenge, the famous “stone circle” in England, was built
between 2750 b.c. and 1300 b.c. using solid stone blocks
B weighing over 99,000 pounds each. It required 550 people to
c=?
pull a single stone up a ramp inclined at a 9° angle. Describe
500 ft how right triangle trigonometry can be used to determine the
10° distance the 550 workers had to drag a stone in order to raise
A C it to a height of 30 feet.

78. A road is inclined at an angle of 5°. After driving 5000 feet

along this road, find the driver’s increase in altitude. Round
to the nearest foot.

B
5000 ft
a=?
5°
A C

79. A telephone pole is 60 feet tall. A guy wire 75 feet long is

attached from the ground to the top of the pole. Find the angle
between the wire and the pole to the nearest degree.
Technology Exercises
92. Use a calculator in the radian mode to fill in the values in
sin u
the following table. Then draw a conclusion about as u
u u
approaches 0.
60 ft
75 ft U 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001
sin U
sin U
U
80. A telephone pole is 55 feet tall. A guy wire 80 feet long is
attached from the ground to the top of the pole. Find the angle 93. Use a calculator in the radian mode to fill in the values in the
cos u - 1
between the wire and the pole to the nearest degree. following table. Then draw a conclusion about as u
u
approaches 0.
Explaining the Concepts
81. If you are given the lengths of the sides of a right triangle, U 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001
describe how to find the sine of either acute angle. cos U
82. Describe one similarity and one difference between the cos U − 1
definitions of sin u and cos u, where u is an acute angle of a
U
right triangle.
 Section 5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry   575

Critical Thinking Exercises Retaining the Concepts

Make Sense? In Exercises 94–97, determine whether each 105. Solve:  2x - 3  = 7.
statement makes sense or does not make sense, and explain your (Section 1.6, Example 9)
reasoning. 106. Write an equation in slope-intercept form for the line
94. For a given angle u, I found a slight increase in sin u as the passing through (1, -1) and perpendicular to the line whose
size of the triangle increased. equation is x + 10y - 13 = 0.
95. Although I can use an isosceles right triangle to determine (Section 2.4, Example 2)
the exact value of sin p4 , I can also use my calculator to 107. Solve: log 4(x 2 - 9) - log 4(x + 3) = log 464.
obtain this value. (Section 4.4, Example 8)
1 sin u
96. I can rewrite tan u as , as well as .
cot u cos u Preview Exercises
97. Standing under this arch, I can determine its height by Exercises 108–110 will help you prepare for the material covered
measuring the angle of elevation to the top of the arch and in the next section. Use these figures to solve Exercises 108–109.
my distance to a point directly under the arch.
y y
P = (x, y)

P = (x, y)
r r
y y
u
u
x x
x x

(a) u lies in (b) u lies in

quadrant I. quadrant II.

108. a. Write a ratio that expresses sin u for the right triangle in
Figure (a).
b. Assuming that r 7 0 in both figures, determine the ratio
that you wrote in part (a) for Figure (b) with x = -3 and
y = 4. Is this ratio positive or negative?
109. a. Write a ratio that expresses cos u for the right triangle in
Figure (a).
b. Assuming that r 7 0 in both figures, determine the ratio
that you wrote in part (a) for Figure (b) with x = -3 and
Delicate Arch in Arches National Park, Utah
y = 5. Is this ratio positive or negative?
110. Find the positive angle u′ formed by the terminal side of u
and the x@axis.
In Exercises 98–101, determine whether each statement is true or
false. If the statement is false, make the necessary change(s) to a. y
produce a true statement.
tan 45°
98. = tan 3° 99. tan2 15° - sec2 15° = -1 u = 345°
tan 15° x
u′
100. sin 45° + cos 45° = 1 101. tan2 5° = tan 25°
102. Explain why the sine or cosine of an acute angle cannot be
greater than or equal to 1. b. y
103. Describe what happens to the tangent of an acute angle as
the angle gets close to 90°. u = 5p
6
u′
104. From the top of a 250-foot lighthouse, a plane is sighted x
overhead and a ship is observed directly below the plane.
The angle of elevation of the plane is 22° and the angle of
depression of the ship is 35°. Find a. the distance of the ship
from the lighthouse; b. the plane’s height above the water.
Round to the nearest foot.  
576  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Section 5.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

There is something comforting in

the repetition of some of nature’s
What am I patterns. The ocean level at a beach
supposed to learn? varies between high and low tide
After studying this section, you approximately every 12 hours.
should be able to: The number of hours of daylight
oscillates from a maximum on
❶ Use the definitions of the summer solstice, June 21, to a
trigonometric functions
minimum on the winter solstice,
of any angle.
December 21. Then it increases
❷ Use the signs of the to the same maximum the
trigonometric functions. following June 21. Some believe
❸ Find reference angles. that cycles, called biorhythms,
❹ Use reference angles to represent physical, emotional,
evaluate trigonometric and intellectual aspects of our
functions. lives. Throughout the remainder
of this chapter, we will see how
the trigonometric functions are
used to model phenomena that
occur again and again. To do this,
we need to move beyond right
triangles.

❶ Use the definitions of Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle

trigonometric functions In the last section, we evaluated trigonometric functions of acute angles, such
of any angle. as that shown in Figure 5.32(a). Note that this angle is in standard position. The
point P = (x, y) is a point r units from the origin on the terminal side of u. A right
triangle is formed by drawing a line segment from P = (x, y) perpendicular to the
x@axis. Note that y is the length of the side opposite u and x is the length of the side
adjacent to u.

y y y y
u
P = (x, y) u
x x
P = (x, y) x x

r y y
r r
y y r
u P = (x, y)
u
x x
x x
P = (x, y)

(a) u lies in (b) u lies in (c) u lies in (d) u lies in

quadrant I.    quadrant II.    quadrant III.    quadrant IV.
Figure 5.32

Figures 5.32(b), (c), and (d) show angles in standard position, but they are not
acute. We can extend our definitions of the six trigonometric functions to include
such angles, as well as quadrantal angles. (Recall that a quadrantal angle has its
terminal side on the x@axis or y@axis; such angles are not shown in Figure 5.32.) The
point P = (x, y) may be any point on the terminal side of the angle u other than the
origin, (0, 0).
 Section 5.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle   577

y
Definitions of Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle
Let u be any angle in standard position and let P = (x, y) be a point on the
P = (x, y) terminal side of u. If r = 2x 2 + y2 is the distance from (0, 0) to (x, y), as shown
r in Figure 5.32 on the previous page, the six trigonometric functions of U are
y defined by the following ratios:
u y r
x sin u = csc u = , y ≠ 0
x r y
x r
Figure 5.32(a) (repeated) u lies in cos u = sec u = , x ≠ 0
r x
quadrant I.
y x
tan u = , x ≠ 0 cot u = , y ≠ 0.
x y

6JGTCVKQUKPVJGUGEQPFEQNWOPCTGVJGTGEKRTQECNU
Great Question! QHVJGEQTTGURQPFKPITCVKQUKPVJGƂTUVEQNWOP
Is there a way to make it
easier for me to remember the
definitions of trigonometric Because the point P = (x, y) is any point on the terminal side of u other than
functions of any angle? the origin, (0, 0), r = 2x 2 + y2 cannot be zero. Examine the six trigonometric
Yes. If u is acute, we have the right functions defined above. Note that the denominator of the sine and cosine functions
triangle shown in Figure 5.32(a). is r. Because r ≠ 0, the sine and cosine functions are defined for any angle u. This
In this situation, the definitions is not true for the other four trigonometric functions. Note that the denominator of
y r
in the box are the right triangle the tangent and secant functions is x: tan u = and sec u = . These functions are
definitions of the trigonometric x x
functions. This should make it not defined if x = 0. If the point P = (x, y) is on the y@axis, then x = 0. Thus, the
easier for you to remember the tangent and secant functions are undefined for all quadrantal angles with terminal
six definitions. sides on the positive or negative y@axis. Likewise, if P = (x, y) is on the x@axis, then
x
y = 0, and the cotangent and cosecant functions are undefined: cot u = and
y
r
csc u = . The cotangent and cosecant functions are undefined for all quadrantal
y
angles with terminal sides on the positive or negative x@axis.

y Example 1 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

5 Let P = ( -3, -5) be a point on the terminal side of u. Find each of the six
trigonometric functions of u.

u
Solution
x The situation is shown in Figure 5.33. We need values for x, y, and r to evaluate all six
–5 5 trigonometric functions. We are given the values of x and y. Because P = ( -3, -5)
r is a point on the terminal side of u, x = -3 and y = -5. Furthermore,

r = 2x 2 + y2 = 2( -3)2 + ( -5)2 = 29 + 25 = 234.

–5
Now that we know x, y, and r, we can find the six trigonometric functions of u.
P = (–3, –5)
Where appropriate, we will rationalize denominators.
y -5 5 # 234 5234 r 234 234
x=– y=– sin u = = = - = - csc u = = = -
r 234 234 234 34 y -5 5
Figure 5.33
x -3 3 # 234 3234 r 234 234
cos u = = = - = - sec u = = = -
r 234 234 234 34 x -3 3
y -5 5 x -3 3
tan u = = = cot u = = =
x -3 3 y -5 5 l l l

Check Point 1 Let P = (1, -3) be a point on the terminal side of u. Find each
of the six trigonometric functions of u.
578  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

How do we find the values of the trigonometric functions for a quadrantal angle?
First, draw the angle in standard position. Second, choose a point P on the angle’s
terminal side. The trigonometric function values of u depend only on the size of u and
not on the distance of point P from the origin. Thus, we will choose a point that is 1 unit
from the origin. Finally, apply the definitions of the appropriate trigonometric functions.

Example 2 Trigonometric Functions of Quadrantal Angles

Evaluate, if possible, the sine function and the tangent function at the following
four quadrantal angles:
p 3p
a. u = 0° = 0 b. u = 90° = c. u = 180° = p d. u = 270° = .
2 2
Solution
a. If u = 0° = 0 radians, then the terminal side of the angle is on the positive
x@axis. Let us select the point P = (1, 0) with x = 1 and y = 0. This point
y x= y=
is 1 unit from the origin, so r = 1. Figure 5.34 shows values of x, y, and r
corresponding to u = 0° or 0 radians. Now that we know x, y, and r, we can
u = 0° P = (1, 0)
apply the definitions of the sine and tangent functions.
x
–1 1 y 0
sin 0° = sin 0 = = = 0
r= r 1
y 0
Figure 5.34 tan 0° = tan 0 = = = 0
x 1
p
y b. If u = 90° = radians, then the terminal side of the angle is on the positive
2
x= y=
y@axis. Let us select the point P = (0, 1) with x = 0 and y = 1. This point
is 1 unit from the origin, so r = 1. Figure 5.35 shows values of x, y, and r
p
1 P = (0, 1)
corresponding to u = 90° or . Now that we know x, y, and r, we can apply
2
r= the definitions of the sine and tangent functions.
u = 90°
x p y 1
–1 1 sin 90° = sin = = = 1
2 r 1
p y 1
Figure 5.35 tan 90° = tan = =
2 x 0
Because division by 0 is undefined, tan 90° is undefined.
y
c. If u = 180° = p radians, then the terminal side of the angle is on the
negative x@axis. Let us select the point P = ( -1, 0) with x = -1 and y = 0.
x=– y=
1 This point is 1 unit from the origin, so r = 1. Figure 5.36 shows values of
u = 180° x, y, and r corresponding to u = 180° or p. Now that we know x, y, and r,
P = (–1, 0) we can apply the definitions of the sine and tangent functions.
x
–1 1 y 0
sin 180° = sin p = = = 0
r= r 1
y 0
Figure 5.36 tan 180° = tan p = = = 0
x -1
3p
d. If u = 270° = radians, then the terminal side of the angle is on the
2
y
negative y@axis. Let us select the point P = (0, -1) with x = 0 and y = -1.
This point is 1 unit from the origin, so r = 1. Figure 5.37 shows values of
u = 270° 3p
x
x, y, and r corresponding to u = 270° or . Now that we know x, y, and r,
–1 1
2
we can apply the definitions of the sine and tangent functions.
r=
3p y -1
–1 P = (0, –1) sin 270° = sin = = = -1 Discovery
2 r 1
Try finding tan 90° and tan 270° with
3p y -1
x= y=– tan 270° = tan = = your calculator. Describe what occurs.
2 x 0
Figure 5.37 Because division by 0 is undefined, tan 270° is undefined. l l l
 Section 5.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle   579

Check Point 2 Evaluate, if possible, the cosine function and the cosecant
function at the following four quadrantal angles:
p 3p
a. u = 0° = 0 b. u = 90° = c. u = 180° = p d. u = 270° = .
2 2

❷ Use the signs of the The Signs of the Trigonometric Functions

trigonometric functions. In Example 2, we evaluated trigonometric functions of quadrantal angles. However,
y we will now return to the trigonometric functions of nonquadrantal angles. If U is not
a quadrantal angle, the sign of a trigonometric function depends on the quadrant in
Quadrant II Quadrant I which U lies. In all four quadrants, r is positive. However, x and y can be positive or
sine and All negative. For example, if u lies in quadrant II, x is negative and y is positive. Thus, the
cosecant functions y r
only positive ratios in this quadrant are and its reciprocal, . These ratios are the
positive positive r y
x function values for the sine and cosecant, respectively. In short, if u lies in quadrant II,
sin u and csc u are positive. The other four trigonometric functions are negative.
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
tangent and cosine and
Figure 5.38 summarizes the signs of the trigonometric functions. If u lies in
cotangent secant quadrant I, all six functions are positive. If u lies in quadrant II, only sin u and csc u
positive positive are positive. If u lies in quadrant III, only tan u and cot u are positive. Finally, if u lies
in quadrant IV, only cos u and sec u are positive. Observe that the positive functions
Figure 5.38 The signs of the in each quadrant occur in reciprocal pairs.
trigonometric functions
Great Question!
Is there a way to remember the signs of the trigonometric functions?
Here’s a phrase that may be helpful:
A Smart Trig C lass.

#NNVTKIHWPEVKQPU 5KPGCPFKVU 6CPIGPVCPFKVU %QUKPGCPFKVU

CTGRQUKVKXGKP TGEKRTQECNEQUGECPV TGEKRTQECNEQVCPIGPV TGEKRTQECNUGECPV
QI CTGRQUKVKXGKPQII CTGRQUKVKXGKPQIII CTGRQUKVKXGKPQIV

Example 3 Finding the Quadrant in Which an Angle Lies

If tan u 6 0 and cos u 7 0, name the quadrant in which angle u lies.

Solution
When tan u 6 0, u lies in quadrant II or IV. When cos u 7 0, u lies in quadrant
I or IV. When both conditions are met (tan u 6 0 and cos u 7 0), u must lie in
quadrant IV. l l l

Check Point 3 If sin u 6 0 and cos u 6 0, name the quadrant in which angle
u lies.

Example 4 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

2
Given tan u = - and cos u 7 0, find cos u and csc u.
3

Solution
Because the tangent is negative and the cosine is positive, u lies in quadrant IV.
This will help us to determine whether the negative sign in tan u = - 23 should be
associated with the numerator or the denominator. Keep in mind that in quadrant IV,
x is positive and y is negative. Thus,

+PSWCFTCPVIVyKUPGICVKXG

2 y –2
tan u = – = = .
3 x 3
580  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

y y -2
Using tan u = = , we conclude that x = 3 and y = -2. (See Figure 5.39.)
5 x 3
Furthermore,

r = 2x 2 + y2 = 232 + ( -2)2 = 29 + 4 = 213.

u r=√
x Now that we know x, y, and r, we can find cos u and csc u.
–5 5

x 3 3 # 213 3213 r 213 213

cos u = = = = csc u = = = -  l l l
r 213 213 213 13 y -2 2
P = (3, –2)
–5
x= y=–
Check Point 4 Given tan u = - 13 and cos u 6 0, find sin u and sec u.
Figure 5.39 tan u = - 23 and cos u 7 0

In Example 4, we used the quadrant in which u lies to determine whether a

negative sign should be associated with the numerator or the denominator. Here’s a
situation, similar to Example 4, where negative signs should be associated with both
the numerator and the denominator:
3
tan u = and cos u 6 0.
5
Because the tangent is positive and the cosine is negative, u lies in quadrant III. In
quadrant III, x is negative and y is negative. Thus,

3 y –3 9GUGGVJCVx=–
tan u = = = . CPFy=–
5 x –5

❸ Find reference angles. Reference Angles

We will often evaluate trigonometric functions of positive angles greater than 90°
and all negative angles by making use of a positive acute angle. This positive acute
angle is called a reference angle.

Definition of a Reference Angle

Let u be a nonacute angle in standard position that lies in a quadrant. Its reference
angle is the positive acute angle u′ formed by the terminal side of u and the x@axis.

Figure 5.40 shows the reference angle for u lying in quadrants II, III, and IV.
Notice that the formula used to find u′, the reference angle, varies according to the
quadrant in which u lies. You may find it easier to find the reference angle for a given
angle by making a figure that shows the angle in standard position. The acute angle
formed by the terminal side of this angle and the x@axis is the reference angle.

y y y

u u
u′ u
x x x
u′
u′

Figure 5.40 Reference angles, u′, for

positive angles, u, in quadrants II, III, If 90° < u < 180°, If 180° < u < 270°, If 270° < u < 360°,
and IV then u′ = 180° − u. then u′ = u − 180°. then u′ = 360° − u.
 Section 5.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle   581

Example 5 Finding Reference Angles

Find the reference angle, u′, for each of the following angles:
5p
a. u = 345° b. u = c. u = -135° d. u = 2.5.
6

Solution
a. A 345° angle in standard position is y
shown in Figure 5.41. Because 345° lies in
quadrant IV, the reference angle is
u = 345°
x
u′ = 360° - 345° = 15°. u′ = 15°

5p p 3p
b. Because lies between = and Figure 5.41
6 2 6
y
6p 5p
p = ,u = lies in quadrant II.
6 6
u = 5p
The angle is shown in Figure 5.42. The u′ = p6 6

reference angle is x

5p 6p 5p p
u′ = p - = - = .
6 6 6 6 Figure 5.42

Discovery c. A -135° angle in standard position is y

Solve part (c) by first finding a shown in Figure 5.43. The figure indicates
positive coterminal angle for that the positive acute angle formed by x
- 135° less than 360°. Use the u′ = 45°
the terminal side of u and the x@axis is 45°. u = –135°
positive coterminal angle to find The reference angle is
the reference angle.
u′ = 45°. Figure 5.43

p y
d. The angle u = 2.5 lies between ≈ 1.57
2
and p ≈ 3.14. This means that u = 2.5 is u = 2.5
u′ ≈ 0.64
in quadrant II, shown in Figure 5.44. The x
reference angle is

u′ = p - 2.5 ≈ 0.64. Figure 5.44 l l l

Check Point 5 Find the reference angle, u′, for each of the following angles:
7p
a. u = 210° b. u = c. u = -240° d. u = 3.6.
4

Finding reference angles for angles that are greater than 360° (2p) or less than
-360° ( -2p) involves using coterminal angles. We have seen that coterminal angles
have the same initial and terminal sides. Recall that coterminal angles can be obtained
by increasing or decreasing an angle’s measure by an integer multiple of 360° or 2p.

Finding Reference Angles for Angles Greater Than 360° (2P) or Less
Than − 360° (− 2P)
1. Find a positive angle a less than 360° or 2p that is coterminal with the given
angle.
2. Draw a in standard position.
3. Use the drawing to find the reference angle for the given angle. The positive
acute angle formed by the terminal side of a and the x@axis is the reference
angle.
582  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Example 6 Finding Reference Angles

Find the reference angle for each of the following angles:
8p 13p
a. u = 580° b. u = c. u = - .
3 6
Solution
a. For a 580° angle, subtract 360° to find a positive coterminal angle less than 360°.
580° - 360° = 220° y

Figure 5.45 shows a = 220° in standard a = 220°

position. Because 220° lies in quadrant III, the x
a′ = 40°
reference angle is
a′ = 220° - 180° = 40°.
8p 8 2 Figure 5.45
b. For an angle, note that = 2 , so subtract
3 3 3
2p to find a positive coterminal angle less
than 2p.
8p 8p 6p 2p
- 2p = - = y
3 3 3 3
2p
Figure 5.46 shows a = in standard
2p 3
position. Because lies in quadrant II, the a′ = p3 a = 2p
3
reference angle is 3 x
2p 3p 2p p
a′ = p - = - = .
3 3 3 3 Figure 5.46

13p 13 1
Discovery c. For a - angle, note that - = -2 , so
6 6 6
Solve part (c) using the coterminal add 4p to find a positive coterminal angle less y
angle formed by adding 2p, rather
than 4p, to the given angle. than 2p.
11p
13p 13p 24p 11p a= 6
- + 4p = - + = x
6 6 6 6 a′ = p6
11p
Figure 5.47 shows a = in standard
6 Figure 5.47
11p
position. Because lies in quadrant IV, the
6
reference angle is
11p 12p 11p p
a′ = 2p - = - = . l l l
6 6 6 6
Check Point 6 Find the reference angle for each of the following angles:
15p 11p
a. u = 665° b. u = c. u = - .
4 3
❹ Use reference angles to evaluate Evaluating Trigonometric Functions Using Reference Angles
trigonometric functions. The way that reference angles are defined makes them useful in evaluating
trigonometric functions.

Using Reference Angles to Evaluate Trigonometric Functions

The values of the trigonometric functions of a given angle, u, are the same as the
values of the trigonometric functions of the reference angle, u′, except possibly
for the sign. A function value of the acute reference angle, u′, is always positive.
However, the same function value for u may be positive or negative.
 Section 5.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle   583

For example, we can use a reference angle, u′, to obtain an exact value for tan 120°.
The reference angle for u = 120° is u′ = 180° - 120° = 60°. We know the exact
value of the tangent function of the reference angle: tan 60° = 23. We also know
that the value of a trigonometric function of a given angle, u, is the same as that of its
reference angle, u′, except possibly for the sign. Thus, we can conclude that tan 120°
equals - 13 or 13.
What sign should we attach to 23? A 120° angle lies in quadrant II, where only
the sine and cosecant are positive. Thus, the tangent function is negative for a 120°
angle. Therefore,
2TGƂZD[CPGICVKXGUKIPVQ
UJQYVCPIGPVKUPGICVKXGKP
SWCFTCPVII

tan 120° = –tan 60° = –"3.

6JGTGHGTGPEGCPING
HQT°KU°

In the previous section, we used two right triangles to find exact trigonometric
values of 30°, 45°, and 60°. Using a procedure similar to finding tan 120°, we can now
find the exact function values of all angles for which 30°, 45°, or 60° are reference angles.

A Procedure for Using Reference Angles to Evaluate

Trigonometric Functions
The value of a trigonometric function of any angle u is found as follows:
1. Find the associated reference angle, u′, and the function value for u′.
2. Use the quadrant in which u lies to prefix the appropriate sign to the function
value in step 1.

Discovery Example 7 Using Reference Angles to Evaluate

Draw the two right triangles Trigonometric Functions
involving 30°, 45°, and 60°. Use reference angles to find the exact value of each of the following trigonometric
Indicate the length of each side.
functions:
Use these lengths to verify the
function values for the reference 4p p
a. sin 135° b. cos c. cot a - b .
angles in the solution to 3 3
Example 7.
Solution
a. We use our two-step procedure to find sin 135°.
y
Step 1 Find the reference angle, U′, and sin U′. Figure 5.48 shows 135° lies

in quadrant II. The reference angle is
u′ = 180° - 135° = 45°.
135°
45° 22
x The function value for the reference angle is sin 45° = .
2
Step 2 Use the quadrant in which U lies to prefix the appropriate sign to

Figure 5.48 Reference angle for 135° the function value in step 1. The angle u = 135° lies in quadrant II. Because
the sine is positive in quadrant II, we put a + sign before the function value
of the reference angle. Thus,
6JGUKPGKURQUKVKXG
KPSWCFTCPVII

"2
sin 135° = +sin 45° = .
2
6JGTGHGTGPEGCPING
HQT°KU°
584  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

y 4p
b. We use our two-step procedure to find cos .
4p 3
3
x Step 1 Find the reference angle, U′, and cos U′. Figure 5.49 shows that

p 4p
3 u = lies in quadrant III. The reference angle is
3
4p 4p 3p p
u′ = - p = - = .
3 3 3 3
4p The function value for the reference angle is
Figure 5.49 Reference angle for
3
p 1
cos = .
3 2
Step 2
Use the quadrant in which U lies to prefix the appropriate sign to
4p
the function value in step 1. The angle u = lies in quadrant III. Because
3
only the tangent and cotangent are positive in quadrant III, the cosine is
negative in this quadrant. We put a - sign before the function value of the
reference angle. Thus,
6JGEQUKPGKUPGICVKXG
KPSWCFTCPVIII
4p p 1
cos = –cos =– .
3 3 2

6JGTGHGTGPEGCPING
HQT p KU p
 

y
p
c. We use our two-step procedure to find cot a - b.
3
x
p
3
Step 1 Find the reference angle, U′, and cot U′. Figure 5.50 shows that

– p3 p p
u = - lies in quadrant IV. The reference angle is u′ = . The function
3 3
p 23
value for the reference angle is cot = .
3 3
p
Figure 5.50 Reference angle for - Step 2 Use the quadrant in which U lies to prefix the appropriate sign to

3 p
the function value in step 1. The angle u = - lies in quadrant IV. Because
3
only the cosine and secant are positive in quadrant IV, the cotangent is
negative in this quadrant. We put a - sign before the function value of the
reference angle. Thus,

6JGEQVCPIGPVKU
PGICVKXGKPSWCFTCPVIV

p p "3
cota– b = –cot =– .
3 3 3

6JGTGHGTGPEGCPING
HQT– p KU p
 
 l l l

Check Point 7 Use reference angles to find the exact value of the following
trigonometric functions:
5p p
a. sin 300° b. tan c. sec a - b.
4 6

In our final example, we use positive coterminal angles less than 2p to find the
reference angles.
 Section 5.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle   585

Example 8 Using Reference Angles to Evaluate

Trigonometric Functions
Use reference angles to find the exact value of each of the following trigonometric
functions:
14p 17p
a. tan b. sec a - b.
3 4

Solution
14p
a. We use our two-step procedure to find tan .
3
14 2
Step 1
Find the reference angle, U′, and tan U′. Because = 4 ,
14p 3 3
subtract 4p from to find a positive coterminal angle less than 2p.
3
14p 14p 12p 2p
y
u = - 4p = - =
3 3 3 3
2p
Figure 5.51 shows u =
in standard position. The angle lies in quadrant II.
p
2p The reference angle is 3
3
3
x 2p 3p 2p p
u′ = p - = - = .
3 3 3 3
2p
Figure 5.51 Reference angle for p
3 The function value for the reference angle is tan = 23.
3
Step 2 Use the quadrant in which U lies to prefix the appropriate sign to the

2p
function value in step 1. The coterminal angle u = lies in quadrant II.
3
Because the tangent is negative in quadrant II, we put a - sign before the
function value of the reference angle. Thus,

6JGVCPIGPVKUPGICVKXG
KPSWCFTCPVII
14p 2p p
tan = tan = –tan = –"3.
3 3 3

6JGTGHGTGPEGCPING
HQT p KU p
 

17p
b. We use our two-step procedure to find sec a - b.
4
17 1
Step 1
Find the reference angle, U′, and sec U′. Because - = -4 ,
4 4
17p
add 6p (three multiples of 2p) to - to find a positive coterminal angle
4
less than 2p.
17p 17p 24p 7p
u = - + 6p = - + =
4 4 4 4
y
7p
Figure 5.52 shows u =
in standard position. The angle lies in quadrant IV.
7p 4
4 The reference angle is
x
p 7p 8p 7p p
4 u′ = 2p - = - = .
4 4 4 4
p
7p The function value for the reference angle is sec = 22.
Figure 5.52 Reference angle for 4
4
586  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

y Step 2
Use the quadrant in which U lies to prefix the appropriate sign to the
7p
function value in step 1. The coterminal angle u = lies in quadrant IV.
7p 4
4
x
Because the secant is positive in quadrant IV, we put a + sign before the
p function value of the reference angle. Thus,
4

6JGUGECPVKU
RQUKVKXGKPSWCFTCPVIV
Figure 5.52 (repeated) Reference
7p
angle for 17p 7p p
4 sec a– b = sec = +sec = "2.
4 4 4

6JGTGHGTGPEGCPING
HQT p KU p
 
 l l l

Check Point 8 Use reference angles to find the exact value of each of the
following trigonometric functions:
17p 22p
a. cos b. sin a - b.
6 3

Achieving Success
To be successful in trigonometry, it is often necessary to connect concepts.
For example, evaluating trigonometric functions like those in Example 8 and Check Point 8 involves using a number of concepts,
including finding coterminal angles and reference angles, locating special angles, determining the signs of trigonometric functions
p p p
in specific quadrants, and finding the trigonometric functions of special angles a30° = , 45° = , and 60° = b . Here’s an early
6 4 3
reference sheet showing some of the concepts you should have at your fingertips (or memorized).

Degree and Radian Measures of Special and Quadrantal Angles Signs of the Trigonometric Functions
p
90°, 2 –270°,
3p
– 2 y
2p 4p 5p
120°, 3 p
60°, 3 –240°, – 3 –300°, – 3
3p 5p 7p
135°, 4 p
45°, 4 –225°, – 4 –315°, – 4 Quadrant II Quadrant I
5p 7p 11p sine and All
150°, 6 p
30°, 6 –210°, – 6 –330°, – 6
cosecant functions
positive positive
180°, p 0°, 0 –180°, –p 0°, 0 x
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
7p 11p 5p
210°, 6 330°, 6 –150°, – 6 –30°, – 6
p tangent and cosine and
7p 3p cotangent secant
5p
225°, 4 315°, 4 –135°, – 4 –45°, – 4
p
4p 5p
300°, 3 2p p
–60°, – 3 positive positive
240°, 3 3p –120°, – 3 p
270°, 2 –90°, – 2

Special Right Triangles and Trigonometric Trigonometric Functions of Quadrantal Angles

Functions of Special Angles
√2 1 P 3P
U 0° = 0 90° = 180° = P 270° =
U 30° =
P
45° =
P
60° =
P 2 2
45° 6 4 3 sin U 0 1 0 -1
1
sin U 1 22 23 cos U 1 0 -1 0
2 2 2 tan U 0 undefined 0 undefined
cos U 23 22 1
Using Reference Angles to Evaluate
30° 2 2 2 Trigonometric Functions
2 √3
tan U 23 1 23 sin u = sin u′
3 +QT–KPKUFGVGTOKPGFD[
cos u = cos u′ VJGSWCFTCPVKPYJKEJuNKGUCPFVJG
60° UKIPQHVJGHWPEVKQPKPVJCVSWCFTCPV
tan u = tan u′
1
 Section 5.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle   587

Concept and Vocabulary Check

Fill in each blank so that the resulting statement is true.

1. Let u be any angle in standard position and let 3. If u lies in quadrant II, and are
P = (x, y) be any point besides the origin on the positive.
terminal side of u. If r = 2x 2 + y2 is the distance 4. If u lies in quadrant III, and are
from (0, 0) to (x, y), the trigonometric functions of u positive.
are defined as follows: 5. If u lies in quadrant IV, and are
positive.
sin u = csc u = 6. Let u be a nonacute angle in standard position that
cos u = sec u = lies in a quadrant. Its reference angle is the positive
acute angle formed by the side of u and
tan u = cot u = . the -axis.
2. Using the definitions in Exercise 1, the trigonometric 7. Complete each statement for a positive angle u and its
functions that are undefined when x = 0 reference angle u′.
are and . The trigonometric functions a. If 90° 6 u 6 180°, then u′ = .
that are undefined when y = 0 are b. If 180° 6 u 6 270°, then u′ = .
and . The trigonometric functions that do not c. If 270° 6 u 6 360°, then u′ = .
depend on the value of r are and .

Exercise Set 5.3

Practice Exercises In Exercises 35–60, find the reference angle for each angle.
In Exercises 1–8, a point on the terminal side of angle u is given. 35. 160° 36. 170° 37. 205°
Find the exact value of each of the six trigonometric functions of u. 38. 210° 39. 355°  40. 351°
1. ( -4, 3) 2. ( - 12, 5) 3. (2, 3) 7p 5p 5p
41.   42.   43.
4 4 6
4. (3, 7) 5. (3, -3) 6. (5, - 5)
5p
7. ( -2, - 5) 8. ( - 1, - 3) 44. 45. -150°  46. - 250°
7
In Exercises 9–16, evaluate the trigonometric function at the 47. -335°  48. -359°  49. 4.7
quadrantal angle, or state that the expression is undefined. 50. 5.5  51. 565°  52. 553°
9. cos p 10. tan p 11. sec p 17p 11p 23p
53.   54.   55.
3p 3p 6 4 4
12. csc p 13. tan 14. cos 17p 11p 17p
2 2 56.   57. -   58. -
p p 3 4 6
15. cot 16. tan
2 2 25p 13p
59. -   60. -
In Exercises 17–22, let u be an angle in standard position. Name 6 3
the quadrant in which u lies. In Exercises 61–86, use reference angles to find the exact value of
17. sin u 7 0, cos u 7 0 18. sin u 6 0, cos u 7 0 each expression. Do not use a calculator.
19. sin u 6 0, cos u 6 0 20. tan u 6 0, sin u 6 0 61. cos 225° 62. sin 300° 63. tan 210°
21. tan u 6 0, cos u 6 0 22. cot u 7 0, sec u 6 0 64. sec 240° 65. tan 420° 66. tan 405°
2p 3p 7p
In Exercises 23–34, find the exact value of each of the remaining 67. sin 68. cos   69. csc
3 4 6
trigonometric functions of u. 7p 9p 9p
70. cot 71. tan 72. tan
23. cos u = - 35, u in quadrant III 4 4 2
24. sin u = - 12 p
13 , u in quadrant III 73. sin( -240°) 74. sin( -225°) 75. tan a- b
5 4
25. sin u = 13, u in quadrant II p
76. tan a - b 77. sec 495° 78. sec 510°
26. cos u = 45, u in quadrant IV 6
27. 8
cos u = 17 , 270° 6 u 6 360° 19p 13p 23p
79. cot 80. cot 81. cos
28. 1
cos u = 3, 270° 6 u 6 360° 6 3 4
35p 17p 11p
29. tan u = - 23, sin u 7 0 30. tan u = - 13, sin u 7 0 82. cos 83. tan a- b 84. tan a - b
4 5 6 6 4
31. tan u = 3, cos u 6 0  32. tan u = 12 , cos u 6 0
17p 35p
33. sec u = - 3, tan u 7 0 34. csc u = -4, tan u 7 0 85. sin a - b 86. sin a - b
3 6
588  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Practice Plus Explaining the Concepts

In Exercises 87–92, find the exact value of each expression. Write 105. If you are given a point on the terminal side of angle u,
the answer as a single fraction. Do not use a calculator. explain how to find sin u.
p p 3p 106. Explain why tan 90° is undefined.
87. sin cos p - cos sin
3 3 2 107. If cos u 7 0 and tan u 6 0, explain how to find the quadrant
p p in which u lies.
88. sin cos 0 - sin cos p
4 6 108. What is a reference angle? Give an example with your
11p 5p 11p 5p description.
89. sin cos + cos sin
4 6 4 6 109. Explain how reference angles are used to evaluate
trigonometric functions. Give an example with your
17p 5p 17p 5p
90. sin cos + cos sin description.
3 4 3 4
3p 15p 5p Critical Thinking Exercises
91. sin tan a - b - cos a - b
2 4 3 Make Sense? In Exercises 110–113, determine whether each
3p 8p 5p statement makes sense or does not make sense, and explain your
92. sin tan a - b + cos a - b reasoning.
2 3 6
110. I’m working with a quadrantal angle u for which sin u is
In Exercises 93–98, let undefined.
111. This angle u is in a quadrant in which sin u 6 0 and
f(x) = sin x, g(x) = cos x, and h(x) = 2x.
csc u 7 0.
Find the exact value of each expression. Do not use a calculator. 112. I am given that tan u = 35, so I can conclude that y = 3 and
4p p 4p p x = 5.
93. f a + b + fa b + fa b 113. When I found the exact value of cos 14p
3 6 3 6 3 , I used a number
of concepts, including coterminal angles, reference angles,
5p p 5p p
94. g a + b + ga b + ga b finding the cosine of a special angle, and knowing the
6 6 6 6 cosine’s sign in various quadrants.
17p
95. (h ∘ g)a b
3 Retaining the Concepts
11p 2x 2
96. (h ∘ f)a b 114. Graph: f(x) = 2
.
4 x - 1
(Section 3.5, Example 6)
97. the average rate of change of f from
5p 3p 115. Simplify: 5 log 519 + log 773.
x1 = to x2 =
4 2 (Section 4.2, Example 5)
98. the average rate of change of g from 116. Solve: 9e 3x - 4 = 32. Find the solution set and then
3p use a calculator to obtain a decimal approximation to
x1 = to x2 = p
4 two decimal places for the solution.
(Section 4.4, Example 3)
In Exercises 99–104, find two values of u, 0 … u 6 2p, that satisfy
each equation.
Preview Exercises
22 Exercises 117–119 will help you prepare for the material covered
99. sin u =
2 in the next section.
1 117. Graph: x 2 + y2 = 1. Then locate the point 1 - 12, 13
100. cos u = 2 2 on the
2 graph.
22 118. Use your graph of x 2 + y2 = 1 from Exercise 117 to
101. sin u = - determine the relation’s domain and range.
2
1 119. a. Find the exact value of sin 1 p4 2 , sin 1 - p4 2 , sin 1 p3 2 , and
102. cos u = -
2 sin 1 - p3 2 . Based on your results, can the sine function be
an even function? Explain your answer.
103. tan u = - 23
b. Find the exact value of cos 1 p4 2 , cos 1 - p4 2 , cos 1 p3 2 , and
cos 1 - p3 2 . Based on your results, can the cosine function
23
104. tan u = - be an odd function? Explain your answer.
3
 Section 5.4 Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers; Periodic Functions    589

Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers;

Section 5.4 Periodic Functions

Cycles govern many aspects of life—

heartbeats, sleep patterns, seasons, and
What am I tides all follow regular, predictable
supposed to learn? cycles. In this section, we will see why
After studying this section, you trigonometric functions are used to
should be able to: model phenomena that occur in cycles.
To do this, we need to move beyond
❶ Use a unit circle to define angles and consider trigonometric
trigonometric functions of
functions of real numbers.
real numbers.
❷ Recognize the domain
and range of sine and
Trigonometric Functions of Real
cosine functions. Numbers
❸ Use even and odd Thus far, we have considered
trigonometric functions. trigonometric functions of angles
❹ Use periodic properties. measured in degrees or radians. To define
trigonometric functions of real numbers,
rather than angles, we use a unit circle.
A unit circle is a circle of radius 1, with
its center at the origin of a rectangular
❶ Use a unit circle to define
coordinate system. The equation of this
trigonometric functions of real
unit circle is x 2 + y2 = 1. Figure 5.53 shows a unit circle in which the central angle
numbers.
measures t radians. We can use the formula for the length of a circular arc, s = ru, to
find the length of the intercepted arc.
y
s = ru = 1 ∙ t = t

6JGTCFKWUQHC 6JGTCFKCPOGCUWTGQH
1 s WPKVEKTENGKU VJGEGPVTCNCPINGKUt
t
x Thus, the length of the intercepted arc is t. This is also the radian measure of the
(1, 0)
central angle. Thus, in a unit circle, the radian measure of the central angle is equal
to the length of the intercepted arc. Both are given by the same real number t.
In Figure 5.54, the radian measure of the angle and the length of the intercepted
x+y= arc are both shown by t. Let P = (x, y) denote the point on the unit circle that has
arc length t from (1, 0). Figure 5.54(a) shows that if t is positive, point P is reached
Figure 5.53 Unit circle with a central by moving counterclockwise along the unit circle from (1, 0). Figure 5.54(b) shows
angle measuring t radians that if t is negative, point P is reached by moving clockwise along the unit circle from
(1, 0). For each real number t, there corresponds a point P = (x, y) on the unit circle.

y y

P= xy x+y=

t
t (1, 0)
x x
(1, 0) t
t

x+y= P= xy

Figure 5.54 (a) t is positive. (b) t is negative.

590  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

y Using Figure 5.54, we define the cosine function at t as the x@coordinate of P and
the sine function at t as the y@coordinate of P. Thus,
P= xy
x = cos t and y = sin t.
t
For example, a point P = (x, y) on the unit circle corresponding to a real number t
t
3p
x is shown in Figure 5.55 for p 6 t 6 . We see that the coordinates of P = (x, y)
(1, 0)
3 4
2
are x = - 5 and y = - 5. Because the cosine function is the x@coordinate of P and
the sine function is the y@coordinate of P, the values of these trigonometric functions
at the real number t are
x+y=
3 4
cos t = - and sin t = - .
Figure 5.54(a) (repeated) t is positive. 5 5

y
Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions in Terms of a Unit Circle
If t is a real number and P = (x, y) is the point on the unit circle that corresponds
t
to t, then
t
1
sin t = y csc t = , y ≠ 0
x y
(1, 0)
1
cos t = x sec t = , x ≠ 0
x
y x

P= –   – 

x+y= tan t = , x ≠ 0 cot t = , y ≠ 0.
x y
Figure 5.55

Because this definition expresses function values in terms of coordinates of a

point on a unit circle, the trigonometric functions are sometimes called the circular
functions.

y
Example 1 Finding Values of the Trigonometric Functions

P= –   
√ In Figure 5.56, t is a real number equal to the length of the intercepted arc of an
1 23
t angle that measures t radians and P = a - , b is a point on the unit circle
2 2
t
that corresponds to t. Use the figure to find the values of the trigonometric
x functions at t.
O (1, 0)

Solution
x+y= 1 23
The point P on the unit circle that corresponds to t has coordinates a - , b.
2 2
1 23
Figure 5.56 We use x = - and y = to find the values of the trigonometric functions.
2 2

23 1 1 2 2 # 23 223
sin t = y = csc t = = = = =
2 y 23 23 23 23 3
2
1 1 1
cos t = x = - sec t = = = -2
2 x 1
-
2

23 1
-
y 2 x 2 1 1 # 23 23
tan t = = = - 23 cot t = = = - = - = -
x 1 y 23 23 23 23 3
-
2 2
l l l
 Section 5.4 Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers; Periodic Functions    591

y
Check Point 1 Use the figure on the right to
√
find the values of the trigonometric functions at t. P= 

 

t
t
x
O (1, 0)
y Example 2 Finding Values of the
P=  Trigonometric Functions
Use Figure 5.57 to find the values of the x+y=
p p
2 trigonometric functions at t = .
p 2
2
x
(1, 0) Solution
p
The point P on the unit circle that corresponds to t = has coordinates (0, 1).
2 p
x+y=
We use x = 0 and y = 1 to find the values of the trigonometric functions at .
2

Figure 5.57 p p 1 1
sin =y=1 csc = = =1
2 2 y 1
p p 1 1
cos =x=0 UGE p CPF sec = =
2  2 x 0
VCP p CTG

p y 1 WPFGƂPGF p x 0
tan = = cot = = =0
2 x 0 2 y 1  l l l

y
Check Point 2 Use the figure on the
right to find the values of the trigonometric p
functions at t = p.
P= – p

❷ Recognize the domain and Domain and Range of Sine

range of sine and cosine and Cosine Functions
functions. x +y =  
The value of a trigonometric function at the real
number t is its value at an angle of t radians.
However, using real number domains, we can observe properties of trigonometric
functions that are not as apparent using the angle approach. For example, the
domain and range of each trigonometric function can be found from the unit circle
definition. At this point, let’s look only at the sine and cosine functions,
sin t = y and cos t = x.

y
Figure 5.58 shows the sine function at t as the y@coordinate of a point along the
unit circle:
y=UKPt
(0, 1) y = sin t.
(x, y)
1 t 6JGTCPIGKUCUUQEKCVGFYKVJy 6JGFQOCKPKUCUUQEKCVGFYKVJt
t VJGRQKPV UUGEQPFEQQTFKPCVG VJGCPINGoUTCFKCPOGCUWTGCPFVJG
x KPVGTEGRVGFCTEoUNGPIVJ

Because t can be any real number, the domain of the sine function is ( - ∞, ∞), the set
(0, –1) of all real numbers. The radius of the unit circle is 1 and the dashed horizontal lines
in Figure 5.58 show that y cannot be less than -1 or greater than 1. Thus, the range of
Figure 5.58 the sine function is [-1, 1], the set of all real numbers from -1 to 1, inclusive.
592  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

y Figure 5.59 shows the cosine function at t as the x@coordinate of a point along the
unit circle:
x=EQUt
(x, y)
x = cos t.
1 t
t 6JGFQOCKPKUCUUQEKCVGFYKVJt
x VJGCPINGoUTCFKCPOGCUWTGCPFVJG
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
KPVGTEGRVGFCTEoUNGPIVJ

6JGTCPIGKUCUUQEKCVGFYKVJx
VJGRQKPV UƂTUVEQQTFKPCVG

Figure 5.59 Because t can be any real number, the domain of the cosine function is ( - ∞, ∞).
The radius of the unit circle is 1 and the dashed vertical lines in Figure 5.59 show
that x cannot be less than -1 or greater than 1. Thus, the range of the cosine function
is [-1, 1].

The Domain and Range of the Sine and Cosine Functions

The domain of the sine function and the cosine function is ( - ∞, ∞), the set of all
real numbers. The range of these functions is [-1, 1], the set of all real numbers
from -1 to 1, inclusive.

❸ Use even and odd trigonometric Even and Odd Trigonometric Functions
functions. We have seen that a function is even if f( -t) = f(t) and odd if f( -t) = -f(t). We
can use Figure 5.60 to show that the cosine function is an even function and the sine
function is an odd function. By definition, the coordinates of the points P and Q in
y
Figure 5.60 are as follows:
x+y=
P: (cos t, sin t)
P
Q: (cos( -t), sin( -t)).
t
x In Figure 5.60, the x@coordinates of P and Q are the same. Thus,
O
–t
cos( -t) = cos t.
Q
This shows that the cosine function is an even function. By contrast, the y@coordinates
of P and Q are negatives of each other. Thus,
Figure 5.60
sin( -t) = -sin t.

This shows that the sine function is an odd function.

This argument is valid regardless of the length of t. Thus, the arc may terminate
in any of the four quadrants or on any axis. Using the unit circle definition of the
trigonometric functions, we obtain the following results:

Even and Odd Trigonometric Functions

The cosine and secant functions are even.
cos( -t) = cos t sec( -t) = sec t
The sine, cosecant, tangent, and cotangent functions are odd.
sin( -t) = -sin t csc( -t) = -csc t

tan( -t) = -tan t cot( -t) = -cot t

 Section 5.4 Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers; Periodic Functions    593

Example 3 Using Even and Odd Functions to Find Exact Values

Find the exact value of each trigonometric function:
p
a. cos( -45°) b. tan a - b .
3

Solution
22
a. cos( -45°) = cos 45° =
2
p p
b. tan a - b = -tan = - 23 l l l
3 3

Check Point 3 Find the exact value of each trigonometric function:

p
a. cos( -60°) b. tan a - b .
6
❹ Use periodic properties. Periodic Functions
Certain patterns in nature repeat again and again. For example, the ocean level at
a beach varies from low tide to high tide and then back to low tide approximately
every 12 hours. If low tide occurs at noon, then high tide will be around 6 p.m. and
low tide will occur again around midnight, and so on infinitely. If f(t) represents the
ocean level at the beach at any time t, then the level is the same 12 hours later. Thus,
f(t + 12) = f(t).
The word periodic means that this tidal behavior repeats infinitely. The period,
12 hours, is the time it takes to complete one full cycle.

Definition of a Periodic Function

A function f is periodic if there exists a positive number p such that
f(t + p) = f(t)
for all t in the domain of f. The smallest positive number p for which f is periodic
is called the period of f .

The trigonometric functions are used to model periodic phenomena. Why? If we

begin at any point P on the unit circle and travel a distance of 2p units along the
perimeter, we will return to the same point P. Because the trigonometric functions
are defined in terms of the coordinates of that point P, we obtain the following results:

Periodic Properties of the Sine and Cosine Functions

sin(t + 2p) = sin t and cos(t + 2p) = cos t
The sine and cosine functions are periodic functions and have period 2p.

Example 4 Using Periodic Properties to Find Exact Values

Find the exact value of each trigonometric function:
9p
a. cos 420° b. sin .
4

Solution
1
a. cos 420° = cos(60° + 360°) = cos 60° =
2
9p p p 22
b. sin = sin a + 2pb = sin =  l l l
4 4 4 2
594  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Check Point 4 Find the exact value of each trigonometric function:

7p
a. cos 405° b. sin .
3

y Like the sine and cosine functions, the secant and cosecant functions have period 2p.
However, the tangent and cotangent functions have a smaller period. Figure 5.61
its shows that if we begin at any point P(x, y) on the unit circle and travel a distance of
un
p units along the perimeter, we arrive at the point Q( -x, -y). The tangent function,
p

P(x, y)
t+p t defined in terms of the coordinates of a point, is the same at (x, y) and ( -x, -y).
t
x 6CPIGPVHWPEVKQP y –y 6CPIGPVHWPEVKQP
=
CV xy x –x pTCFKCPUNCVGT

We see that tan(t + p) = tan t. The same observations apply to the cotangent
Q(–x, –y) function.
Figure 5.61 Tangent at P = tangent
at Q Periodic Properties of the Tangent and Cotangent Functions
tan(t + p) = tan t and cot(t + p) = cot t
The tangent and cotangent functions are periodic functions and have period p.

Why do the trigonometric functions model phenomena that repeat indefinitely?

By starting at point P on the unit circle and traveling a distance of 2p units, 4p units,
6p units, and so on, we return to the starting point P. Because the trigonometric
functions are defined in terms of the coordinates of that point P, if we add
(or subtract) multiples of 2p to t, the values of the trigonometric functions of t do
not change. Furthermore, the values for the tangent and cotangent functions of t do
not change if we add (or subtract) multiples of p to t.

Repetitive Behavior of the Sine, Cosine, and Tangent Functions

For any integer n and real number t,
sin(t + 2pn) = sin t, cos(t + 2pn) = cos t, and tan(t + pn) = tan t.

Concept and Vocabulary Check

Fill in each blank so that the resulting statement is true.

1. In a unit circle, the radian measure of the central 6. sin( -t) = , csc( -t) = ,
angle is equal to the length of the . tan( -t) = , and cot( -t) = ,
2. If t is a real number and P = (x, y) is a point so the sine, cosecant, tangent, and cotangent
on the unit circle that corresponds to t, are functions.
then x is the of t and y is the 7. If there exists a positive number p such that
of t. f(t + p) = f(t), function f is . The
3. The two trigonometric functions defined for all real smallest positive number p for which f(t + p) = f(t)
numbers are the function and the is called the of t.
function. The domain of each of these functions 8. sin(t + 2p) = and cos(t + 2p) = ,
is . so the sine and cosine functions are
4. The largest possible value for the sine function and functions. The period of each of these
the cosine function is and the smallest possible functions is .
value is . The range for each of these functions 9. tan(t + p) = and cot(t + p) = ,
is . so the tangent and cotangent functions are
5. cos( -t) = and sec( -t) = , so the functions. The period of each of these functions
cosine and secant are functions. is .
 Section 5.4 Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers; Periodic Functions    595

Exercise Set 5.4

Practice Exercises In Exercises 5–18, the unit circle has been divided into twelve equal
arcs, corresponding to t@values of
In Exercises 1–4, a point P(x, y) is shown on the unit circle
corresponding to a real number t. Find the values of the p p p 2p 5p 7p 4p 3p 5p 11p
0, , , , , , p, , , , , , and 2p.
trigonometric functions at t. 6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
1. y Use the (x, y) coordinates in the figure to find the value of each
trigonometric function at the indicated real number, t, or state that
 
P –    the expression is undefined.
t
y
t
 √  √
x –     
O (1, 0) (0, 1)
p
3
√  √ 
–    p   
6
x
(–1, 0) (1, 0)

y √  √ 
2. –   –   –
(0, –1)
 √  √
t –  –    – 

t
p p 5p
5. sin 6. sin 7. cos
x 6 3 6
O (1, 0)
2p
8. cos 9. tan p 10. tan 0
3
7p 4p 11p
  11. csc 12. csc 13. sec
P –   –  6 3 6
5p 3p 3p
y 14. sec 15. sin 16. cos
3. 3 2 2
3p 3p
17. sec 18. tan
2 2

In Exercises 19–24,
x a. Use the unit circle shown for Exercises 5–18 to find the
O t (1, 0) value of the trigonometric function.
t
b. Use even and odd properties of trigonometric functions
and your answer from part (a) to find the value of the same
√
P  – 
√ trigonometric function at the indicated real number.

p p
y 19. a. cos 20. a. cos
4. 6 3
√ √ p p
P –    b. cos a - b b. cos a - b
t 6 3
5p 2p
t 21. a. sin 22. a. sin
6 3
x 5p 2p
O (1, 0) b. sin a - b b. sin a - b
6 3
5p 11p
23. a. tan 24. a. tan
3 6
5p 11p
b. tan a - b b. tan a - b
3 6
596  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

In Exercises 25–32, the unit circle has been divided into eight Application Exercises
equal arcs, corresponding to t@values of
In Exercises 43–44, use a calculator in radian mode in
p p 3p 5p 3p 7p parts (b) and (c).
0, , , , p, , , , and 2p.
4 2 4 4 2 4
43. The number of hours of daylight, H, on day t of any given year
a. Use the (x, y) coordinates in the figure to find the value of (on January 1, t = 1) in Fairbanks, Alaska, can be modeled by
the trigonometric function. the function
b. Use periodic properties and your answer from part (a) to 2p
find the value of the same trigonometric function at the H(t) = 12 + 8.3 sinc (t - 80) d .
365
indicated real number.
a. March 21, the 80th day of the year, is the spring equinox.
y Find the number of hours of daylight in Fairbanks on this
day.
b. June 21, the 172nd day of the year, is the summer solstice,
√ √
(0, 1) √ √ the day with the maximum number of hours of daylight.
–  
  3p   To the nearest tenth of an hour, find the number of hours
4 of daylight in Fairbanks on this day.
p
4
x
c. December 21, the 355th day of the year, is the winter
(–1, 0) (1, 0) solstice, the day with the minimum number of hours of
daylight. Find, to the nearest tenth of an hour, the number
of hours of daylight in Fairbanks on this day.
– √

 – √

√

 – √

(0, –1) 44. The number of hours of daylight, H, on day t of any given
year (on January 1, t = 1) in San Diego, California, can be
modeled by the function
2p
H(t) = 12 + 2.4 sinc (t - 80) d .
3p 3p 365
25. a. sin 26. a. cos
4 4 a. March 21, the 80th day of the year, is the spring equinox.
11p 11p Find the number of hours of daylight in San Diego on this
b. sin b. cos
4 4 day.
p p b. June 21, the 172nd day of the year, is the summer solstice,
27. a. cos 28. a. sin
2 2 the day with the maximum number of hours of daylight.
9p 9p Find, to the nearest tenth of an hour, the number of hours
b. cos b. sin
2 2 of daylight in San Diego on this day.
p
29. a. tan p 30. a. cot c. December 21, the 355th day of the year, is the winter
2 solstice, the day with the minimum number of hours of
15p daylight. To the nearest tenth of an hour, find the number
b. tan 17p b. cot
2 of hours of daylight in San Diego on this day.
7p 7p 45. People who believe in biorhythms claim that there are three
31. a. sin 32. a. cos
4 4 cycles that rule our behavior—the physical, emotional, and
47p 47p mental. Each is a sine function of a certain period. The
b. sin b. cos
4 4 function for our emotional fluctuations is
p
E = sin t,
14
Practice Plus
where t is measured in days starting at birth. Emotional
In Exercises 33–42, let fluctuations, E, are measured from -1 to 1, inclusive, with
sin t = a, cos t = b, and tan t = c. 1 representing peak emotional well-being, - 1 representing
the low for emotional well-being, and 0 representing feeling
Write each expression in terms of a, b, and c. neither emotionally high nor low.
33. sin( - t) - sin t 34. tan( -t) - tan t a. Find E corresponding to t = 7, 14, 21, 28, and 35. Describe
35. 4 cos( - t) - cos t 36. 3 cos( -t) - cos t what you observe.
b. What is the period of the emotional cycle?  
37. sin(t + 2p) - cos(t + 4p) + tan(t + p)
46. The height of the water, H, in feet, at a boat dock t hours after
38. sin(t + 2p) + cos(t + 4p) - tan(t + p)
6 a.m. is given by
39. sin( - t - 2p) - cos( - t - 4p) - tan( -t - p) p
H = 10 + 4 sin t.
40. sin( - t - 2p) + cos( - t - 4p) - tan( -t - p) 6
a. Find the height of the water at the dock at 6 a.m., 9 a.m.,
41. cos t + cos(t + 1000p) - tan t - tan(t + 999p) - sin t +
noon, 6 p.m., midnight, and 3 a.m.
4 sin(t - 1000p)
b. When is low tide and when is high tide?
42. - cos t + 7 cos(t + 1000p) + tan t + tan(t + 999p) + c. What is the period of this function and what does this
sin t + sin(t - 1000p) mean about the tides?
 Mid-Chapter Check Point   597

Explaining the Concepts 58. If f(x) = sin x and f(a) = 14, find the value of
47. Why are the trigonometric functions sometimes called f(a) + f(a + 2p) + f(a + 4p) + f(a + 6p).
circular functions? 59. If f(x) = sin x and f(a) = 14, find the value of
48. What is the range of the sine function? Use the unit circle to f(a) + 2f( -a).
explain where this range comes from.
60. The seats of a Ferris wheel are 40 feet from the wheel’s
49. What do we mean by even trigonometric functions? Which of center. When you get on the ride, your seat is 5 feet above
the six functions fall into this category? the ground. How far above the ground are you after rotating
50. What is a periodic function? Why are the sine and cosine through an angle of 765°? Round to the nearest foot.
functions periodic?
51. Explain how you can use the function for emotional Retaining the Concepts
fluctuations in Exercise 45 to determine good days for having f(x + h) - f(x)
dinner with your moody boss. 61. If f(x) = 3x 2 - x + 5, find , h ≠ 0, and
h
52. Describe a phenomenon that repeats indefinitely. What is its simplify. (Section 2.2, Example 5)
period? 62. Solve and graph the solution set on a number line:
Critical Thinking Exercises x 2 - 4x 7 - 3.
(Section 3.6, Example 1)
Make Sense? In Exercises 53–56, determine whether each statement
makes sense or does not make sense, and explain your reasoning. 63. Use the exponential growth model, A = A0e kt, to solve this
exercise. In 1980, the elderly U.S. population (65 and older)
53. Assuming that the innermost circle on this Navajo sand
was 25.5 million. By 2010, it had grown to 40.3 million.
painting is a unit circle, as A moves around the circle,
(Source: U.S. Census Bureau)
its coordinates define the cosine and sine functions,
respectively. a. Find an exponential growth function that models the data
for 1980 through 2010.
b. By which year, to the nearest year, will the elderly U.S.
population reach 80 million?
(Section 4.5, Example 1)
A
Preview Exercises
Exercises 64–66 will help you prepare for the material covered
in the next section. In each exercise, complete the table of
coordinates. Do not use a calculator.
64. y = 12 cos(4x + p)
x - p4 - p8 0 p
8
p
4

y
54. I’m using a value for t and a point on the unit circle
110
corresponding to t for which sin t = - . 65. y = 4 sin 1 2x - 2p
3 2
2
p 7p 5p 13p 4p
p 13 x 3 12 6 12 3
55. Because cos = , I can conclude that
6 2 y
p 13
cos a - b = - . 66. y = 3 sin p2 x
6 2
1 5 7 11
56. I can find the exact value of sin 7p x 0 1 2 3 4
3 using periodic properties of 3 3 3 3
the sine function, or using a coterminal angle and a reference y
angle.
After completing this table of coordinates, plot the nine
57. Find the exact value of ordered pairs as points in a rectangular coordinate system.
cos 0° + cos 1° + cos 2° + cos 3° + g + cos 179° + cos 180°. Then connect the points with a smooth curve.

Chapter 5 Mid-Chapter Check Point

180°
What You Know: We learned to use radians to radians to degrees amultiply by b. We defined the
p
measure angles: One radian (approximately 57°) is the
six trigonometric functions using right triangles, angles in
measure of the central angle that intercepts an arc equal
standard position, and coordinates of points along the unit
in length to the radius of the circle. Using 180° = p radians,
p circle. Evaluating trigonometric functions using reference
we converted degrees to radians amultiply by b and angles involved connecting a number of concepts, including
180°
598  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

finding coterminal and reference angles, locating special In Exercises 11–12, find the exact value of the remaining
angles, determining the signs of the trigonometric functions trigonometric functions of u.
in specific quadrants, and finding the function values at 3 3
11. tan u = - , cos u 6 0 12. cos u = , sin u 6 0
special angles. Use the important Achieving Success box on 4 7
page 586 as a reference sheet to help connect these concepts.
In Exercises 13–14, find the measure of the side of the right
In Exercises 1–2, convert each angle in degrees to radians. Express triangle whose length is designated by a lowercase letter. Round
your answer as a multiple of p. the answer to the nearest whole number.
1. 10° 2. -105°
13. B
In Exercises 3–4, convert each angle in radians to degrees.
5p 13p
3. 4. -
12 20 a
In Exercises 5–7,
a. Find a positive angle less than 360° or 2p that is 41°
coterminal with the given angle. A
60 cm C
b. Draw the given angle in standard position.
c. Find the reference angle for the given angle. 14. B
11p 19p c 72°
5. 6. - 7. 510° 250 m
3 4
8. Use the triangle to find each of the six trigonometric A
functions of u. C

B 1 p
15. If cos u = and u is acute, find cot a - u b.
6 2

6
In Exercises 16–26, find the exact value of each expression.
5 Do not use a calculator.
16. tan 30° 17. cot 120°
u 11p
A 18. cos 240° 19. sec
C 6
9. Use the point on the terminal side of u to find each of the six p p 2p
20. sin2 + cos2 21. sin a - b
trigonometric functions of u. 7 7 3
y 22p
22. csc a b 23. cos 495°
3
17p p
u 24. tan a - b 25. sin2 - cos p
6 2
x
5p 5p
26. cos a + 2pnb + tan a + npb, n is an integer.
P(3, –2) 6 6
27. A circle has a radius of 40 centimeters. Find the length of the
10. Use the point shown on the unit circle to find each of the six arc intercepted by a central angle of 36°. Express the answer
trigonometric functions at t. in terms of p. Then round to two decimal places.
y 28. A merry-go-round makes 8 revolutions per minute. Find the
linear speed, in feet per minute, of a horse 10 feet from the
x+y= center. Express the answer in terms of p. Then round to one
t decimal place.
29. A plane takes off at an angle of 6°. After traveling for one
t
mile, or 5280 feet, along this flight path, find the plane’s height,
x to the nearest tenth of a foot, above the ground.
(1, 0)
30. A tree that is 50 feet tall casts a shadow that is 60 feet
long. Find the angle of elevation, to the nearest degree, of
P Q– 35 , – 45 R the Sun.
 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   599

Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions

Take a deep breath and relax. Many relaxation

exercises involve slowing down our breathing.
What am I Some people suggest that the way we breathe
supposed to learn? affects every part of our lives. Did you know that
After studying this section, you graphs of trigonometric functions can be used
should be able to: to analyze the breathing cycle, which is our
closest link to both life and death?
❶ Understand the graph of In this section, we use graphs of sine and
y = sin x.
cosine functions to visualize their properties.
❷ Graph variations of We use the traditional symbol x, rather than
y = sin x. u or t, to represent the independent variable.
❸ Understand the graph of We use the symbol y for the dependent
y = cos x. variable, or the function’s value at x. Thus,
❹ Graph variations of we will be graphing y = sin x and y = cos x
y = cos x. in rectangular coordinates. In all graphs of
trigonometric functions, the independent
❺ Use vertical shifts of sine
variable, x, is measured in radians.
and cosine curves.
❻ Model periodic behavior.

The Graph of y = sin x

The trigonometric functions can be graphed in a rectangular coordinate system by
plotting points whose coordinates satisfy the function. Thus, we graph y = sin x by
❶ Understand the graph of listing some points on the graph. Because the period of the sine function is 2p, we
y = sin x. will graph the function on the interval [0, 2p]. The rest of the graph is made up of
repetitions of this portion.
Table 5.3 lists some values of (x, y) on the graph of y = sin x, 0 … x … 2p.

Table 5.3 Values of (x, y) on the Graph of y = sin x

p p p 2p 5p 7p 4p 3p 5p 11p
x 0 p 2p
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6

1 √3 √3 1 1 √3 √3 1
y = sin x 0 1 0 – – –1 – – 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

#UxKPETGCUGU #UxKPETGCUGU #UxKPETGCUGU #UxKPETGCUGU

HTQOVQ p  HTQO p VQp HTQOpVQ p  HTQO p VQp
   
yKPETGCUGU yFGETGCUGU yFGETGCUGU yKPETGCUGU
HTQOVQ HTQOVQ HTQOVQ– HTQO–VQ

In plotting the points obtained in Table 5.3, we will use the approximation
23
≈ 0.87. Rather than approximating p, we will mark off units on the x@axis in
2
terms of p. If we connect these points with a smooth curve, we obtain the graph
shown in Figure 5.62 on the next page. The figure shows one period of the graph
of y = sin x.
600  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

y y=UKPx≤x≤p Values from Table 5.3 (repeated)

p 1 p p
1 (0, 0), a , b, a , 0.87b, a , 1b,
6 2 3 2
2p 5p 1
a , 0.87b, a , b, (p, 0),
x 3 6 2
p p p p 3p 2p
6 3 2 2 7p 1 4p 3p
a , - b, a , -0.87b, a , -1b,
6 2 3 2
–1
Figure 5.62 One period 5p 11p 1
of the graph of y = sin x Period: 2p a , -0.87b, a , - b, (2p, 0)
3 6 2

We can obtain a more complete graph of y = sin x by continuing the portion

shown in Figure 5.62 to the left and to the right. The graph of the sine function, called
a sine curve, is shown in Figure 5.63. Any part of the graph that corresponds to one
period (2p) is one cycle of the graph of y = sin x.

y
y=UKPx
1

6JGTCPIGKU –2p
x
–≤y≤ 2p 4p

–1
1 cycle 1 cycle 1 cycle
Figure 5.63 The graph of y = sin x period: 2p period: 2p period: 2p

The graph of y = sin x allows us to visualize some of the properties of the sine
function.
• The domain is ( - ∞, ∞), the set of all real numbers. The graph extends
indefinitely to the left and to the right with no gaps or holes.
• The range is [ -1, 1], the set of all real numbers between -1 and 1, inclusive.
The graph never rises above 1 or falls below -1.
• The period is 2p. The graph’s pattern repeats in every interval of length 2p.
• The function is an odd function: sin( -x) = -sin x. This can be seen by
observing that the graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.

❷ Graph variations of y = sin x. Graphing Variations of y 

/CZKOWOCVRGTKQF


y = sin x 1
To graph variations of y = sin x
by hand, it is helpful to find xKPVGTEGRVU
x@intercepts, maximum points, and x
xKPVGTEGRV p p 3p 2p
minimum points. One complete 2 2
cycle of the sine curve includes three
x@intercepts, one maximum point, –1
and one minimum point. The graph 
/KPKOWOCVRGTKQF

of y = sin x has x@intercepts at the
beginning, middle, and end of its full Figure 5.64 Key points in graphing the sine function
period, shown in Figure 5.64. The
curve reaches its maximum point 14 of the way through the period. It reaches its
minimum point 34 of the way through the period. Thus, key points in graphing sine
 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   601

functions are obtained by dividing the period into four equal parts. The x@coordinates
of the five key points are as follows:
x1 = value of x where the cycle begins
period
x2 = x1 +
4 #FF
period pSWCTVGTRGTKQFUq
x3 = x2 + VQƂPF
4
UWEEGUUKXG
period XCNWGUQHx
x4 = x3 +
4
y period
x5 = x4 + .
2 y=UKPx
4
The y@coordinates of the five key points are obtained by evaluating the given
function at each of these values of x.
1 y=UKPx The graph of y = sin x forms the basis for graphing functions of the form
y = A sin x.
2p
x
For example, consider y = 2 sin x, in which A = 2. We can obtain the graph of
p p 3p y = 2 sin x from that of y = sin x if we multiply each y@coordinate on the graph of
2 2
y = sin x by 2. Figure 5.65 shows the graphs. The basic sine curve is stretched and
–1
ranges between -2 and 2, rather than between -1 and 1. However, both y = sin x
and y = 2 sin x have a period of 2p.
In general, the graph of y = A sin x ranges between -  A  and  A  . Thus, the
–2
range of the function is -  A  … y …  A  . If  A  7 1, the basic sine curve is
stretched, as in Figure 5.65. If  A  6 1, the basic sine curve is shrunk. We call  A 
Figure 5.65 Comparing the graphs of the amplitude of y = A sin x. The maximum value of y on the graph of y = A sin x
y = sin x and y = 2 sin x, 0 … x … 2p is  A  , the amplitude.

Graphing Variations of y = sin x

1. Identify the amplitude and the period.
2. Find the values of x for the five key points—the three x@intercepts,
the maximum point, and the minimum point. Start with the value of x
period
where the cycle begins and add quarter-periods—that is, —to find
4
successive values of x.
3. Find the values of y for the five key points by evaluating the function at
each value of x from step 2.
4. Connect the five key points with a smooth curve and graph one complete
cycle of the given function.
5. Extend the graph in step 4 to the left or right as desired.

Example 1 Graphing a Variation of y = sin x

1 1
Determine the amplitude of y = 2 sin x. Then graph y = sin x and y = 2 sin x for
0 … x … 2p.

Solution
Step 1 Identify the amplitude and the period. The equation y = 12 sin x is of the
form y = A sin x with A = 12. Thus, the amplitude is  A  = 12. This means that the
maximum value of y is 12 and the minimum value of y is - 12. The period for both
y = 12 sin x and y = sin x is 2p.
Step 2 Find the values of x for the five key points. We need to find the three
x@intercepts, the maximum point, and the minimum point on the interval [0, 2p].
To do so, we begin by dividing the period, 2p, by 4.
period 2p p
= =
4 4 2
602  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

We start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = 0. Now we add quarter-
p
periods, , to generate x@values for each of the key points. The five x@values are
2
p p p p
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 + = , x3 = + = p,
2 2 2 2
p 3p 3p p
x4 = p + = , x5 = + = 2p.
2 2 2 2

Step 3 Find the values of y for the five key points. We evaluate the function at
each value of x from step 2.

1
Value of x Value of y: y = sin x Coordinates of key point
2
1 1
0 y= sin 0 = ∙0=0 (0, 0)
2 2
p 1 p 1 1 p 1 OCZKOWO
y= sin = ∙1= a , b RQKPV
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
p y= sin p = ∙ 0 = 0 (p, 0)
2 2
3p 1 3p 1 1 3p 1
y= sin = (–1) = – a ,– b OKPKOWO
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 RQKPV
y 1 1
2p y= sin 2p = ∙0=0 (2p, 0)
y=UKPx 2 2
1

y=UKPx


2p There are x@intercepts at 0, p, and 2p. The maximum and minimum points are
x
p p 3p indicated by the voice balloons.
2 2
Step 4 Connect the five key points with a smooth curve and graph one complete
–1 cycle of the given function. The five key points for y = 12 sin x are shown in red in
Figure 5.66. By connecting the points with a smooth curve, the figure shows one
Figure 5.66 The graphs of y = sin x and complete cycle of y = 12 sin x. Also shown is the graph of y = sin x. The graph of
y = 12 sin x, 0 … x … 2p y = 12 sin x is the graph of y = sin x vertically shrunk by a factor of 12. l l l

Check Point 1 Determine the amplitude of y = 3 sin x. Then graph y = sin x

and y = 3 sin x for 0 … x … 2p.

Example 2 Graphing a Variation of y = sin x

Determine the amplitude of y = -2 sin x. Then graph y = sin x and y = -2 sin x
for -p … x … 3p.

Solution
Step 1 Identify the amplitude and the period. The equation y = -2 sin x is of
the form y = A sin x with A = -2. Thus, the amplitude is  A  =  -2 = 2. This
means that the maximum value of y is 2 and the minimum value of y is -2. Both
y = sin x and y = -2 sin x have a period of 2p.
Step 2 Find the values of x for the five key points. Begin by dividing the period,
2p, by 4.
period 2p p
= =
4 4 2
 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   603

p
Start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = 0. Adding quarter-periods, ,
2
the five x@values for the key points are
p p p p
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 + = , x3 = + = p,
2 2 2 2
p 3p 3p p
x4 = p + = , x5 = + = 2p.
2 2 2 2

Although we will be graphing on [-p, 3p], we select x1 = 0 rather than x1 = -p.

Knowing the graph’s shape on [0, 2p] will enable us to continue the pattern and
extend it to the left to -p and to the right to 3p.
Step 3 Find the values of y for the five key points. We evaluate the function at
each value of x from step 2.

Value of x Value of y: y = −2 sin x Coordinates of key point

0 y = –2 sin 0 = –2 ∙ 0 = 0 (0, 0)

p p p OKPKOWO
y = –2 sin = –2 ∙ 1 = –2 a , –2b RQKPV
2 2 2

p y = –2 sin p = –2 ∙ 0 = 0 (p, 0)

3p 3p 3p
y = –2 sin = –2(–1) = 2 a , 2b OCZKOWO
2 2 2 RQKPV

2p y = –2 sin 2p = –2 ∙ 0 = 0 (2p, 0)

y
y=–UKPx There are x@intercepts at 0, p, and 2p. The minimum and maximum points are
2 indicated by the voice balloons.
y=UKPx Step 4 Connect the five key points with a smooth curve and graph one complete
1 cycle of the given function. The five key points for y = -2 sin x are shown in red
in Figure 5.67. By connecting the points with a smooth curve, the dark red portion
x shows one complete cycle of y = -2 sin x. Also shown in dark blue is one complete
p p 3p 2p
2 2 cycle of the graph of y = sin x. The graph of y = -2 sin x is the graph of y = sin x
–1 reflected about the x@axis and vertically stretched by a factor of 2.
Step 5 Extend the graph in step 4 to the left or right as desired. The dark red and
–2
dark blue portions of the graphs in Figure 5.67 are from 0 to 2p. In order to graph
Figure 5.67 The graphs of y = sin x for -p … x … 3p, continue the pattern of each graph to the left and to the right.
and y = - 2 sin x, 0 … x … 2p These extensions are shown by the lighter colors in Figure 5.68.

y
y=–UKPx
2
y=UKPx
1

x
–p –2
p p p 3p 2p 5p 3p
2 2 2
–1

Figure 5.68 The graphs of y = sin x

–2
and y = - 2 sin x, - p … x … 3p l l l

Check Point 2 Determine the amplitude of y = - 12 sin x. Then graph

y = sin x and y = - 12 sin x for -p … x … 3p.
604  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Great Question! Now let us examine the graphs of functions of the form y = A sin Bx, where B
What should I do to graph is the coefficient of x and B 7 0. How do such graphs compare to those of functions
functions of the form of the form y = A sin x? We know that y = A sin x completes one cycle from x = 0
y = A sin Bx if B is negative? to x = 2p. Thus, y = A sin Bx completes one cycle as Bx increases from 0 to 2p.
If B 6 0 in y = A sin Bx, use Set up an inequality to represent this and solve for x to determine the values of x for
sin( - u) = -sin u to rewrite the which y = sin Bx completes one cycle.
equation before obtaining its 0 … Bx … 2p y = sin Bx completes one cycle as Bx
graph. increases from 0 to 2p.
2p
0 … x … Divide by B, where B 7 0, and solve for x.
B
2p
The inequality 0 … x … means that y = A sin Bx completes one cycle from 0
B
2p 2p
to . The period is . The graph of y = A sin Bx is the graph of y = A sin x
B B
1
horizontally shrunk by a factor of if B 7 1 and horizontally stretched by a factor
1 B
of if 0 6 B 6 1.
B

Amplitudes and Periods y

The graph of y = A sin Bx, B 7 0, has y=AUKPBx

amplitude =  A  2p
2p B
period = . x
B
Amplitude: A

2p
Period:
B

Example 3 Graphing a Function of the Form y = A sin Bx

Determine the amplitude and period of y = 3 sin 2x. Then graph the function for
0 … x … 2p.

Solution
Step 1 Identify the amplitude and the period. The equation y = 3 sin 2x is of the
form y = A sin Bx with A = 3 and B = 2.
amplitude:  A  =  3 = 3
2p 2p
period: = = p
B 2
The amplitude, 3, tells us that the maximum value of y is 3 and the minimum value
of y is -3. The period, p, tells us that the graph completes one cycle from 0 to p.
Step 2 Find the values of x for the five key points. Begin by dividing the period
of y = 3 sin 2x, p, by 4.
period p
=
4 4
p
Start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = 0. Adding quarter-periods, ,
4
the five x@values for the key points are
p p p p p
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 + = , x3 = + = ,
4 4 4 4 2
p p 3p 3p p
x4 = + = , x5 = + = p.
2 4 4 4 4
 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   605

Step 3 Find the values of y for the five key points. We evaluate the function at
each value of x from step 2.

Value of x Value of y: y = 3 sin 2x Coordinates of key point

0 y = 3 sin (2 ∙ 0)
(0, 0)
= 3 sin 0 = 3 ∙ 0 = 0
p OCZKOWO
p y = 3 sin a2 ∙ b p
4 a , 3b RQKPV
4 p 4
= 3 sin =3∙1=3
2
p
p y = 3 sin a2 ∙ b p
2 a , 0b
2 2
= 3 sin p = 3 ∙ 0 = 0
3p
3p y = 3 sin a2 ∙ b 3p
y 4 a , –3b OKPKOWO
y=UKPx 4 3p 4 RQKPV
= 3 sin = 3(–1) = –3
3 2
y = 3 sin (2 ∙ p)
p (p, 0)
= 3 sin 2p = 3 ∙ 0 = 0
x
p p 3p p
4 2 4 p
In the interval [0, p], there are x@intercepts at 0, , and p. The maximum and
2
–3 minimum points are indicated by the voice balloons.
Step 4 Connect the five key points with a smooth curve and graph one complete
Figure 5.69 The graph cycle of the given function. The five key points for y = 3 sin 2x are shown in
of y = 3 sin 2x, 0 … x … p Figure 5.69. By connecting the points with a smooth curve, the blue portion shows
one complete cycle of y = 3 sin 2x from 0 to p. The graph of y = 3 sin 2x is the
y graph of y = sin x vertically stretched by a factor of 3 and horizontally shrunk by
y=UKPx 1
3 a factor of .
2
Step 5 Extend the graph in step 4 to the left or right as desired. The blue portion
2p of the graph in Figure 5.69 is from 0 to p. In order to graph for 0 … x … 2p, we
x
3p
p
4
p
2 4
p continue this portion and extend the graph another full period to the right. This
extension is shown in gray in Figure 5.70. l l l

–3
Check Point 3 Determine the amplitude and period of y = 2 sin 12 x. Then
Figure 5.70 graph the function for 0 … x … 8p.

Now let us examine the graphs of functions of the form y = A sin(Bx - C),
where B 7 0. How do such graphs compare to those of functions of the form
Technology 2p
y = A sin Bx? In both cases, the amplitude is  A  and the period is . One
The graph of y = 3 sin 2x in a B
p
complete cycle occurs as Bx - C increases from 0 to 2p. This means that we can
c 0, 2p, d by [ - 4, 4, 1] viewing find an interval containing one cycle by solving the following inequality:
2
rectangle verifies our hand-drawn 0 … Bx - C … 2p. y = A sin(Bx - C ) completes one cycle as
graph in Figure 5.70. Bx - C increases from 0 to 2p.
C … Bx … C + 2p Add C to all three parts.
C C 2p
≤x≤ + Divide by B, where B 7 0, and solve for x.
B B B

6JKUKUVJGxEQQTFKPCVG 6JKUKUVJGxEQQTFKPCVG
QPVJGNGHVYJGTGVJG QPVJGTKIJVYJGTGVJGE[ENG
E[ENGDGIKPU GPFU p KUVJGRGTKQF
B
606  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

The voice balloon on the left at the bottom of the previous page indicates that the
C
graph of y = A sin(Bx - C) is the graph of y = A sin Bx shifted horizontally by .
C B
Thus, the number is the phase shift associated with the graph.
B

The Graph of y = A sin(Bx − C)

The graph of y = A sin(Bx - C), B 7 0, y y=AUKP Bx−C
is obtained by horizontally shifting
the graph of y = A sin Bx so that the
starting point of the cycle is shifted from Amplitude: A
C C
x = 0 to x = . If 7 0, the shift is to x
B B
C 5VCTVKPIRQKPV
the right. If 6 0, the shift is to the left. C
B x=
C B
The number is called the phase shift. 2p
B Period:
B
amplitude =  A 
2p
period =
B

Example 4 Graphing a Function of the Form y = A sin(Bx − C)

2p
Determine the amplitude, period, and phase shift of y = 4 sin a2x - b . Then
3
graph one period of the function.

Solution
Step 1 Identify the amplitude, the period, and the phase shift. We must first
identify values for A, B, and C.

6JGGSWCVKQPKUQHVJGHQTO
y=AUKP Bx–C 

2p
y = 4 sina2x − b
3

2p
Using the voice balloon, we see that A = 4, B = 2, and C = .
3

6JGOCZKOWOXCNWGQHyKU
amplitude: A = 4 = 4 CPFVJGOKPKOWOKU–

2p 2p 'CEJE[ENGKUQHNGPIVJp
period: = =p
B 2
2p
C 3 2p 1 p #E[ENGUVCTVUCVx= p
phase shift: = = ∙ = 
B 2 3 2 3

Step 2 Find the values of x for the five key points. Begin by dividing the period,
p, by 4.
period p
=
4 4
 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   607

Great Question! p p
Start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = . Adding quarter-periods, ,
Is there a way I can speed up the 3 4
the five x@values for the key points are
additions shown on the right? p p p 4p 3p 7p
Yes. First write the starting point, x1 = , x2 = + = + = ,
p p
3 3 4 12 12 12
3 , and the quarter-period, 4 , with 7p p 7p 3p 10p 5p
a common denominator, 12. x3 = + = + = = ,
12 4 12 12 12 6
p 4p
starting point = = 5p p 10p 3p 13p
3 12 x4 = + = + = ,
6 4 12 12 12
p 3p
quarter@period = = 13p p 13p 3p 16p 4p
4 12 x5 = + = + = = .
12 4 12 12 12 3

Great Question!
Is there a way to check my computations for the x@values for the five key points?
Yes. The difference between x5 and x1, or x5 - x1, should equal the period.
4p p 3p
x5 - x1 = - = = p
3 3 3
Because the period is p, this verifies that our five x@values are correct.

Step 3 Find the values of y for the five key points. We evaluate the function at
each value of x from step 2.

2P
Value of x Value of y: y = 4 sin a2x − b Coordinates of key point
3

p 2p
p y = 4 sina2 ∙ − b p
3 3 a , 0b
3 3
= 4 sin 0 = 4 ∙ 0 = 0

7p 2p
y = 4 sin a2 ∙ − b
12 3
OCZKOWO
7p 7p 4p 7p RQKPV
= 4 sina − b a , 4b
12 6 6 12
3p p
= 4 sin = 4 sin = 4 ∙ 1 = 4
6 2

5p 2p
y = 4 sina2 ∙ − b
6 3
5p 5p 2p 5p
= 4 sin a − b a , 0b
6 3 3 6
3p
= 4 sin = 4 sin p = 4 ∙ 0 = 0
3

13p 2p
y = 4 sin a2 ∙ − b
12 3
13p 13p 4p 13p
= 4 sina − b a , –4b
12 6 6 12 OKPKOWO
9p 3p RQKPV
= 4 sin = 4 sin = 4(–1) = –4
6 2

4p 2p
y = 4 sina2 ∙ − b
4p 3 3 4p
a , 0b
3 6p 3
= 4 sin = 4 sin 2p = 4 ∙ 0 = 0
3

p 4p p 5p 4p
In the interval c , d , there are x@intercepts at , , and . The maximum
3 3 3 6 3
and minimum points are indicated by the voice balloons.
608  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

The Five Key Points (repeated) Step 4 Connect the five key points with a smooth curve and graph one complete
cycle of the given function. The five key points are shown on the graph of
p 7p OCZ
2p
a , 0b, a , 4b, y = 4 sin a2x - b in Figure 5.71.
3 12 3
OKP
5p 13p
a , 0b, a , –4b , y
6 12
4 p
4p y=UKP x–

a , 0b 3
3 2
1
x
p 7p 5p 13p 4p
–1 3 12 6 12 3
–2
–3
–4
Figure 5.71 l l l

Check Point 4 Determine the amplitude, period, and phase shift of

p
y = 3 sin a2x - b . Then graph one period of the function.
3

❸ Understand the graph The Graph of y = cos x

of y = cos x. We graph y = cos x by listing some points on the graph. Because the period of the
cosine function is 2p, we will concentrate on the graph of the basic cosine curve on
the interval [0, 2p]. The rest of the graph is made up of repetitions of this portion.
Table 5.4 lists some values of (x, y) on the graph of y = cos x.

Table 5.4 Values of (x, y) on the Graph of y = cos x

p p p 2p 5p 7p 4p 3p 5p 11p
x 0 p 2p
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6

√3 1 1 √3 √3 1 1 √3
y = cos x 1 0 – – –1 – – 0 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

#UxKPETGCUGU #UxKPETGCUGU #UxKPETGCUGU #UxKPETGCUGU

HTQOVQ p  HTQO p VQp HTQOpVQ p  HTQO p VQp
   
yFGETGCUGU yFGETGCUGU yKPETGCUGU yKPETGCUGU
HTQOVQ HTQOVQ– HTQO–VQ HTQOVQ

Plotting the points in Table 5.4 and connecting them with a smooth curve, we obtain
the graph shown in Figure 5.72. The portion of the graph in dark blue shows one
complete period. We can obtain a more complete graph of y = cos x by extending
this dark blue portion to the left and to the right.

y
1
y=EQUx

6JGTCPIGKU
x
–≤y≤ –p 2p
– 3p
2
– p2 p
2
p 3p
2
5p
2

–1

Figure 5.72 The graph of y = cos x Period: 2p

 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   609

The graph of y = cos x allows us to visualize some of the properties of the cosine
function.
• The domain is ( - ∞, ∞), the set of all real numbers. The graph extends
indefinitely to the left and to the right with no gaps or holes.
• The range is [ -1, 1], the set of all real numbers between -1 and 1, inclusive.
The graph never rises above 1 or falls below -1.
• The period is 2p. The graph’s pattern repeats in every interval of length 2p.
• The function is an even function: cos( -x) = cos x. This can be seen by
observing that the graph is symmetric with respect to the y@axis.
Take a second look at Figure 5.72. Can you see that the graph of y = cos x is
p
the graph of y = sin x with a phase shift of - ? If you trace along the curve from
p 3p 2
x = - to x = , you are tracing one complete cycle of the sine curve. This can
2 2
be expressed as an identity:
p
cos x = sin ax + b .
2
Because of this similarity, the graphs of sine functions and cosine functions are
called sinusoidal graphs.

❹ Graph variations of y = cos x. Graphing Variations of y = cos x

We use the same steps to graph variations of y = cos x as we did for graphing
variations of y = sin x. We will continue finding key points by dividing the period
into four equal parts. Amplitudes, periods, and phase shifts play an important role
when graphing by hand.

Great Question!
The Graph of y = A cos Bx y
What should I do to graph y=AEQUBx
functions of the form The graph of y = A cos Bx, B 7 0, has
y = A cos Bx if B is negative?
amplitude =  A  Amplitude: A
If B 6 0 in y = A cos Bx, use
cos( - u) = cos u to rewrite the
2p x
period = .
equation before obtaining its B 2p
B
graph.

2p
Period:
B

Example 5 Graphing a Function of the Form y = A cos Bx

p
Determine the amplitude and period of y = -3 cos x. Then graph the function
2
for -4 … x … 4.

Solution
p
Step 1 Identify the amplitude and the period. The equation y = -3 cos x is of
p 2
the form y = A cos Bx with A = -3 and B = .
2
6JGOCZKOWOXCNWGQHyKU
amplitude: A = –3 = 3 CPFVJGOKPKOWOKU–

2p 2p 2 'CEJE[ENGKUQHNGPIVJ
period: = = 2p ∙ =4
B p p
2
610  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Step 2 Find the values of x for the five key points. Begin by dividing the period, 4,
by 4.
period 4
= = 1
4 4
Start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = 0. Adding quarter-periods, 1,
the five x@values for the key points are
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 + 1 = 1, x3 = 1 + 1 = 2, x4 = 2 + 1 = 3, x5 = 3 + 1 = 4.

Step 3 Find the values of y for the five key points. We evaluate the function at
each value of x from step 2.

P
Value of x Value of y: y = −3 cos x Coordinates of key point
2
p OKPKOWO
0 y = –3 cos a ∙ 0b (0, –3) RQKPV
2
= –3 cos 0 = –3 ∙ 1 = –3
p
y = –3 cos a∙ 1b
1 2 (1, 0)
p
= –3 cos = –3 ∙ 0 = 0
2
p
2 y = –3 cos a ∙ 2b (2, 3)
OCZKOWO
2 RQKPV
= –3 cos p = –3(–1) = 3

p
y = –3 cos a ∙ 3b
2
3 (3, 0)
3p
= –3 cos = –3 ∙ 0 = 0
2
p
y = –3 cos a ∙ 4b OKPKOWO
4 2 (4, –3)
RQKPV
= –3 cos 2p = –3 ∙ 1 = –3

In the interval [0, 4], there are x@intercepts at 1 and 3. The minimum and maximum
points are indicated by the voice balloons.
Step 4 Connect the five key points with y
a smooth curve and graph one complete p
3 y=–EQUx
cycle of the given function. The five key 
p 2
points for y = -3 cos x are shown in
2 1
Figure 5.73. By connecting the points with
Technology a smooth curve, the blue portion shows
–4 –2 2 4
x
p
p one complete cycle of y = -3 cos x –1
The graph of y = -3 cos x in 2
2 from 0 to 4. –2
a [ - 4, 4, 1] by [ -4, 4, 1] viewing
rectangle verifies our hand-drawn –3
Step 5 Extend the graph in step 4 to the
graph in Figure 5.73.
left or right as desired. The blue portion Figure 5.73
of the graph in Figure 5.73 is for x from
0 to 4. In order to graph for -4 … x … 4,
we continue this portion and extend the graph another full period to the left. This
extension is shown in gray in Figure 5.73. l l l

Check Point 5 Determine the amplitude and period of y = -4 cos px. Then
graph the function for -2 … x … 2.
 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   611

Finally, let us examine the graphs of functions of the form y = A cos(Bx - C).
C
Graphs of these functions shift the graph of y = A cos Bx horizontally by .
B

The Graph of y = A cos(Bx − C)

The graph of y = A cos(Bx - C), B 7 0, is obtained by horizontally shifting
the graph of y = A cos Bx so that the starting point of the cycle is shifted from
C C y
x = 0 to x = . If 7 0, the shift is to y=AEQU Bx−C
B B
C
the right. If 6 0, the shift is to the left.
B Amplitude: A
C
The number is called the phase shift. x
B
5VCTVKPIRQKPV
amplitude = 0 A 0
C
2p x=
B
period = 2p
B Period:
B

Example 6 Graphing a Function of the Form y = A cos(Bx − C)

1
Determine the amplitude, period, and phase shift of y = 2 cos(4x + p). Then
graph one period of the function.

Solution
Step 1 Identify the amplitude, the period, and the phase shift. We must first
identify values for A, B, and C. To do this, we need to express the equation
in the form y = A cos(Bx - C). Thus, we write y = 12 cos(4x + p) as
y = 12 cos[4x - ( -p)]. Now we can identify values for A, B, and C.

6JGGSWCVKQPKUQHVJGHQTO
y=AUKP Bx–C 

1
y= cos C4x − (–p)D
2

Using the voice balloon, we see that A = 12, B = 4, and C = -p.

1 1 6JGOCZKOWOXCNWGQHyKU 

amplitude: A = ` ` = 
CPFVJGOKPKOWOKU–  
2 2

2p 2p p 'CEJE[ENGKUQHNGPIVJ p 
period: = = 
B 4 2

C p #E[ENGUVCTVUCVx=– p
phase shift: =– 
B 4
p
Step 2 Find the values of x for the five key points. Begin by dividing the period, ,
2
by 4.
p
period 2 p
= =
4 4 8
612  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

p
Start with the value of x where the cycle begins: x1 = - . Adding quarter-periods,
p 4
, the five x@values for the key points are
8
p p p 2p p p p p
x1 = - , x2 = - + = - + = - , x3 = - + = 0,
4 4 8 8 8 8 8 8
p p p p 2p p
Technology x4 = 0 + = , x5 = + = = .
8 8 8 8 8 4
The graph of
1 Step 3 Find the values of y for the five key points. Take a few minutes and use
y = cos(4x + p)
2 your calculator to evaluate the function at each value of x from step 2. Show that
p p p the key points are
in a c - , , d by [ -1, 1, 1]
4 4 8 p 1 p 1 p p 1
a– , b, a– , 0b, a0, – b, a , 0b, and a , b.
viewing rectangle verifies our 4 2 8 2 8 4 2
hand-drawn graph in Figure 5.74.
OCZKOWO xKPVGTEGRV OKPKOWO xKPVGTEGRV OCZKOWO
RQKPV CV– p RQKPV CV p RQKPV
 

Step 4 Connect the five key points with  y

y=EQU
 x+p
a smooth curve and graph one complete 1
2
cycle of the given function. The key points
and the graph of y = 12 cos(4x + p) are x
shown in Figure 5.74. – p4 – p8 p p
8 4
– 12

Figure 5.74 l l l

Check Point 6 Determine the amplitude, period, and phase shift of

3
y = 2 cos(2x + p). Then graph one period of the function.

❺ Use vertical shifts of sine and Vertical Shifts of Sinusoidal Graphs

cosine curves. We now look at sinusoidal graphs of functions of the form
y = A sin(Bx - C) + D and y = A cos(Bx - C) + D.
The constant D causes a vertical shift in each of the graphs of y = A sin(Bx - C)
and y = A cos(Bx - C). If D is positive, the shift is D units upward. If D is negative,
the shift is 0 D 0 units downward. These vertical shifts result in sinusoidal graphs
oscillating about the horizontal line y = D rather than about the x@axis. Thus, the
maximum value of y is D +  A  and the minimum value of y is D -  A  .

Example 7 A Vertical Shift

1
Graph one period of the function y = 2 cos x - 1.

Solution
The graph of y = 12 cos x - 1 is the graph of y = 12 cos x shifted one unit
downward. The period of y = 12 cos x is 2p, which is also the period for the
vertically shifted graph. The key points on the interval [0, 2p] for y = 12 cos x - 1
2p p
are found by first determining their x@coordinates. The quarter-period is , or .
4 2
The cycle begins at x = 0. As always, we add quarter-periods to generate x@values
for each of the key points. The five x@values are
p p p p
x1 = 0, x2 = 0 + = , x3 = + = p,
2 2 2 2
p 3p 3p p
x4 = p + = , x5 = + = 2p.
2 2 2 2
 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   613

The values of y for the five key points and their coordinates are determined as
follows.

Value of y:
Coordinates of
1
Value of x y = cos x − 1 key point
2
1
y = cos 0 - 1
2 1
0 a0, - b
= #1 - 1 = -
1 1
2
2 2
1 p
y = cos - 1
p 2 2 p
2 1# a , -1b
= 0 - 1 = -1 2
2
1
y = cos p - 1
2 3
p ap, - b
1 3
= ( -1) - 1 = - 2
2 2
1 3p
y = cos - 1
3p 2 2 3p
a , - 1b
= # 0 - 1 = -1
2 1
2
2
1
y = cos 2p - 1
2p 2 1
a2p, - b
= #1 - 1 = -
1 1 2
2 2

The five key points for y = 12 cos x - 1 are y

shown in Figure 5.75. By connecting the
points with a smooth curve, we obtain one x
period of the graph. p p 3p 2p
2 2
– 12

–1

– 32

y=EQUx–


Figure 5.75 l l l

Check Point 7 Graph one period of the function y = 2 cos x + 1.

❻ Model periodic behavior. Modeling Periodic Behavior

Our breathing consists of alternating periods of inhaling and exhaling. Each complete
pumping cycle of the human heart can be described using a sine function. Our brain
waves during deep sleep are sinusoidal. Viewed in this way, trigonometry becomes
an intimate experience.
Some graphing utilities have a SINe REGression feature. This feature gives the
sine function in the form y = A sin(Bx + C) + D of best fit for wavelike data.
At least four data points must be used. However, it is not always necessary to use
technology. In our next example, we use our understanding of sinusoidal graphs to
model the process of breathing.
614  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Example 8 A Trigonometric Breath of Life

The graph in Figure 5.76 shows one complete normal breathing cycle. The cycle
consists of inhaling and exhaling. It takes place every 5 seconds. Velocity of air flow
is positive when we inhale and negative when we exhale. It is measured in liters per
second. If y represents velocity of air flow after x seconds, find a function of the
form y = A sin Bx that models air flow in a normal breathing cycle.

Velocity of Air Flow in a

Normal Breathing Cycle
y

0.6 +PJCNKPI

Velocity of Air Flow

(liters per second)
5
x
Time
(seconds)

'ZJCNKPI
–0.6

Period: 5 seconds Figure 5.76

Solution
We need to determine values for A and B in the equation y = A sin Bx. The
amplitude, A, is the maximum value of y. Figure 5.76 shows that this maximum
value is 0.6. Thus, A = 0.6.
The value of B in y = A sin Bx can be found using the formula for the period:
2p
period = . The period of our breathing cycle is 5 seconds. Thus,
B
2p
5 = Our goal is to solve this equation for B.
B
5B = 2p Multiply both sides of the equation by B.
2p
B = . Divide both sides of the equation by 5.
5
2p
We see that A = 0.6 and B = . Substitute these values into y = A sin Bx. The
5
breathing cycle is modeled by
2p
y = 0.6 sin x. l l l
5

y
Check Point 8 Find an equation of the
form y = A sin Bx that produces the graph 4
shown in the figure on the right.

x
– p4 p
4
p
2

–4
 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   615

Example 9 Modeling a Tidal Cycle

Figure 5.77 shows that the depth of water at a boat dock varies with the tides. The
depth is 5 feet at low tide and 13 feet at high tide. On a certain day, low tide occurs
at 4 a.m. and high tide at 10 a.m. If y represents the depth of the water, in feet,
x hours after midnight, use a sine function of the form y = A sin(Bx - C) + D to
y
model the water’s depth.

Solution
13
Depth of Water

We need to determine values for A, B, C, and D in the equation

9 y = A sin(Bx - C) + D. We can find these values using Figure 5.77. We begin
5 with D.
To find D, we use the vertical shift. Because the water’s depth ranges from a
x minimum of 5 feet to a maximum of 13 feet, the curve oscillates about the middle
4 10 16 22 value, 9 feet. Thus, D = 9, which is the vertical shift.
The Number of Hours after Midnight
At maximum depth, the water is 4 feet above 9 feet. Thus, A, the amplitude,
Figure 5.77 is 4: A = 4.
To find B, we use the period. The blue portion of the graph shows that one
complete tidal cycle occurs in 19 - 7, or 12 hours. The period is 12. Thus,
2p
12 = Our goal is to solve this equation for B.
B
12B = 2p Multiply both sides by B.
2p p
B = = . Divide both sides by 12.
12 6
To find C, we use the phase shift. The blue portion of the graph shows that the
C
starting point of the cycle is shifted from 0 to 7. The phase shift, , is 7.
B
C C
7 = The phase shift of y = A sin(Bx - C) is .
B B
C p
7 = From above, we have B = .
p 6
6
7p p
= C Multiply both sides of the equation by .
6 6
p 7p
We see that A = 4, B = , C = , and D = 9. Substitute these values
6 6
into y = A sin(Bx - C) + D. The water’s depth, in feet, x hours after midnight is
modeled by
p 7p
y = 4 sin a x - b + 9. l l l
6 6

Technology
Graphic Connections *KIJVKFG
.QYVKFG HGGVCV
We can use a graphing utility to verify that the model HGGVCV #/
in Example 9, #/ *KIJVKFG
.QYVKFG
p 7p 15
y = 4 sin a x - b + 9,
6 6
10
is correct. The graph of the function is shown in a
[0, 28, 4] by [0, 15, 5] viewing rectangle. 5

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
616  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Check Point 9 A region that is 30° north of the Equator averages a minimum
of 10 hours of daylight in December. Hours of daylight are at a maximum of
14 hours in June. Let x represent the month of the year, with 1 for January, 2 for
February, 3 for March, and 12 for December. If y represents the number of hours
of daylight in month x, use a sine function of the form y = A sin(Bx - C) + D
to model the hours of daylight.

Concept and Vocabulary Check

Fill in each blank so that the resulting statement is true.

1. The graph of y = A sin Bx has 5. The graph of y = A cos Bx has

amplitude = and period = . amplitude = and period = .
1
2. The amplitude of y = 3 sin 12x is and the 6. The amplitude of y = 2 cos 3x is and the
period is .
period is .
3. The period of y = 4 sin 2x is , so the p p
7. True or false: The graph of y = cos ax + b lies
x@values for the five key points are x1 = , 4 4
units to the right of the graph of y = cos x.
x2 = , x3 = , x4 = , and
p
x5 = . 8. True or false: The graph of y = cos a2x - b has
p 2
4. The graph of y = A sin (Bx - C) has phase phase shift .
4
shift . If this phase shift is positive, the graph 9. True or false: The maximum value of the function
of y = A sin Bx is shifted to the . If this phase y = -2 cos x + 5 is 7.
shift is negative, the graph of y = A sin Bx is shifted 10. True or false: The minimum value of the function
to the . y = 2 sin x + 1 is -1.

Exercise Set 5.5

Practice Exercises p p
25. y = -2 sin a2x + b 26. y = -3 sin a2x + b
In Exercises 1–6, determine the amplitude of each function. 2 2
Then graph the function and y = sin x in the same rectangular 27. y = 3 sin(px + 2) 28. y = 3 sin(2px + 4)
coordinate system for 0 … x … 2p. 29. y = -2 sin(2px + 4p) 30. y = -3 sin(2px + 4p)
1. y = 4 sin x 2. y = 5 sin x
In Exercises 31–34, determine the amplitude of each function.
3. y = 13 sin x 4. y = 14 sin x Then graph the function and y = cos x in the same rectangular
5. y = - 3 sin x 6. y = - 4 sin x coordinate system for 0 … x … 2p.
In Exercises 7–16, determine the amplitude and period of each 31. y = 2 cos x 32. y = 3 cos x
function. Then graph one period of the function. 33. y = -2 cos x 34. y = -3 cos x
7. y = sin 2x 8. y = sin 4x In Exercises 35–42, determine the amplitude and period of each
9. y = 3 sin 12 x 10. y = 2 sin 14 x function. Then graph one period of the function.
11. y = 4 sin px 12. y = 3 sin 2px 35. y = cos 2x 36. y = cos 4x
13. y = - 3 sin 2px 14. y = - 2 sin px 37. y = 4 cos 2px 38. y = 5 cos 2px
15. y = - sin 23 x 16. y = - sin 43 x
39. y = -4 cos 12 x 40. y = -3 cos 13 x
In Exercises 17–30, determine the amplitude, period, and phase 1 p 1 p
41. y = - cos x 42. y = - cos x
shift of each function. Then graph one period of the function. 2 3 2 4
p
17. y = sin(x - p) 18. y = sin ax - b In Exercises 43–52, determine the amplitude, period, and phase
2 shift of each function. Then graph one period of the function.
p
19. y = sin(2x - p) 20. y = sin a2x - b p p
2 43. y = cos ax - b 44. y = cos ax + b
2 2
p
21. y = 3 sin(2x - p) 22. y = 3 sin a2x - b 45. y = 3 cos(2x - p) 46. y = 4 cos(2x - p)
2
1 p 1 1 p 1
23. y = sin ax + b 24. y = sin(x + p) 47. y = cos a3x + b 48. y = cos(2x + p)
2 2 2 2 2 2
 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   617

p p 66. y
49. y = - 3 cos a2x - b 50. y = -4 cos a2x - b
2 2 3
51. y = 2 cos(2px + 8p) 52. y = 3 cos(2px + 4p)
In Exercises 53–60, use a vertical shift to graph one period of the x
–2 2 4 6
function.
53. y = sin x + 2 54. y = sin x - 2 –3
55. y = cos x - 3 56. y = cos x + 3
57. y = 2 sin 12 x + 1 58. y = 2 cos 12 x + 1
In Exercises 67–70, graph one period of each function.
59. y = - 3 cos 2px + 2 60. y = -3 sin 2px + 2
x 2x
67. y = ` 2 cos ` 68. y = ` 3 cos `
Practice Plus 2 3
px
In Exercises 61–66, find an equation for each graph. 69. y = -  3 sin px 70. y = - ` 2 sin `
2
61. y
In Exercises 71–74, graph f, g, and h in the same rectangular
3 coordinate system for 0 … x … 2p. Obtain the graph of h by
adding or subtracting the corresponding y@coordinates on the
graphs of f and g.
x
– 2p 2p 4p 6p 71. f(x) = -2 sin x, g(x) = sin 2x, h(x) = ( f + g)(x)
72. f(x) = 2 cos x, g(x) = cos 2x, h(x) = ( f + g)(x)
–3
73. f(x) = sin x, g(x) = cos 2x, h(x) = ( f - g)(x)
74. f(x) = cos x, g(x) = sin 2x, h(x) = ( f - g)(x)
62. y

3 Application Exercises
In the theory of biorhythms, sine functions are used to measure
x a person’s potential. You can obtain your biorhythm chart online
– 3p –p p 3p 5p by simply entering your date of birth, the date you want your
biorhythm chart to begin, and the number of months you wish
–3 to have included in the plot. Shown below is your author’s chart,
beginning January 25, 2015, when he was 25,473 days old. We
all have cycles with the same amplitudes and periods as those
63. y shown here. Each of our three basic cycles begins at birth. Use the
biorhythm chart shown to solve Exercises 75–82. The longer tick
2 marks correspond to the dates shown.
– p2
x y 'OQVKQPCN +PVGNNGEVWCN 2J[UKECN
p p 3p 
2 2 RQVGPVKCN 1
–2
Plus
Zero x
Minus
64. y
–1
1/25/15
1/30/15
2/05/15
2/10/15
2/15/15
2/20/15
2/25/15

3/05/15
3/10/15
3/15/15
3/20/15
3/25/15
3/30/15

x
3p 75. What is the period of the physical cycle?
– p2 p
2
p
2
–2 76. What is the period of the emotional cycle?
77. What is the period of the intellectual cycle?
78. For the period shown, what is the worst day in February for
65. y your author to run in a marathon?
79. For the period shown, what is the best day in March for your
3
author to meet an online friend for the first time?
80. For the period shown, what is the best day in February for
x your author to begin writing this trigonometry chapter?
–3 –1 1 3 5
81. If you extend these sinusoidal graphs to the end of the year, is
there a day when your author should not even bother getting
–3 out of bed?
618  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

82. If you extend the sinusoidal graphs on the previous page at noon and low tide at 6 p.m. If y represents the depth of the
to the end of the year, are there any days where your water x hours after noon, use a cosine function of the form
author is at near-peak physical, emotional, and intellectual y = A cos Bx + D to model the water’s depth.
potential?
y
83. Rounded to the nearest hour, Los Angeles averages 14 hours
of daylight in June, 10 hours in December, and 12 hours in 6
March and September. Let x represent the number of months

Depth (feet)
5
after June and let y represent the number of hours of daylight 4
in month x. Make a graph that displays the information from 3
June of one year to June of the following year. 2
84. A clock with an hour hand that is 15 inches long is hanging on 1
x
a wall. At noon, the distance between the tip of the hour hand 2 4 6 8 10 12
and the ceiling is 23 inches. At 3 p.m., the distance is 38 inches; The Number of Hours after Noon
at 6 p.m., 53 inches; at 9 p.m., 38 inches; and at midnight the
distance is again 23 inches. If y represents the distance Explaining the Concepts
between the tip of the hour hand and the ceiling x hours
89. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the basic
after noon, make a graph that displays the information for
sine curve.
0 … x … 24.
90. What is the amplitude of the sine function? What does this
85. The number of hours of daylight in Boston is given by
tell you about the graph?
2p 91. If you are given the equation of a sine function, how do you
y = 3 sin (x - 79) + 12,
365 determine the period?
where x is the number of days after January 1. 92. What does a phase shift indicate about the graph of a sine
function? How do you determine the phase shift from the
a. What is the amplitude of this function?
function’s equation?
b. What is the period of this function? 93. Describe a general procedure for obtaining the graph of
c. How many hours of daylight are there on the longest day y = A sin(Bx - C).
of the year? 94. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the basic
d. How many hours of daylight are there on the shortest day cosine curve.
of the year? 95. Describe a relationship between the graphs of y = sin x and
e. Graph the function for one period, starting on January 1. y = cos x.
86. The average monthly temperature, y, in degrees 96. Describe the relationship between the graphs of
Fahrenheit, for Juneau, Alaska, can be modeled by y = A cos(Bx - C) and y = A cos(Bx - C) + D.
p 2p 97. Biorhythm cycles provide interesting applications of sinusoidal
y = 16 sin a x - b + 40, where x is the month of the
6 3 graphs. But do you believe in the validity of biorhythms?
year (January = 1, February = 2, c December = 12). Write a few sentences explaining why or why not.
Graph the function for 1 … x … 12. What is the highest
average monthly temperature? In which month does this Technology Exercises
occur? 98. Use a graphing utility to verify any five of the sine curves that
87. The following figure shows the depth of water at the end of a you drew by hand in Exercises 7–30. The amplitude, period,
boat dock. The depth is 6 feet at low tide and 12 feet at high and phase shift should help you to determine appropriate
tide. On a certain day, low tide occurs at 6 a.m. and high tide viewing rectangle settings.
at noon. If y represents the depth of the water x hours after 99. Use a graphing utility to verify any five of the cosine curves
midnight, use a cosine function of the form y = A cos Bx + D that you drew by hand in Exercises 35–52.
to model the water’s depth. 100. Use a graphing utility to verify any two of the sinusoidal
curves with vertical shifts that you drew in Exercises 53–60.
y
In Exercises 101–104, use a graphing utility to graph two periods
of the function.
12
p
Depth (feet)

101. y = 3 sin(2x + p) 102. y = - 2 cos a2px - b

9 2
p
6 103. y = 0.2 sin a x + pb 104. y = 3 sin(2x - p) + 5
10
3 105. Use a graphing utility to graph y = sin x and
x3 x5 p
x y = x - + in a c -p, p, d by [ -2, 2, 1] viewing
6 12 18 24 6 120 2
The Number of Hours after Midnight rectangle. How do the graphs compare?
106. Use a graphing utility to graph y = cos x and
88. The figure at the top of the next column shows the depth of x2 x4 p
water at the end of a boat dock. The depth is 5 feet at high y = 1 - + in a c - p, p, d by [ - 2, 2, 1] viewing
2 24 2
tide and 3 feet at low tide. On a certain day, high tide occurs rectangle. How do the graphs compare?
 Section 5.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions   619

107. Use a graphing utility to graph 114. A ride on a circular Ferris wheel is like riding sinusoidal
sin 2x sin 3x sin 4x graphs.
y = sin x + + +
2 3 4 115. Determine the range of each of the following functions.
p Then give a viewing rectangle, or window, that shows two
in a c -2p, 2p, d by [ - 2, 2, 1] viewing rectangle. How do periods of the function’s graph.
2
these waves compare to the smooth rolling waves of the p
a. f(x) = 3 sin ax + b - 2
basic sine curve? 6
108. Use a graphing utility to graph p
b. g(x) = sin 3 ax + b - 2
sin 3x sin 5x 6
y = sin x - +
9 25 116. Write the equation for a cosine function with amplitude p,
p period 1, and phase shift - 2.
in a c -2p, 2p, d by [ - 2, 2, 1] viewing rectangle. How do
2 In Chapter 6, we will prove the following identities:
these waves compare to the smooth rolling waves of the
basic sine curve? 1 1
sin2 x = - cos 2x
109. The data show the average monthly temperatures for 2 2
Washington, D.C. 1 1
cos2 x = + cos 2x.
2 2
Average Monthly
x (Month) Temperature, °F Use these identities to solve Exercises 117–118.
117. Use the identity for sin2 x to graph one period of
1 (January) 34.6
y = sin2 x.
2 (February) 37.5 118. Use the identity for cos2 x to graph one period of
3 (March) 47.2 y = cos2 x.
4 (April) 56.5 Group Exercise
5 (May) 66.4 119. This exercise is intended to provide some fun with
6 (June) 75.6 biorhythms, regardless of whether you believe they have
7 (July) 80.0 any validity. We will use each member’s chart to determine
biorhythmic compatibility. Before meeting, each group
8 (August) 78.5 member should go online and obtain his or her biorhythm
9 (September) 71.3 chart. The date of the group meeting is the date on which
10 (October) 59.7 your chart should begin. Include 12 months in the plot. At
the meeting, compare differences and similarities among the
11 (November) 49.8
intellectual sinusoidal curves. Using these comparisons, each
12 (December) 39.4 person should find the one other person with whom he or
Source: U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration she would be most intellectually compatible.
a. Use your graphing utility to draw a scatter plot of the Retaining the Concepts
data from x = 1 through x = 12.
120. Find the slant asymptote of
b. Use the SINe REGression feature to find the sinusoidal
2x 2 - 7x - 1
function of the form y = A sin(Bx + C) + D that best f(x) = .
fits the data. x - 2
c. Use your graphing utility to draw the sinusoidal function (Section 3.5, Example 8)
of best fit on the scatter plot. 121. Solve: 8 x + 5 = 4x - 1.
110. Repeat Exercise 109 for data of your choice. The data can (Section 4.4, Example 1)
involve the average monthly temperatures for the region 122. Solve: log 2(2x + 1) - log 2(x - 2) = 1.
where you live or any data whose scatter plot takes the form (Section 4.4, Example 7)
of a sinusoidal function.
Preview Exercises
Critical Thinking Exercises Exercises 123–125 will help you prepare for the material covered
Make Sense? In Exercises 111–114, determine whether each in the next section.
statement makes sense or does not make sense, and explain your p p p
123. Solve: - 6 x + 6 .
reasoning. 2 4 2
3p p
111. When graphing one complete cycle of y = A sin(Bx - C), - +
4 4
I find it easiest to begin my graph on the x@axis. 124. Simplify: .
2
112. When graphing one complete cycle of y = A cos(Bx - C), x
I find it easiest to begin my graph on the x@axis. 125. a. Graph y = - 3 cos for -p … x … 5p.
2
113. Using the equation y = A sin Bx, if I replace either A or b. Consider the reciprocal function of y = -3 cos x2,
B with its opposite, the graph of the resulting equation is namely, y = -3 sec x2. What does your graph from
a reflection of the graph of the original equation about the part (a) indicate about this reciprocal function for
x@axis. x = -p, p, 3p, and 5p?
620  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Section 5.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions

The debate over whether Earth is warming

up is over: Humankind’s reliance
What am I on fossil fuels—coal, fuel oil, and
supposed to learn? natural gas—is to blame for global
After studying this section, you warming. In an earlier chapter,
should be able to: we developed a linear function
that modeled average global
❶ Understand the graph of temperature in terms of
y = tan x.
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
❷ Graph variations of In this section’s Exercise Set
y = tan x. (Exercise 87), you will see
❸ Understand the graph of how trigonometric graphs
y = cot x. reveal interesting patterns in
❹ Graph variations carbon dioxide concentration
of y = cot x. from 1990 through 2008. In this
section, trigonometric graphs
❺ Understand the graphs of
will reveal patterns involving the
y = csc x and y = sec x.
tangent, cotangent, secant, and
❻ Graph variations of cosecant functions.
y = csc x and y = sec x.

❶ Understand the graph The Graph of y = tan x

of y = tan x. The properties of the tangent function discussed in Section 5.4 will help us
determine its graph. Because the tangent function has properties that are different
from sinusoidal functions, its graph differs significantly from those of sine and cosine.
Properties of the tangent function include the following:
• The period is p. It is only necessary to graph y = tan x over an interval of
length p. The remainder of the graph consists of repetitions of that graph at
intervals of p.
• The tangent function is an odd function: tan( -x) = -tan x. The graph is
symmetric with respect to the origin.
p
• The tangent function is undefined at . The graph of y = tan x has a vertical
p 2
asymptote at x = .
2
We obtain the graph of y = tan x using some points on the graph and origin
symmetry. Table 5.5 lists some values of (x, y) on the graph of y = tan x on the
p
interval c 0, b .
2

Table 5.5 Values of (x, y) on the Graph of y = tan x

p p p 5p 17p 89p p
x 0 (75°) (85°) (89°) 1.57
6 4 3 12 36 180 2

√3
y = tan x 0 ≈ 0.6 1 √3 ≈ 1.7 3.7 11.4 57.3 1255.8 undefined
3

#UxKPETGCUGUHTQOVQYCTF pyKPETGCUGUUNQYN[CVƂTUVVJGPOQTGCPFOQTGTCRKFN[

 Section 5.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions   621

y y The graph in Figure 5.78(a)

is based on our observation that
p
8GTVKECN as x increases from 0 toward ,
4 4 2
CU[ORVQVG
x=–  p y increases slowly at first, then
2 2 more and more rapidly. Notice that
y increases without bound as x
x x p
p p approaches . As the figure shows,
p
2
– 2 2 2
–2 –2 the graph of y = tan x has a vertical
8GTVKECN 8GTVKECN p
CU[ORVQVG CU[ORVQVG asymptote at x = .
–4 x=p
–4 x=p 2
The graph of y = tan x can
be completed on the interval
p p p
(a) y = tan x, 0 ≤ x < 2 (b) y = tan x, – 2 < x < 2
p p
Figure 5.78 Graphing the tangent function a- , b by using origin
2 2
symmetry. Figure 5.78(b) shows
the result of reflecting the graph in Figure 5.78(a) about the origin. The graph of
p
y = tan x has another vertical asymptote at x = - . Notice that y decreases
p 2
without bound as x approaches - .
2
Because the period of the tangent function is p, the graph in Figure 5.78(b)
shows one complete period of y = tan x. We obtain the complete graph of
y = tan x by repeating the graph in Figure 5.78(b) to the left and right over
intervals of p. The resulting graph and its main characteristics are shown in the
following box:

The Tangent Curve: The Graph of y = tan x and Its Characteristics

Characteristics
• Period: p
p
• Domain: All real numbers except odd multiples of
2
• Range: All real numbers
p
• Vertical asymptotes at odd multiples of
2
• An x@intercept occurs midway between each pair of consecutive asymptotes.
• Odd function with origin symmetry
1 3
• Points on the graph and of the way between consecutive asymptotes have
4 4
y@coordinates of -1 and 1, respectively.

x
5p
– 2 –2p – 3p –p p
–2
p p 3p 2p 5p
2 2 2 2
–2

–4
622  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

❷ Graph variations of y = tan x. Graphing Variations of y = tan x

We use the characteristics of the tangent curve to graph tangent functions of the
form y = A tan(Bx - C).

Graphing y = A tan(Bx − C), B + 0

y=AVCP Bx–C 1. Find two consecutive asymptotes by finding an interval
containing one period:
p p
yEQQTFKPCVG - 6 Bx - C 6 .
KUA 2 2
Bx–C=– p Bx–C=p
A pair of consecutive asymptotes occurs at
p p
x Bx - C = - and Bx - C = .
2 2
yEQQTFKPCVGKU–A
xKPVGTEGRV 2. Identify an x@intercept, midway between the consecutive
OKFYC[
DGVYGGP asymptotes.
CU[ORVQVGU 1 3
3. Find the points on the graph and of the way between the
4 4
consecutive asymptotes. These points have y@coordinates of
-A and A, respectively.
4. Use steps 1–3 to graph one full period of the function. Add
additional cycles to the left or right as needed.

Example 1 Graphing a Tangent Function

x
Graph y = 2 tan for -p 6 x 6 3p.
2

Solution
Refer to Figure 5.79 as you read each step.
Step 1 Find two consecutive asymptotes. We do this by finding an interval
containing one period.
p x p p p
- 6 6 Set up the inequality - 6 variable expression in tangent 6 .
2 2 2 2 2
-p 6 x 6 p Multiply all parts by 2 and solve for x.

An interval containing one period is ( -p, p). Thus, two consecutive asymptotes
occur at x = -p and x = p.
Step 2 Identify an x@intercept, midway between the consecutive asymptotes.
y Midway between x = -p and x = p is x = 0. An x@intercept is 0 and the graph
passes through (0, 0).
1 3
Step 3 Find points on the graph and of the way between the consecutive
4 y=VCP x
4 4
 asymptotes. These points have y@coordinates of −A and A. Because A, the
x
2 coefficient of the tangent in y = 2 tan , is 2, these points have y@coordinates of
2
p p
x -2 and 2. The graph passes through a- , -2b and a , 2b .
–p p 2p 3p 2 2
–2 Step 4 Use steps 1–3 to graph one full period of the function. We use the two
consecutive asymptotes, x = -p and x = p, an x@intercept of 0, and points midway
–4 between the x@intercept and asymptotes with y@coordinates of -2 and 2. We graph
x
one period of y = 2 tan from -p to p. In order to graph for -p 6 x 6 3p, we
2
Figure 5.79 The graph is shown for continue the pattern and extend the graph another full period to the right. The
two full periods. graph is shown in Figure 5.79. l l l
 Section 5.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions   623

p 3p
Check Point 1 Graph y = 3 tan 2x for - 6 x 6 .
4 4

Example 2 Graphing a Tangent Function

p
Graph two full periods of y = tan ax + b.
4

y Solution
p
y=VCP x+ p The graph of y = tan ax + b is the graph of y = tan x shifted horizontally to the
4 4
p
left units. Refer to Figure 5.80 as you read each step.
2 4
Step 1 Find two consecutive asymptotes. We do this by finding an interval
x
– 3p – p4 p 3p 5p containing one period.
4 4 4 4
–2 p p p p p
- 6 x + 6 Set up the inequality - 6 variable expression in tangent 6 .
2 4 2 2 2
–4
p p p p p
- - 6 x 6 - Subtract from all parts and solve for x.
2 4 2 4 4
Figure 5.80 The graph is shown for 3p p p p 2p p 3p
two full periods. - 6 x 6 Simplify: - - = - - = -
4 4 2 4 4 4 4
p p 2p p p
and - = - = .
2 4 4 4 4

3p p
An interval containing one period is a - , b . Thus, two consecutive asymptotes
4 4
3p p
occur at x = - and x = .
4 4
Step 2 Identify an x@intercept, midway between the consecutive asymptotes.

3p p 2p
- + -
4 4 4 2p p
x@intercept = = = - = -
2 2 8 4

p p
An x@intercept is - and the graph passes through a - , 0b .
4 4
1 3
Step 3 Find points on the graph and of the way between the consecutive
4 4
asymptotes. These points have y@coordinates of −A and A. Because A, the
p
coefficient of the tangent in y = tan ax + b , is 1, these points have y@coordinates
4
of -1 and 1. They are shown as blue dots in Figure 5.80.
Step 4 Use steps 1–3 to graph one full period of the function. We use the
3p p
two consecutive asymptotes, x = - and x = , to graph one full period of
p 4 4
p 3p
y = tan ax + b from - to . We graph two full periods by continuing the
4 4 4
pattern and extending the graph another full period to the right. The graph is
shown in Figure 5.80. l l l

p
Check Point 2 Graph two full periods of y = tan ax - b.
2
624  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

❸ Understand the graph The Graph of y = cot x

of y = cot x. Like the tangent function, the cotangent function, y = cot x, has a period of p. The
graph and its main characteristics are shown in the following box.

The Cotangent Curve: The Graph of y = cot x and Its Characteristics

y Characteristics
• Period: p
• Domain: All real numbers except integral multiples of p
• Range: All real numbers
• Vertical asymptotes at integral multiples of p
1
x
• An x@intercept occurs midway between each pair of consecutive
–p –2
p
–1
p p 3p 2p asymptotes.
2 2
• Odd function with origin symmetry
1 3
• Points on the graph and of the way between consecutive
4 4
asymptotes have y@coordinates of 1 and -1, respectively.

❹ Graph variations of y = cot x. Graphing Variations of y = cot x

We use the characteristics of the cotangent curve to graph cotangent functions of the
form y = A cot(Bx - C).

Graphing y = A cot(Bx − C), B + 0

y=AEQV Bx–C 1. Find two consecutive asymptotes by finding an interval
containing one full period:
yEQQTFKPCVG 0 6 Bx - C 6 p.
KUA
Bx–C= Bx–C=p A pair of consecutive asymptotes occurs at
Bx - C = 0 and Bx - C = p.
x 2. Identify an x@intercept, midway between the consecutive
xKPVGTEGRV asymptotes.
OKFYC[ 1 3
DGVYGGP 3. Find the points on the graph and of the way between the
4 4
CU[ORVQVGU
consecutive asymptotes. These points have y@coordinates of
yEQQTFKPCVG A and -A, respectively.
KU–A
4. Use steps 1–3 to graph one full period of the function. Add
additional cycles to the left or right as needed.

Example 3 Graphing a Cotangent Function

Graph y = 3 cot 2x.

Solution
Step 1 Find two consecutive asymptotes. We do this by finding an interval
containing one period.

0 6 2x 6 p Set up the inequality 0 6 variable expression in cotangent 6 p.

p
0 6 x 6 Divide all parts by 2 and solve for x.
2
 Section 5.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions   625

p
An interval containing one period is a0, b . Thus, two consecutive asymptotes
2
p
occur at x = 0 and x = , shown in Figure 5.81.
2
y
Step 2 Identify an x@intercept, midway between the consecutive asymptotes.
p p p
Midway between x = 0 and x = is x = . An x@intercept is and the graph
2 4 4
p
3 passes through a , 0b .
4
1 3
Step 3 Find points on the graph and of the way between consecutive
x 4 4
p p asymptotes. These points have y@coordinates of A and −A. Because A, the
4 2
coefficient of the cotangent in y = 3 cot 2x, is 3, these points have y@coordinates
of 3 and -3. They are shown as blue dots in Figure 5.81.
–3
Step 4 Use steps 1–3 to graph one full period of the function. We use the two
p
consecutive asymptotes, x = 0 and x = , to graph one full period of y = 3 cot 2x.
2
Figure 5.81 The graph of y = 3 cot 2x This curve is repeated to the left and right, as shown in Figure 5.81. l l l

1 p
Check Point 3 Graph y = cot x.
2 2

❺ Understand the graphs of The Graphs of y = csc x and y = sec x

y = csc x and y = sec x. We obtain the graphs of the cosecant and secant curves by using the reciprocal
identities
1 1
csc x = and sec x = .
sin x cos x
1
The identity csc x = tells us that the value of the cosecant function y = csc x
sin x
at a given value of x equals the reciprocal of the corresponding value of the sine
function, provided that the value of the sine function is not 0. If the value of sin x is 0,
then at each of these values of x, the cosecant function is not defined. A vertical
asymptote is associated with each of these values on the graph of y = csc x.
We obtain the graph of y = csc x by taking reciprocals of the y@values in the
graph of y = sin x. Vertical asymptotes of y = csc x occur at the x@intercepts of
y = sin x. Likewise, we obtain the graph of y = sec x by taking the reciprocal of
y = cos x. Vertical asymptotes of y = sec x occur at the x@intercepts of y = cos x.
The graphs of y = csc x and y = sec x and their key characteristics are shown in the
following boxes. We have used dashed red curves to graph y = sin x and y = cos x
first, drawing vertical asymptotes through the x@intercepts.

The Cosecant Curve: The Graph of y = csc x and Its Characteristics

y
Characteristics
• Period: 2p
y=EUEx • Domain: All real numbers except integral
y=UKPx multiples of p
3p
• Range: All real numbers y such that y … -1 or
p
–2 1
2 y Ú 1: ( - ∞, -1] ∪ [1, ∞)
x
–2p 3p
– 2 –p
–1
p p 2p • Vertical asymptotes at integral multiples of p
2
• Odd function, csc(-x) = -csc x, with origin
symmetry
y=EUEx
626  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

The Secant Curve: The Graph of y = sec x and Its Characteristics

y
Characteristics
• Period: 2p
p
• Domain: All real numbers except odd multiples of
y=UGEx 2
y=EQUx • Range: All real numbers y such that y … -1 or
1 y Ú 1: ( - ∞, -1] ∪ [1, ∞)
x p
–2p 3p –p p p 3p 2p • Vertical asymptotes at odd multiples of
– 2 –2 –1 2
p
2 2
• Even function, sec( -x) = sec x, with y@axis symmetry
y=UGEx

❻ Graph variations of y = csc x Graphing Variations of y = csc x and y = sec x

and y = sec x. We use graphs of functions involving the corresponding reciprocal functions to
obtain graphs of cosecant and secant functions. To graph a cosecant or secant curve,
y begin by graphing the function where cosecant or secant is replaced by its reciprocal
function. For example, to graph y = 2 csc 2x, we use the graph of y = 2 sin 2x.
x x
Likewise, to graph y = -3 sec , we use the graph of y = -3 cos .
/KPKOWOQP 2 2
UKPGTGNCVKXG Figure 5.82 illustrates how we use a sine curve to obtain a cosecant curve.
OCZKOWOQP Notice that
1 EQUGECPV
• x@intercepts on the red sine curve correspond to vertical asymptotes of the
x
p p 2p blue cosecant curve.
–1 2
• A maximum point on the red sine curve corresponds to a minimum point on a
/CZKOWOQP
UKPGTGNCVKXG continuous portion of the blue cosecant curve.
OKPKOWOQP • A minimum point on the red sine curve corresponds to a maximum point on a
EQUGECPV
continuous portion of the blue cosecant curve.

xKPVGTEGRVUEQTTGURQPFVQXGTVKECNCU[ORVQVGU Example 4 Using a Sine Curve to Obtain a Cosecant Curve

Figure 5.82 Use the graph of y = 2 sin 2x in Figure 5.83 to obtain the graph of y = 2 csc 2x.

y=UKPx
2
y

x
–p – p2 p p
4 2
–2
2

Figure 5.83
x
–p – p2 p p
2
–2 Solution
We begin our work in Figure 5.84 by showing the given graph, the graph of
y = 2 sin 2x, using dashed red lines. The x@intercepts of y = 2 sin 2x correspond
to the vertical asymptotes of y = 2 csc 2x. Thus, we draw vertical asymptotes
Figure 5.84 Using a sine curve to through the x@intercepts, shown in Figure 5.84. Using the asymptotes as guides, we
graph y = 2 csc 2x sketch the graph of y = 2 csc 2x in Figure 5.84. l l l
 Section 5.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions   627

y
Check Point 4 Use the graph of y=UKP x+ p
p 1
y = sin ax + b , shown on the right, to
4
p 3p 7p
obtain the graph of y = csc ax + b . 4 4
4 x
5p 9p
– p4 p
4 4 4

–1

We use a cosine curve to obtain a secant curve in exactly the same way we used a
sine curve to obtain a cosecant curve. Thus,
• x@intercepts on the cosine curve correspond to vertical asymptotes on the
secant curve.
• A maximum point on the cosine curve corresponds to a minimum point on a
continuous portion of the secant curve.
• A minimum point on the cosine curve corresponds to a maximum point on a
continuous portion of the secant curve.

Example 5 Graphing a Secant Function

x
Graph y = -3 sec for -p 6 x 6 5p.
2
Solution
x
We begin by graphing the function y = -3 cos , where secant has been replaced
2
by cosine, its reciprocal function. This equation is of the form y = A cos Bx with
A = -3 and B = 12.

6JGOCZKOWOXCNWGQHyKU
amplitude: A = –3 = 3 CPFVJGOKPKOWOKU–

2p 2p 'CEJE[ENGKUQHNGPIVJp
y period: = = 4p
B 1
2
6
x 4p
y=–UGE 
4
We use quarter-periods, , or p, to find the x@values for the five key points.
4
Starting with x = 0, the x@values are 0, p, 2p, 3p, and 4p. Evaluating the function
2 y=–EQU x
x
 y = -3 cos at each of these values of x, the key points are
2
x (0, -3), (p, 0), (2p, 3), (3p, 0), and (4p, -3).
–p p 2p 3p 4p 5p
x
–2
We use these key points to graph y = -3 cos from 0 to 4p, shown using a dashed
2 x
y=–UGE x
 red line in Figure 5.85. In order to graph y = -3 sec for -p 6 x 6 5p, extend
–4 2
the dashed red graph of the cosine function p units to the left and p units to the
right. Now use this dashed red graph to obtain the graph of the corresponding
–6
secant function, its reciprocal function. Draw vertical asymptotes through the
x
Figure 5.85 Using a cosine curve to x@intercepts. Using these asymptotes as guides, the graph of y = -3 sec is shown
x 2
graph y = - 3 sec in blue in Figure 5.85. l l l
2

3p 3p
Check Point 5 Graph y = 2 sec 2x for - 6 x 6 .
4 4
628  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

The Six Curves of Trigonometry

Table 5.6 summarizes the graphs of the six trigonometric functions. Below each of
the graphs is a description of the domain, range, and period of the function.

Table 5.6 Graphs of the Six Trigonometric Functions

y

y y
y=UKPx y=EQUx 4
1 1
y=VCPx
2

–p
x x x
p
–2
p 3p –p p 2p p 2p
2 2
–2
–1 –1
–4

Domain: all real numbers, Domain: all real numbers, Domain: all real numbers
(–∞, ∞) (–∞, ∞) except odd multiples of p2
Range: [–1, 1] Range: [–1, 1] Range: all real numbers
Period: 2p Period: 2p Period: p

 
y=EUEx= y=UGEx=
y y=EQVx y UKPx y EQUx

4 4 4

2 2 2

x x x
p
–2
p 3p p –p p 2p
2 2 2
–2

–4

Domain: all real numbers Domain: all real numbers Domain: all real numbers
except integral multiples of p except integral multiples of p except odd multiples of p2
Range: all real numbers Range: (–∞, –1] ∪ [1, ∞) Range: (–∞, –1] ∪ [1, ∞)
Period: p Period: 2p Period: 2p

Concept and Vocabulary Check

Fill in each blank so that the resulting statement is true.

1 p
1. In order to graph y = tan 2x, an interval containing
2 2. An interval containing one period of y = tan ax - b
p p 2
one period is found by solving - 6 2x 6 . is . Thus, two consecutive asymptotes occur
2 2
at x = and x = .
An interval containing one period is . Thus,
two consecutive asymptotes occur at x =
and x = .
 Section 5.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions   629

p 5. It is easiest to graph y = 3 csc 2x by first graphing

3. In order to graph y = 3 cot x, an interval
2 y = .
p
containing one period is found by solving 0 6 x 6 p. 6. It is easiest to graph y = 2 sec px by first
2
An interval containing one period is . Thus, graphing .
x x
two consecutive asymptotes occur at x = 7. True or false: The graphs of y = sec and y = cos
and x = . 2 2
p are identical.
4. An interval containing one period of y = 4 cot ax + b 8. True or false: The graph of y = 2 sin 2x has an
4
p p
is . Thus, two consecutive asymptotes occur x@intercept at , so x = is a vertical asymptote
2 2
at x = and x = . of y = 2 csc 2x.

Exercise Set 5.6

Practice Exercises
In Exercises 1–4, the graph of a tangent function is given. Select the equation for each graph from the following options:
p p
y = tan ax + b, y = tan(x + p), y = -tan x, y = - tan ax - b.
2 2

1. y 2. y 3. y 4. y

4 4 4 4

2 2 2

x x x x
– p2 p
2
p – p2 p
2
p – p2 p
2
p – p2 p
2
p

–2 –2 –2

–4 –4 –4

In Exercises 5–12, graph two periods of the given tangent function.

x x 1
5. y = 3 tan 6. y = 2 tan 7. y = tan 2x 8. y = 2 tan 2x
4 4 2
1 1 p
9. y = - 2 tan x 10. y = -3 tan x 11. y = tan(x - p) 12. y = tan ax - b
2 2 4
In Exercises 13–16, the graph of a cotangent function is given. Select the equation for each graph from the following options:
p p
y = cot ax + b, y = cot(x + p), y = -cot x, y = - cot ax - b.
2 2
13. y 14. y 15. y 16. y

4 4 4

2 2 2

x x x x
– p2 p
2
p – p2 p
2
p – p2 p
2
p – p2 p
2
p

–2 –2 –2

–4 –4 –4
630  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

In Exercises 17–24, graph two periods of the given cotangent 1

37. y = -2 csc px 38. y = - csc px
function. 2
1 1 3
17. y = 2 cot x 18. y = cot x 39. y = - sec px 40. y = - sec px
2 2 2
1 p
19. y = cot 2x 20. y = 2 cot 2x 41. y = csc(x - p) 42. y = csc ax - b
2 2
p p
21. y = - 3 cot x 22. y = - 2 cot x p
2 4 43. y = 2 sec(x + p) 44. y = 2 sec ax + b
2
p p
23. y = 3 cot ax + b 24. y = 3 cot ax + b
2 4 Practice Plus
In Exercises 25–28, use each graph to obtain the graph of the In Exercises 45–52, graph two periods of each function.
corresponding reciprocal function, cosecant or secant. Give the p p
equation of the function for the graph that you obtain. 45. y = 2 tan ax - b + 1 46. y = 2 cot ax + b - 1
6 6
25. y p p
47. y = sec a2x + b - 1 48. y = csc a2x - b + 1
x
2 2
1 y=–  UKP  49. y = csc x 50. y = sec x
51. y = 0 cot 12 x 0 52. y = 0 tan 12 x 0
–4p
x In Exercises 53–54, let f(x) = 2 sec x, g(x) = - 2 tan x, and
–p p 4p p
h(x) = 2x - .
2
53. Graph two periods of
–1
y = ( f ∘ h)(x).
26. y 54. Graph two periods of
y=UKPx
y = (g ∘ h)(x).
3
In Exercises 55–58, use a graph to solve each equation for
– p4 p -2p … x … 2p.
2
x 55. tan x = -1 56. cot x = -1
3p
– p8 p
8
p
4 8
57. csc x = 1 58. sec x = 1

–3
Application Exercises
27. y 59. An ambulance with a rotating beam of light is parked 12 feet
from a building. The function
2
y= 
EQUpx d = 12 tan 2pt

describes the distance, d, in feet, of the rotating beam of light
x from point C after t seconds.
–1 1 a. Graph the function on the interval [0, 2].
b. For what values of t in [0, 2] is the function undefined?
–2 What does this mean in terms of the rotating beam of light
in the figure shown?
28. y
y=–EQU p x
B
3

x
–4 –2 2 4 d

–3
2pt

In Exercises 29–44, graph two periods of the given cosecant or C

secant function. A 12 feet

29. y = 3 csc x 30. y = 2 csc x

1 x 3 x
31. y = csc 32. y = csc
2 2 2 4
33. y = 2 sec x 34. y = 3 sec x
x x
35. y = sec 36. y = sec
3 2
 Section 5.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions   631

60. The angle of elevation from the top of a house to a jet flying 72. Scientists record brain activity by attaching electrodes to
2 miles above the house is x radians. If d represents the the scalp and then connecting these electrodes to a machine.
horizontal distance, in miles, of the jet from the house, express The brain activity recorded with this machine is shown in the
d in terms of a trigonometric function of x. Then graph the three graphs. Which trigonometric functions would be most
function for 0 6 x 6 p. appropriate for describing the oscillations in brain activity?
Describe similarities and differences among these functions
61. Your best friend is marching with a band and has asked
when modeling brain activity when awake, during dreaming
you to film him. The figure below shows that you have set
sleep, and during non-dreaming sleep.
yourself up 10 feet from the street where your friend will
be passing from left to right. If d represents your distance,
in feet, from your friend and x is the radian measure of During During
the angle shown, express d in terms of a trigonometric dreaming non-dreaming
p p Awake sleep sleep
function of x. Then graph the function for - 6 x 6 .
2 2
Negative angles indicate that your marching buddy is on
your left.
Human Brain Activity

Technology Exercises
73. Use a graphing utility to verify any two of the tangent curves
that you drew by hand in Exercises 5–12.
74. Use a graphing utility to verify any two of the cotangent
10 feet curves that you drew by hand in Exercises 17–24.
d
x
75. Use a graphing utility to verify any two of the cosecant curves
that you drew by hand in Exercises 29–44.
76. Use a graphing utility to verify any two of the secant curves
that you drew by hand in Exercises 29–44.
In Exercises 62–64, sketch a reasonable graph that models the
given situation. In Exercises 77–82, use a graphing utility to graph each function.
62. The number of hours of daylight per day in your hometown Use a viewing rectangle that shows the graph for at least two
over a two-year period periods.

63. The motion of a diving board vibrating 10 inches in each x

77. y = tan 78. y = tan 4x
direction per second just after someone has dived off 4

64. The distance of a rotating beam of light from a point on a wall x

79. y = cot 2x 80. y = cot
(See the figure for Exercise 59.) 2

1 1
Explaining the Concepts 81. y = tan px 82. y = tan(px + 1)
2 2
65. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the basic
tangent curve.
In Exercises 83–86, use a graphing utility to graph each
66. If you are given the equation of a tangent function, how do pair of functions in the same viewing rectangle. Use
you find a pair of consecutive asymptotes? a viewing rectangle that shows the graphs for at least
two periods.
67. If you are given the equation of a tangent function, how do
you identify an x@intercept? x x
83. y = 0.8 sin and y = 0.8 csc
2 2
68. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the basic
cotangent curve.
p p
84. y = -2.5 sin x and y = -2.5 csc x
69. If you are given the equation of a cotangent function, how do 3 3
you find a pair of consecutive asymptotes?
70. Explain how to determine the range of y = csc x from the 85. y = 4 cos a2x -
p p
b and y = 4 sec a2x - b
graph. What is the range? 6 6
71. Explain how to use a sine curve to obtain a cosecant curve.
Why can the same procedure be used to obtain a secant curve p p
86. y = -3.5 cos apx - b and y = -3.5 sec apx - b
from a cosine curve? 6 6
632  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

87. Carbon dioxide particles in our atmosphere trap heat and 97. Determine the range of the following functions. Then give a
raise the planet’s temperature. Even if all greenhouse- viewing rectangle, or window, that shows two periods of the
gas emissions miraculously ended today, the planet would function’s graph.
continue to warm through the rest of the century because p
of the amount of carbon we have already added to the a. f(x) = sec a3x + b
2
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide accounts for about half of global 1
warming. The function b. g(x) = 3 sec p ax + b
2
y = 2.5 sin 2px + 0.0216x 2 + 0.654x + 316 98. For x 7 0, what effect does 2-x in y = 2-x sin x have on the
models carbon dioxide concentration, y, in parts per million, graph of y = sin x? What kind of behavior can be modeled
where x = 0 represents January 1960; x = 12 1
, February by a function such as y = 2-x sin x?
1960; x = 12, March 1960; . . . , x = 1, January 1961; x = 13
2
12 ,
February 1961; and so on. Use a graphing utility to graph Retaining the Concepts
the function in a [30, 48, 5] by [310, 420, 5] viewing rectangle. 99. Consider the equations
Describe what the graph reveals about carbon dioxide 1 1 4 .
concentration from 1990 through 2008. y1 = - and y2 = 2
x - 2 x + 2 x - 4
1
88. Graph y = sin in a [ - 0.2, 0.2, 0.01] by [ - 1.2, 1.2, 0.01] Find all values of x for which y1 = y2.
x
viewing rectangle. What is happening as x approaches 0 from (Section 1.2, Example 6)
the left or the right? Explain this behavior. 100. The toll to a bridge costs $8.00. Commuters who frequently
use the bridge have the option of purchasing a monthly
Critical Thinking Exercises discount pass for $36.00. With the discount pass, the toll is
Make Sense? In Exercises 89–92, determine whether each reduced to $5.00. For how many bridge crossings per month
statement makes sense or does not make sense, and explain your will the cost without the discount pass be the same as the
reasoning. cost with pass? What will be the monthly cost for each
option? (Section 1.3, Example 3)
89. I use the pattern
101. Write the point-slope form and the slope-intercept form of
asymptote, - A, x@intercept, A, asymptote the line passing through ( -1, - 2) and ( - 3, 4). (Section 2.3,
to graph one full period of y = A tan(Bx - C). Example 3)
90. After using the four-step procedure to graph
p Preview Exercises
y = -cot ax + b, I checked my graph by verifying it was
4 Exercises 102–104 will help you prepare for the material covered
p
the graph of y = cot x shifted left unit and reflected about in the next section.
4
the x@axis. p p
102. a. Graph y = sin x for - … x … .
91. I used the graph of y = 3 cos 2x to obtain the graph of 2 2
y = 3 csc 2x. b. Based on your graph in part (a), does y = sin x have an
92. I used a tangent function to model the average monthly p p
inverse function if the domain is restricted to c - , d ?
temperature of New York City, where x = 1 represents 2 2
Explain your answer.
January, x = 2 represents February, and so on. p p
c. Determine the angle in the interval c - , d whose sine
2 2
In Exercises 93–94, write an equation for each blue graph. is - 12. Identify this information as a point on your graph
93. y 94. y in part (a).

103. a. Graph y = cos x for 0 … x … p.

4 4 b. Based on your graph in part (a), does y = cos x have
an inverse function if the domain is restricted to [0, p]?
2 2 Explain your answer.
4p
3
c. Determine the angle in the interval [0, p] whose cosine is
x x 23
p 2p 2p 2p 8p - . Identify this information as a point on your graph
3 3 3 3 2
–2 –2 in part (a).
p p
104. a. Graph y = tan x for - 6 x 6 .
–4 –4 2 2
b. Based on your graph in part (a), does y = tan x have an
p p
inverse function if the domain is restricted to a - , b?
2 2
Explain your answer.
In Exercises 95–96, write the equation for a cosecant function
p p
satisfying the given conditions. c. Determine the angle in the interval a - , b whose
2 2
95. period: 3p; range: ( - ∞ , - 2] ∪ [2, ∞ ) tangent is - 23. Identify this information as a point on
96. period: 2; range: ( - ∞ , -p] ∪ [p, ∞ ) your graph in part (a).
 Section 5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions   633

Section 5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Movies are very much a visual medium.

Though music and sound effects are
What am I important to the experience, the power of
supposed to learn? film is captured by the phrase “watching the
After studying this section, you movie.” Where in the theater should you sit to
should be able to: maximize the visual impact of the astonishing
worlds created by film? In this section’s
❶ Understand and use the Exercise Set (Exercises 93 and 94), you will
inverse sine function.
see how an inverse trigonometric function can
❷ Understand and use the enhance your movie-going experience.
inverse cosine function.
❸ Understand and use the
inverse tangent function.
❹ Use a calculator to
evaluate inverse Star Wars Episode VII:
The Force Awakens
trigonometric functions.
❺ Find exact values of
A Brief Review • Inverse Functions
composite functions with
inverse trigonometric Here are some helpful things to remember from our earlier discussion of inverse
functions. functions.
• If no horizontal line intersects the graph of a function more than once, the
function is one-to-one and has an inverse function.
• If the point (a, b) is on the graph of f, then the point (b, a) is on the graph of
the inverse function, denoted f -1. The graph of f -1 is a reflection of the graph
of f about the line y = x.
For more detail, see Section 2.7.

❶ Understand and use the inverse The Inverse Sine Function

sine function. Figure 5.86 shows the graph of y = sin x. Can you see that every horizontal line that
can be drawn between -1 and 1 intersects the graph infinitely many times? Thus, the
sine function is not one-to-one and has no inverse function.

1 y=UKPx

x
y y=UKPx–  ≤x≤
p p
 – 3p –p – p2 p p 3p 2p 3p
2 2 2 2

1
–1

Figure 5.86 The horizontal line test shows that the sine function is not
x
one-to-one and has no inverse function.
– p2 p
2

In Figure 5.87, we have taken a portion of the sine curve, restricting the domain
–1 p p
of the sine function to - … x … . With this restricted domain, every horizontal
Figure 5.87 The restricted sine
2 2
function passes the horizontal line test. It line that can be drawn between -1 and 1 intersects the graph exactly once. Thus, the
is one-to-one and has an inverse function. restricted function passes the horizontal line test and is one-to-one.
634  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

p p
On the restricted domain - … x … , y = sin x has an inverse function.
2 2
The inverse of the restricted sine function is called the inverse sine function. Two
notations are commonly used to denote the inverse sine function:
y = sin-1 x or y = arcsin x.
In this text, we will use y = sin-1 x. This notation has the same symbol as the inverse
function notation f -1(x).

The Inverse Sine Function

The inverse sine function, denoted by sin-1, is the inverse of the restricted sine
p p
function y = sin x, - … x … . Thus,
2 2
y = sin-1 x means sin y = x,
p p
where - … y … and -1 … x … 1. We read y = sin-1 x as “y equals the
2 2
inverse sine at x.”

Great Question!
1
Is sin-1 x the same thing as ?
sin x
1 1
No. The notation y = sin-1 x does not mean y = . The notation y = , or the
sin x sin x
-1
reciprocal of the sine function, is written y = (sin x) and means y = csc x.

+PXGTUGUKPGHWPEVKQP 4GEKRTQECNQHUKPGHWPEVKQP

1
y = sin–1 x y = (sin x)–1 = = csc x
sin x

y=UKPx One way to graph y = sin-1 x is to take points on the graph of the restricted sine
– p ≤x≤ p function and reverse the order of the coordinates. For example, Figure 5.88 shows
y p p
Q p2 , 1R that a - , -1b , (0, 0), and a , 1b are on the graph of the restricted sine function.
1
2 2 p p
Reversing the order of the coordinates gives a -1, - b , (0, 0), and a1, b . We now
– p2 2 2
(0, 0)
x use these three points to sketch the inverse sine function. The graph of y = sin-1 x
p
2 is shown in Figure 5.89.
–1
Another way to obtain the graph of y = sin-1 x is to reflect the graph of the
Domain: S– p2 , p2 T restricted sine function about the line y = x, shown in Figure 5.90. The red graph is
Q– p2 , –1R
Range: [–1, 1] the restricted sine function and the blue graph is the graph of y = sin-1 x.

Figure 5.88 The restricted sine y y=x

function y Q1, p2 R
p
2
p Q1, p2 R
2 1 Q p2 , 1R
–x
y=UKP y=UKPx
y=UKP–x
x
(0, 0)
x – p2 –1 1 p
2
–1 1
Q– p2 , –1R –1
Domain: [–1, 1]
– p2
Q–1, – p2 R – p2 Range: S– p2 , p2 T Q–1, – p2 R

Figure 5.89 The graph of the inverse Figure 5.90 Using a reflection to obtain
sine function the graph of the inverse sine function
 Section 5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions   635

Exact values of sin-1 x can be found by thinking of sin−1 x as the angle in the
P P
interval c − , d whose sine is x. For example, we can use the two endpoints on
2 2
the blue graph of the inverse sine function in Figure 5.89 to write
p p
sin–1(–1) = – and sin–1 1 = .
2 2
6JGCPINGYJQUG 6JGCPINGYJQUG
UKPGKU–KU– p UKPGKUKU p
 

Because we are thinking of sin-1 x in terms of an angle, we will represent such an

angle by u.

Finding Exact Values of sin−1 x

1. Let u = sin-1 x.
p p
2. Rewrite u = sin-1 x as sin u = x, where - … u … .
2 2
p p
3. Use the exact values in Table 5.7 to find the value of u in c - , d that
satisfies sin u = x. 2 2
P P
Table 5.7 Exact Values for sin U,− " U "
2 2
p p p p p p p p
U - - - - 0
2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2

23 22 1 1 22 23
sin U -1 - - - 0 1
2 2 2 2 2 2

Example 1 Finding the Exact Value of an Inverse Sine Function

22
Find the exact value of sin-1 .
2
Solution
Step 1 Let U = sin−1 x. Thus,
22
u = sin-1 .
2
p p 22
We must find the angle u, - … u … , whose sine equals .
2 2 2
P P
Step 2 Rewrite U = sin−1 x as sin U = x, where − " U " . Using the
2 2
-1 22
definition of the inverse sine function, we rewrite u = sin as
2
22 p p
sin u = , where - … u … .
2 2 2
P P
Step 3 Use the exact values in Table 5.7 to find the value of U in c − , d that
2 2
p p
satisfies sin U = x. Table 5.7 shows that the only angle in the interval c - , d that
2 2
22 p p 22
satisfies sin u = is . Thus, u = . Because u, in step 1, represents sin-1 ,
we conclude that 2 4 4 2

22 p p p 22 p
sin-1 = . The angle in c - , d whose sine is is . l l l
2 4 2 2 2 4
636  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

23
Check Point 1 Find the exact value of sin-1 .
2

Example 2 Finding the Exact Value of an Inverse Sine Function

1
Find the exact value of sin-1 a - b .
2
Solution
Step 1 Let U = sin−1 x. Thus,
1
u = sin-1 a - b .
2
p p 1
We must find the angle u, - … u … , whose sine equals - .
2 2 2
P P
Step 2 Rewrite U = sin−1 x as sin U = x, where − " U " . We rewrite
2 2
-1 1
u = sin a - b and obtain
2
1 p p
sin u = - , where - … u … .
2 2 2

P P
Step 3 Use the exact values in Table 5.7 to find the value of U in c − , d that
2 2
satisfies sin U = x. Table 5.7 on the previous page shows that the only angle in the
p p 1 p
interval c - , d that satisfies sin u = - is - . Thus,
2 2 2 6

1 p
sin-1 a - b = - . l l l
2 6

22
Check Point 2 Find the exact value of sin-1 a - b.
2

Some inverse sine expressions cannot be evaluated. Because the domain of the
inverse sine function is [-1, 1], it is only possible to evaluate sin-1 x for values of x
in this domain. Thus, sin-1 3 cannot be evaluated. There is no angle whose sine is 3.

❷ Understand and use the inverse The Inverse Cosine Function

cosine function. Figure 5.91 shows how we restrict the domain of the cosine function so that it
becomes one-to-one and has an inverse function. Restrict the domain to the interval
[0, p], shown by the dark blue graph. Over this interval, the restricted cosine function
passes the horizontal line test and has an inverse function.

y
y=EQUx
1 ≤x≤p

x
–2p – 3p –p – p2 p p 3p 2p
2 2 2

Figure 5.91 y = cos x is one-to-one –1

on the interval [0, p].
 Section 5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions   637

The Inverse Cosine Function

The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos-1, is the inverse of the restricted
cosine function y = cos x, 0 … x … p. Thus,
y = cos-1 x means cos y = x,
where 0 … y … p and -1 … x … 1.

One way to graph y = cos-1 x is to take points on the graph of the restricted
cosine function and reverse the order of the coordinates. For example, Figure 5.92
p
shows that (0, 1), a , 0b , and (p, -1) are on the graph of the restricted cosine
2 p
function. Reversing the order of the coordinates gives (1, 0), a0, b , and ( -1, p).
2
We now use these three points to sketch the inverse cosine function. The graph of
y = cos-1 x is shown in Figure 5.93. You can also obtain this graph by reflecting the
graph of the restricted cosine function about the line y = x.

(–1, p) p
y
(0, 1) y=EQUx
1 ≤x≤p
Q0, p2 R
p
Q p2 , 0R p 2 y=EQU–x
x
p
2
(1, 0)
–1 x
(p, –1) –1 1
Domain: [0, p] Domain: [–1, 1]
Range: [–1, 1] Range: [0, p]

Figure 5.92 The restricted Figure 5.93 The graph of the

cosine function inverse cosine function

Exact values of cos-1 x can be found by thinking of cos−1 x as the angle in the
interval [0, P] whose cosine is x.

Finding Exact Values of cos−1 x

1. Let u = cos-1 x.
2. Rewrite u = cos-1 x as cos u = x, where 0 … u … p.
3. Use the exact values in Table 5.8 to find the value of u in [0, p] that satisfies
cos u = x.
Table 5.8 Exact Values for cos U, 0 " U " P
p p p p 2p 3p 5p
U 0 p
6 4 3 2 3 4 6

23 22 1 1 22 23
cos U 1 0 - - - -1
2 2 2 2 2 2

Example 3 Finding the Exact Value of an Inverse Cosine Function

23
Find the exact value of cos-1 a - b.
2
638  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Solution
Step 1 Let U = cos−1 x. Thus,
23
u = cos-1 a - b.
2
23
We must find the angle u, 0 … u … p, whose cosine equals - .
2
Step 2 Rewrite U = cos−1 x as cos U = x, where 0 " U " P. We obtain

23
cos u = - , where 0 … u … p.
2
Step 3 Use the exact values in Table 5.8 to find the value of U in [0, P] that
satisfies cos U = x. Table 5.8 on the previous page shows that the only angle in the
23 5p 5p
interval [0, p] that satisfies cos u = - is . Thus, u = and
2 6 6
23 5p
cos-1 a - b = . The angle in [0, p] whose cosine is
2 6
23 5p
- is . l l l
2 6

1
Check Point 3 Find the exact value of cos-1 a - b .
2

❸ Understand and use the inverse The Inverse Tangent Function

tangent function. Figure 5.94 shows how we restrict the domain of the tangent function so that it
becomes one-to-one and has an inverse function. Restrict the domain to the interval
p p
a - , b , shown by the solid blue graph. Over this interval, the restricted tangent
2 2
function passes the horizontal line test and has an inverse function.

y=VCPx– p <x< p

y

–2p –p p 2p
x
– 3p
2
– p2 p
2
3p
2

–3 Figure 5.94 y = tan x is

one-to-one on the interval
p p
a - , b.
2 2

The Inverse Tangent Function

The inverse tangent function, denoted by tan-1, is the inverse of the restricted
p p
tangent function y = tan x, - 6 x 6 . Thus,
2 2
-1
y = tan x means tan y = x,
p p
where - 6 y 6 and - ∞ 6 x 6 ∞.
2 2
 Section 5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions   639

We graph y = tan-1 x by taking points on the graph of the restricted function

p
and reversing the order of the coordinates. Figure 5.95 shows that a - , -1b , (0, 0),
p 4
and a , 1b are on the graph of the restricted tangent function. Reversing the
4 p p
order gives a -1, - b , (0, 0), and a1, b . We now use these three points to graph
4 4
the inverse tangent function. The graph of y = tan-1 x is shown in Figure 5.96.
Notice that the vertical asymptotes become horizontal asymptotes for the graph of
the inverse function.

y
y=VCPx– p <x< p


y
y=VCP–x
p
 
p
1 2
–– p
x
– p2 p x
2 –1 1
– p – p
– p2

Domain: (–∞, ∞)
Range: Q– p2 , p2 R
Domain: Q– p2 , p2 R
Range: (–∞, ∞)

Figure 5.95 The restricted tangent function Figure 5.96 The graph of the inverse
tangent function

Exact values of tan-1 x can be found by thinking of tan−1 x as the angle in the
P P
interval a − , b whose tangent is x.
2 2

Finding Exact Values of tan−1 x

1. Let u = tan-1 x.
p p
2. Rewrite u = tan-1 x as tan u = x, where - 6 u 6 .
2 2
p p
3. Use the exact values in Table 5.9 to find the value of u in a - , b that
2 2
satisfies tan u = x.
P P
Table 5.9 Exact Values for tan u,− * u *
2 2
p p p p p p
U - - - 0
3 4 6 6 4 3

tan U - 23 -1 23 0 23 1 23
-
3 3

Example 4 Finding the Exact Value of an Inverse

Tangent Function
Find the exact value of tan-1 23.
640  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Solution
Step 1 Let U = tan−1 x. Thus,
u = tan-1 23.
p p
We must find the angle u, - 6 u 6 , whose tangent equals 23.
2 2
P P
Step 2 Rewrite U = tan−1 x as tan U = x, where − * U * . We obtain
2 2
p p
tan u = 23, where - 6 u 6 .
2 2
P P
Step 3 Use the exact values in Table 5.9 to find the value of U in a− , b
2 2
that satisfies tan U = x. Table 5.9 on the previous page shows that the only angle
p p p p
in the interval a - , b that satisfies tan u = 23 is . Thus, u = and
2 2 3 3
p p p
tan-1 23 = . The angle in a- , b whose
3 2 2
p
tangent is 23 is . l l l
3
Great Question!
Are the domains of the restricted trigonometric functions the same as the intervals on
which the nonrestricted functions complete one cycle?
Do not confuse the domains of the restricted trigonometric functions with the intervals
on which the nonrestricted functions complete one cycle. They are only the same for the
tangent function.

Interval on Which Nonrestricted

Trigonometric Domain of
Function’s Graph Completes
Function Restricted Function
One Period

p p 2GTKQFp
y = sin x c– , d [0, 2p]
2 2

y = cos x [0, p] [0, 2p] 2GTKQFp

p p p p
y = tan x a– , b a– , b 2GTKQFp
2 2 2 2

6JGUGFQOCKPTGUVTKEVKQPUCTGVJGTCPIGHQTy=UKP–x
y=EQU–xCPFy=VCP–xTGURGEVKXGN[

Check Point 4 Find the exact value of tan-1( -1).

Table 5.10 summarizes the graphs of the three basic inverse trigonometric functions.
Below each of the graphs is a description of the function’s domain and range.
Table 5.10 Graphs of the Three Basic Inverse Trigonometric Functions

y y y
p p p
2 2

y=VCP–x
y=EQU–x
x p x
–1 1 2 –1 1
y=UKP–x

– p2 x – p2
–1 1
Domain: [–1, 1] Domain: [–1, 1] Domain: (–∞, ∞)
Range: S– p2 , p2 T Range: [0, p] Range: Q– p2 , p2 R
 Section 5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions   641

❹ Use a calculator to evaluate Using a Calculator to Evaluate Inverse Trigonometric Functions

inverse trigonometric functions. Calculators give approximate values of inverse trigonometric functions. Use the
secondary keys marked SIN-1, COS-1, and TAN-1. These keys are not buttons
that you actually press. They are the secondary functions for the buttons labeled
SIN, COS, and TAN, respectively. Consult your manual for the location of this
feature.

Example 5 Calculators and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Use a calculator to find the value to four decimal places of each function:
1
a. sin-1 b. tan-1( -9.65).
4

Solution
Scientific Calculator Solution
Display, Rounded
Function Mode Keystrokes to Four Places
1
a. sin-1 Radian 1  ,  4  =  2nd SIN 0.2527
4
b. tan-1( -9.65) Radian 9.65  +/-  2nd TAN -1.4675

Graphing Calculator Solution

Display, Rounded
Function Mode Keystrokes to Four Places
1
a. sin-1
4
Radian 2ndSIN(1 , 4)ENTER 0.2527

b. tan-1( -9.65) Radian 2ndTAN( -) 9.65 ENTER -1.4675

l l l

Check Point 5 Use a calculator to find the value to four decimal places of
each function:
1
a. cos-1 b. tan-1( -35.85).
3

Great Question!
What happens if I attempt to evaluate an inverse trigonometric function at a value that is
not in its domain?
In real number mode, most calculators will display an error message. For example, an
error message can result if you attempt to approximate cos-1 3. There is no angle whose
cosine is 3. The domain of the inverse cosine function is [ -1, 1] and 3 does not belong to
this domain.

❺ Find exact values of composite Composition of Functions Involving

functions with inverse Inverse Trigonometric Functions
trigonometric functions.
In our earlier discussion of functions and their inverses, we saw that

f (f –1(x)) = x and f –1(f (x)) = x.

xOWUVDGKPVJG xOWUVDGKPVJG
FQOCKPQHf –1 FQOCKPQHf 
642  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

We apply these properties to the sine, cosine, tangent, and their inverse functions to
obtain the following properties:

Inverse Properties
The Sine Function and Its Inverse
sin(sin-1 x) = x for every x in the interval [-1, 1]
p p
sin-1(sin x) = x for every x in the interval c - , d
2 2
The Cosine Function and Its Inverse
cos(cos-1 x) = x for every x in the interval [-1, 1]
-1
cos (cos x) = x for every x in the interval [0, p]

The Tangent Function and Its Inverse

tan(tan-1 x) = x for every real number x
p p
tan-1(tan x) = x for every x in the interval a - , b
2 2

The restrictions on x in the inverse properties are a bit tricky. For example,

p p
sin–1 asin b= .
4 4

UKP –1 UKPx =xHQTxKPS– p  p T 

 
1DUGTXGVJCV p KUKPVJKUKPVGTXCN


5p 5p
Can we use sin-1(sin x) = x to find the exact value of sin-1 asin b ? Is in the
4 4
p p 5p 5p
interval c - , d ? No. Thus, to evaluate sin-1 asin b , we must first find sin .
2 2 4 4

p KUKPSWCFTCPVIII

YJGTGVJGUKPGKUPGICVKXG

5p p "2
sin = –sin =–
4 4 2
6JGTGHGTGPEGCPING
HQT p KU p
 

5p
We evaluate sin-1 asin b as follows:
4

5p 22 p
sin-1 asin b = sin-1 a - b = - . If necessary, see Table 5.7
4 2 4 on page 635.

To determine how to evaluate the composition of functions involving inverse

trigonometric functions, first examine the value of x. You can use the inverse
properties in the box only if x is in the specified interval.
 Section 5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions   643

Example 6 Evaluating Compositions of Functions

and Their Inverses
Find the exact value, if possible:
3p
a. cos(cos-1 0.6) b. sin-1 asin b c. cos(cos-1 1.5).
2
Solution
a. The inverse property cos(cos-1 x) = x applies for every x in [-1, 1]. To
evaluate cos(cos-1 0.6), observe that x = 0.6. This value of x lies in [-1, 1],
which is the domain of the inverse cosine function. This means that we can
use the inverse property cos(cos-1 x) = x. Thus,

cos(cos-1 0.6) = 0.6.

p p
b. The inverse property sin- 1(sin x) = x applies for every x in c - , d . To
2 2
-1 3p 3p
evaluate sin asin b , observe that x = . This value of x does not lie
2 2
p p 3p
in c - , d . To evaluate this expression, we first find sin .
2 2 2
3p p p p
sin-1 asin b = sin-1( -1) = - The angle in c - , d whose
2 2 2 2
p
sine is -1 is - .
2
c. The inverse property cos(cos-1 x) = x applies for every x in [-1, 1]. To
attempt to evaluate cos(cos-1 1.5), observe that x = 1.5. This value of x does
not lie in [-1, 1], which is the domain of the inverse cosine function. Thus, the
expression cos(cos-1 1.5) is not defined because cos-1 1.5 is not defined. l l l

Check Point 6 Find the exact value, if possible:

a. cos(cos-1 0.7) b. sin-1 (sin p) c. cos[cos-1 ( -1.2)].

We can use points on terminal sides of angles in standard position to find exact
values of expressions involving the composition of a function and a different inverse
function. Here are two examples:
5 1
cos atan–1 b cotcsin–1 a– bd.
12 3
+PPGTRCTVKPXQNXGUVJG +PPGTRCTVKPXQNXGUVJG
CPINGKPQ– p  p R CPINGKPS– p  p T
   
YJQUGVCPIGPVKU   YJQUGUKPGKU–  
 

The inner part of each expression involves an angle. To evaluate such expressions, we
represent such angles by u. Then we use a sketch that illustrates our representation.
Examples 7 and 8 show how to carry out such evaluations.

Example 7 Evaluating a Composite Trigonometric Expression

5
Find the exact value of cos atan-1 b.
12
Solution
p p 5
We let u represent the angle in a - , b whose tangent is . Thus,
2 2 12
5
u = tan-1 .
12
644  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

5 5
We are looking for the exact value of cos atan-1 b , with u = tan-1 . Using the
12 12
-1 5
definition of the inverse tangent function, we can rewrite u = tan as
12
y 5 p p
tan u = , where - 6 u 6 .
r= (12, 5) 12 2 2
p
y= Because tan u is positive, u must be an angle in a0, b . Thus, u is a first-quadrant
u 2
x
angle. Figure 5.97 shows a right triangle in quadrant I with
x=
5KFGQRRQUKVGuQTy
5
Figure 5.97 Representing tan u = 5
12 tan u = .
12 5KFGCFLCEGPVVQuQTx

The hypotenuse of the triangle, r, or the distance from the origin to (12, 5), is found
using r = 2x 2 + y2.
r = 2x 2 + y2 = 2122 + 52 = 2144 + 25 = 2169 = 13
5
We use the values for x and r to find the exact value of cos atan-1 b.
12
5 side adjacent to u, or x 12
cos atan-1 b = cos u = =  l l l
12 hypotenuse, or r 13

3
Check Point 7 Find the exact value of sin atan-1 b .
4

Example 8 Evaluating a Composite Trigonometric Expression

1
Find the exact value of cotc sin-1 a - b d .
3
Solution
p p 1
We let u represent the angle in c - , d whose sine is - . Thus,
2 2 3
1 1 p p
y u = sin-1 a - b and sin u = - , where - … u … .
3 3 2 2
1 p
x Because sin u is negative in sin u = - , u must be an angle in c - , 0b . Thus, u
u 3 2
r= is a negative angle that lies in quadrant IV. Figure 5.98 shows angle u in
P = (2√2, –1) quadrant IV with

y=– +PSWCFTCPVIVyKUPGICVKXG
x=√

1 y –1
Figure 5.98 Representing sin u = - 13 sin u = – = = .
3 r 3

Thus, y = -1 and r = 3. The value of x can be found using r = 2x 2 + y2 or

x 2 + y 2 = r 2.
x 2 + ( -1)2 = 32 Use x 2 + y 2 = r 2 with y = - 1 and r = 3.
x2 + 1 = 9 Square -1 and square 3.
x2 = 8 Subtract 1 from both sides.
x = 28 = 24 # 2 = 222 Use the square root property. Remember that
x is positive in quadrant IV.
 Section 5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions   645

1
We use values for x and y to find the exact value of cotc sin-1 a - b d .
3

1 x 222
cotc sin-1 a - b d = cot u = = = -222 l l l
3 y -1

1
Check Point 8 Find the exact value of cos c sin-1 a - b d .
2

Some composite functions with inverse trigonometric functions can be simplified

to algebraic expressions. To simplify such an expression, we represent the inverse
trigonometric function in the expression by u. Then we use a right triangle.

Example 9 Simplifying an Expression Involving sin-1 x

If 0 6 x … 1, write cos(sin-1 x) as an algebraic expression in x.

Solution
p p
We let u represent the angle in c - , d whose sine is x. Thus,
2 2
p p
u = sin-1 x and sin u = x, where - … u … .
2 2

Because 0 6 x … 1, sin u is positive. Thus, u is a first-quadrant angle and can be

represented as an acute angle of a right triangle. Figure 5.99 shows a right triangle
1 with
x
5KFGQRRQUKVGu
x
u sin u = x = .
1 *[RQVGPWUG
a = "1 − x2

Figure 5.99 Representing sin u = x The third side, a in Figure 5.99, can be found using the Pythagorean Theorem.

a2 + x 2 = 12 Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to the right triangle

in Figure 5.99.
a2 = 1 - x 2 Subtract x 2 from both sides.

a = 21 - x 2 Use the square root property and solve for a.

Remember that side a is positive.

We use the right triangle in Figure 5.99 to write cos(sin-1 x) as an algebraic

expression.

side adjacent to u 21 - x 2
cos(sin-1 x) = cos u = = = 21 - x 2 l l l
hypotenuse 1

Check Point 9 If x 7 0, write sec(tan-1 x) as an algebraic expression in x.

The inverse secant function, y = sec -1 x, is used in calculus. However, inverse

cotangent and inverse cosecant functions are rarely used. Two of these remaining
inverse trigonometric functions are briefly developed in the Exercise Set
(Exercises 73 and 74) that follows.
646  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Concept and Vocabulary Check

Fill in each blank so that the resulting statement is true.

1. By restricting the domain of y = sin x to 5. The domain of y = cos-1 x is and the

range is .
, the restricted sine function has an
inverse function. The inverse sine function is denoted 6. The domain of y = tan-1 x is and the
by y = .
2. By restricting the domain of y = cos x to range is .
, the restricted cosine function has -1
7. sin (sin x) = x for every x in the interval
an inverse function. The inverse cosine function is
denoted by y = . .
3. By restricting the domain of y = tan x to -1
8. cos (cos x) = x for every x in the interval .
, the restricted tangent function
has an inverse function. The inverse of the tangent 9. tan-1(tan x) = x for every x in the interval
function is denoted by y = .
.
-1
4. The domain of y = sin x is and the range
1
10. True or false: cos-1 x =
is . cos x

Exercise Set 5.7

Practice Exercises In Exercises 31–46, find the exact value of each expression, if
possible. Do not use a calculator.
In Exercises 1–18, find the exact value of each expression.
1 31. sin(sin-1 0.9) 32. cos(cos-1 0.57)
1. sin-1 2. sin-1 0 2p
2 33. sin-1 asin
p
b 34. cos-1 acos b
22 23 3 3
3. sin-1 4. sin-1 5p 4p
2 2 35. sin-1 asin b 36. cos-1 acos b
6 3
1 23
5. sin-1 a - b 6. sin-1 a - b 37. tan(tan-1 125) 38. tan(tan-1 380)
2 2
23 22 p p
7. cos-1 8. cos-1 39. tan-1 c tan a - bd 40. tan-1 c tan a - bd
2 2 6 3
22 23 2p 3p
9. cos-1 a - b 10. cos-1 a - b 41. tan-1 atan b 42. tan-1 atan b
2 2 3 4
11. cos-1 0 12. cos-1 1 43. sin-1(sin p) 44. cos-1(cos 2p)

23 45. sin(sin-1 p) 46. cos(cos-1 3p)

-1 -1
13. tan 14. tan 1
3
In Exercises 47–62, use a sketch to find the exact value of each
-1
15. tan 0 16. tan-1 ( -1) expression.
23 47. cos 1 sin-1 45 2 48. sin 1 tan-1 24
7
2
17. tan-1 1 - 23 2 18. tan-1 a - b
3 49. tan 1 cos-1 13
5
2 50. cot 1 sin-1 13
5
2
In Exercises 19–30, use a calculator to find the value of each 51. tan 3 sin-1 1 - 35 2 4 52. cos 3 sin-1 1 - 45 2 4
expression rounded to two decimal places.
22
19. sin-1 0.3 20. sin-1 0.47 53. sin acos-1 b 54. cos 1 sin-1 12 2
2
21. sin-1( - 0.32) 22. sin-1( - 0.625)
55. sec 3 sin-1 1 - 14 2 4 56. sec 3 sin-1 1 - 12 2 4
-1 3 -1 4
23. cos 24. cos 57. tan 3 cos-1 1 - 13 2 4 58. tan 3 cos-1 1 - 14 2 4
8 9
25 27 23 22
25. cos-1 26. cos-1 59. cscc cos-1 a - bd 60. secc sin-1 a - bd
7 10 2 2
27. tan-1( - 20) 28. tan-1( - 30) 2 3
61. cos c tan-1 a - b d 62. sinc tan-1 a - b d
29. tan-1 1 - 2473 2 30. tan-1 1 - 25061 2 3 4
 Section 5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions   647

In Exercises 63–72, use a right triangle to write each expression as Application Exercises
an algebraic expression. Assume that x is positive and that the given
93. Your neighborhood movie theater has a 25-foot-high screen
inverse trigonometric function is defined for the expression in x.
located 8 feet above your eye level. If you sit too close to the
63. tan(cos-1 x) 64. sin(tan-1 x) screen, your viewing angle is too small, resulting in a distorted
picture. By contrast, if you sit too far back, the image is quite
65. cos(sin-1 2x) 66. sin(cos-1 2x) small, diminishing the movie’s visual impact. If you sit x feet
back from the screen, your viewing angle, u, is given by
1 1 33 8
67. cos asin-1 b 68. sec acos-1 b u = tan-1 - tan-1 .
x x x x
x x
69. cot atan-1 b 70. cot atan-1 b
23 22
x 2x 2 - 9
71. sec ¢sin-1 ≤ 72. cot ¢sin-1 ≤
2x 2 + 4 x 25 feet
73. a. Graph the restricted secant function, y = sec x, by
p p
restricting x to the intervals c 0, b and a , p d .
2 2 u
b. Use the horizontal line test to explain why the restricted 8 feet
secant function has an inverse function. x
c. Use the graph of the restricted secant function to graph
y = sec -1 x.
74. a. Graph the restricted cotangent function, y = cot x, by Find the viewing angle, in radians, at distances of 5 feet,
restricting x to the interval (0, p). 10 feet, 15 feet, 20 feet, and 25 feet.
33 8
b. Use the horizontal line test to explain why the restricted 94. The function u = tan-1 - tan-1 , described in Exercise 93,
x x
cotangent function has an inverse function.
is graphed below in a [0, 50, 10] by [0, 1, 0.1] viewing rectangle.
c. Use the graph of the restricted cotangent function to Use the graph to describe what happens to your viewing angle
graph y = cot -1 x. as you move farther back from the screen. How far back from
the screen, to the nearest foot, should you sit to maximize
Practice Plus your viewing angle? Verify this observation by finding the
The graphs of y = sin-1 x, y = cos-1 x, and y = tan-1 x are shown viewing angle one foot closer to the screen and one foot
in Table 5.10 on page 640. In Exercises 75–84, use transformations farther from the screen for this ideal viewing distance.
(vertical shifts, horizontal shifts, reflections, stretching, or shrinking) u
of these graphs to graph each function. Then use interval notation to
give the function’s domain and range. 1
p p
75. f(x) = sin-1 x + 76. f(x) = cos-1 x +
2 2
77. g(x) = cos-1(x + 1) 78. g(x) = sin-1(x + 1)
79. h(x) = -2 tan-1 x 80. h(x) = -3 tan-1 x
p p 0 x
0 10 20 30 40 50
81. f(x) = sin-1(x - 2) - 82. f(x) = cos-1(x - 2) -
2 2
x x The formula
83. g(x) = cos-1 84. g(x) = sin-1
2 2 21.634
u = 2 tan-1
In Exercises 85–92, determine the domain and the range of each x
function. gives the viewing angle, u, in radians, for a camera whose lens is
85. f(x) = sin(sin x) -1 x millimeters wide. Use this formula to solve Exercises 95–96.

86. f(x) = cos(cos-1 x)

87. f(x) = cos-1(cos x)

88. f(x) = sin-1(sin x)

89. f(x) = sin-1(cos x) u

90. f(x) = cos-1(sin x)

91. f(x) = sin-1 x + cos-1 x 95. Find the viewing angle, in radians and in degrees (to the
nearest tenth of a degree), of a 28-millimeter lens.
92. f(x) = cos-1 x - sin-1 x 96. Find the viewing angle, in radians and in degrees (to the nearest
tenth of a degree), of a 300-millimeter telephoto lens.
648  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

For years, mathematicians were challenged by the following Technology Exercises

problem: What is the area of a region under a curve between two
In Exercises 110–113, graph each pair of functions in the same
values of x ? The problem was solved in the seventeenth century
viewing rectangle. Use your knowledge of the domain and range
with the development of integral calculus. Using calculus, the area
for the inverse trigonometric function to select an appropriate
1
of the region under y = 2 , above the x@axis, and between viewing rectangle. How is the graph of the second equation in
x + 1 each exercise related to the graph of the first equation?
x = a and x = b is tan-1 b - tan-1 a. Use this result, shown in 110. y = sin-1 x and y = sin-1 x + 2
1
the figure, to find the area of the region under y = 2 , 111. y = cos-1 x and y = cos-1(x - 1)
x + 1
112. y = tan-1 x and y = - 2 tan-1 x
above the x@axis, and between the values of a and b given in
Exercises 97–98. 113. y = sin-1 x and y = sin-1(x + 2) + 1
114. Graph y = tan-1 x and its two horizontal asymptotes in a
p
y [ -3, 3, 1] by c -p, p, d viewing rectangle. Then change the
2 p
#TGCKUVCP–b–VCP–a viewing rectangle to [ -50, 50, 5] by c -p, p, d . What do
 2
y= 
you observe?
x + -1 -1
115. Graph y = sin x + cos x in a [ -2, 2, 1] by [0, 3, 1]
viewing rectangle. What appears to be true about the sum
of the inverse sine and inverse cosine for values between
-1 and 1, inclusive?

x Critical Thinking Exercises

–2 a b 2
Make Sense? In Exercises 116–119, determine whether each
statement makes sense or does not make sense, and explain your
97. a = 0 and b = 2 98. a = -2 and b = 1 reasoning.
116. Because y = sin x has an inverse function if x is restricted to
p p
c - , d , they should make restrictions easier to remember
Explaining the Concepts 2 2 p p
99. Explain why, without restrictions, no trigonometric function by also using c - , d as the restriction for y = cos x.
2 2
has an inverse function. 117. Because y = sin x has an inverse function if x is restricted to
100. Describe the restriction on the sine function so that it has an p p
inverse function. c - , d , they should make restrictions easier to remember
2 2
p p
101. How can the graph of y = sin-1 x be obtained from the by also using c - , d as the restriction for y = tan x.
2 2
graph of the restricted sine function?
1 1
102. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the graph 118. Although sin a - b is negative, cos-1 a - b is positive.
-1
2 2
of y = sin-1 x. Mention the function’s domain and range in
your description. 119. I used f -1( f(x)) = x and concluded that
103. Describe the restriction on the cosine function so that it has 5p 5p
sin-1 asin b = .
an inverse function. 4 4
104. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the graph 120. Solve y = 2 sin-1(x - 5) for x in terms of y.
of y = cos-1 x. Mention the function’s domain and range in p
121. Solve for x: 2 sin-1 x = .
your description. 4
1 p
105. Describe the restriction on the tangent function so that it 122. Prove that if x 7 0, tan-1 x + tan-1 = .
x 2
has an inverse function. 123. Derive the formula for u, your viewing angle at the movie
106. Without drawing a graph, describe the behavior of the graph theater, in Exercise 93. Hint: Use the figure shown and
of y = tan-1 x. Mention the function’s domain and range in represent the acute angle on the left in the smaller right
your description. triangle by a. Find expressions for tan a and tan (a + u).
p p 5p 5p
107. If sin-1 asin b = , is sin-1 asin b = ? Explain your Retaining the Concepts
3 3 6 6 3
answer. 124. Expand: logb (x2 y).
108. Explain how a right triangle can be used to find the exact (Section 4.3, Example 4)
value of sec 1 sin-1 45 2 . 1
125. Write as a single logarithm: log x + 6 log (x - 2).
109. Find the height of the screen and the number of feet that 2
it is located above eye level in your favorite movie theater. (Section 4.3, Example 6)
Modify the formula given in Exercise 93 so that it applies to 5x + 1
126. Graph: f(x) = .
your theater. Then describe where in the theater you should x - 1
sit so that a movie creates the greatest visual impact. (Section 3.5, Example 5)
 Section 5.8 Applications of Trigonometric Functions   649

Preview Exercises 128. Find u to the nearest tenth of a degree.

Exercises 127–129 will help you prepare for the material covered
in the next section.
127. Use trigonometric functions to find a and c to two decimal
places. 25 18

u
B
c
a
22.3° p
A C 129. Determine the amplitude and period of y = 10 cos x.
b = 12.1 6

Section 5.8 Applications of Trigonometric Functions

In the late 1960s, popular musicians were searching

What am I for new sounds. Film composers were looking for
ways to create unique sounds as well. From these
supposed to learn? efforts, synthesizers that electronically reproduce
After studying this section, you musical sounds were born. From providing the
should be able to: backbone of today’s most popular music to providing
the strange sounds for the most experimental
❶ Solve a right triangle. music, synthesizing programs now available on
❷ Solve problems involving computers are at the forefront of music technology.
bearings. If we did not understand the periodic nature of
❸ Model simple harmonic sinusoidal functions, the synthesizing programs
motion. used in almost all forms of music would not
exist. In this section, we look at applications
of trigonometric functions in solving right
triangles and in modeling periodic phenomena
such as sound.

❶ Solve a right triangle. Solving Right Triangles

Solving a right triangle means finding the missing lengths of its sides and the
B measurements of its angles. We will label right triangles so that side a is opposite
c angle A, side b is opposite angle B, and side c, the hypotenuse, is opposite right
a angle C. Figure 5.100 illustrates this labeling.
When solving a right triangle, we will use the sine, cosine, and tangent functions,
A
b C rather than their reciprocals. Example 1 shows how to solve a right triangle when we
know the length of a side and the measure of an acute angle.
Figure 5.100 Labeling right triangles

Example 1 Solving a Right Triangle

B Solve the right triangle shown in Figure 5.101, rounding lengths to two decimal places.

c Solution
a
We begin by finding the measure of angle B. We do not need a trigonometric
34.5° function to do so. Because C = 90° and the sum of a triangle’s angles is 180°, we
A
b = 10.5 C see that A + B = 90°. Thus,
Figure 5.101 Find B, a, and c. B = 90° - A = 90° - 34.5° = 55.5°.
650  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

B Now we need to find a. Because we have a known angle, an unknown opposite side,
and a known adjacent side, we use the tangent function.
c
a
5KFGQRRQUKVGVJG°CPING
a
34.5° tan 34.5° =
A 10.5 5KFGCFLCEGPVVQVJG°CPING
b = 10.5 C

Figure 5.101 (repeated)

Now we multiply both sides of this equation by 10.5 and solve for a.
a = 10.5 tan 34.5° ≈ 7.22
Finally, we need to find c. Because we have a known angle, a known adjacent side,
and an unknown hypotenuse, we use the cosine function.

5KFGCFLCEGPVVQVJG°CPING
10.5
cos 34.5° =
c *[RQVGPWUG

Discovery
There is often more than one 10.5
Now we multiply both sides of cos 34.5° = by c and then solve for c.
correct way to solve a right c
triangle. In Example 1, find a
using angle B = 55.5°. Find c c cos 34.5° = 10.5 Multiply both sides by c.
using the Pythagorean Theorem. 10.5
c = ≈ 12.74 Divide both sides by cos 34.5°
cos 34.5° and solve for c.
Technology In summary, B = 55.5°, a ≈ 7.22, and c ≈ 12.74. l l l

When using trigonometric

functions to solve for angle
measures and lengths of sides, Check Point 1 In Figure 5.100 on the previous page, let A = 62.7° and
we usually are requried to round a = 8.4. Solve the right triangle, rounding lengths to two decimal places.
the answers. It is good practice to
avoid using these rounded values
in further calculations. Most
calculators will allow you to store
the unrounded values and then Trigonometry was first developed to measure heights and distances that were
recall them when they are needed. inconvenient or impossible to measure directly. In solving application problems,
Consult your manual. begin by making a sketch involving a right triangle that illustrates the problem’s
conditions. Then put your knowledge of solving right triangles to work and find the
required distance or height.

Example 2 Finding a Side of a Right Triangle

From a point on level ground 125 feet from the base of a tower, the angle of
elevation is 57.2°. Approximate the height of the tower to the nearest foot.

Solution
A sketch is shown in Figure 5.102, where a represents the height of the tower. In
the right triangle, we have a known angle, an unknown opposite side, and a known
adjacent side. Therefore, we use the tangent function.
ht
sig

a
of

5KFGQRRQUKVGVJG°CPING
ne

a
tan 57.2° =
Li

125 5KFGCFLCEGPVVQVJG°CPING
57.2°

125 ft Now we multiply both sides of this equation by 125 and solve for a.
a = 125 tan 57.2° ≈ 194
Figure 5.102 Determining height
without using direct measurement The tower is approximately 194 feet high. l l l
 Section 5.8 Applications of Trigonometric Functions   651

Check Point 2 From a point on level ground 80 feet from the base of the
Eiffel Tower, the angle of elevation is 85.4°. Approximate the height of the Eiffel
Tower to the nearest foot.

Example 3 illustrates how to find the measure of an acute angle of a right triangle
if the lengths of two sides are known.

Example 3 Finding an Angle of a Right Triangle

A kite flies at a height of 30 feet when 65 feet of string is out. If the string is in a straight
line, find the angle that it makes with the ground. Round to the nearest tenth of a degree.

Solution
A sketch is shown in Figure 5.103, where A represents the angle the string makes
with the ground. In the right triangle, we have an unknown angle, a known opposite
side, and a known hypotenuse. Therefore, we use the sine function.
5KFGQRRQUKVGA
B 30
sin A =
65 *[RQVGPWUG

c = 65 ft 30
a = 30 ft A = sin–1 ≈ 27.5°
65

A b C
Figure 5.103 Flying a kite

The string makes an angle of approximately 27.5° with the ground. l l l

Check Point 3 A guy wire is 13.8 yards long and is attached from the ground
to a pole 6.7 yards above the ground. Find the angle, to the nearest tenth of a
degree, that the wire makes with the ground.

Example 4 Using Two Right Triangles to Solve a Problem

You are taking your first hot-air balloon ride. Your friend is standing on level ground,
100 feet away from your point of launch, making a video of the terrified look on
your rapidly ascending face. How rapidly? At one instant, the angle of elevation
from the video camera to your face is 31.7°. One minute later, the angle of elevation
is 76.2°. How far did you travel, to the nearest tenth of a foot, during that minute?

Solution
A sketch that illustrates the problem is shown in Figure 5.104. We need to determine
b - a, the distance traveled during the one-minute period. We find a using the
small right triangle. Because we have a known angle, an unknown opposite side,
and a known adjacent side, we use the tangent function.
b
5KFGQRRQUKVGVJG°CPING
a
tan 31.7° =
100 5KFGCFLCEGPVVQVJG°CPING

a = 100 tan 31.7° ≈ 61.8

We find b using the tangent function in the large right triangle.
76.2° 5KFGQRRQUKVGVJG°CPING
a b
Your 31.7° tan 76.2° =
friend 100 5KFGCFLCEGPVVQVJG°CPING
100 ft
b = 100 tan 76.2° ≈ 407.1
Figure 5.104 Ascending in a hot-air The balloon traveled 407.1 - 61.8, or approximately 345.3 feet, during the minute.
balloon  l l l
652  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Check Point 4 You are standing on level ground 800 feet from Mt. Rushmore,
looking at the sculpture of Abraham Lincoln’s face. The angle of elevation to the
bottom of the sculpture is 32° and the angle of elevation to the top is 35°. Find the
height of the sculpture of Lincoln’s face to the nearest tenth of a foot.

❷ Solve problems involving Trigonometry and Bearings

bearings. In navigation and surveying problems, the term bearing is used to specify the location
of one point relative to another. The bearing from point O to point P is the acute
angle, measured in degrees, between ray OP and a north-south line.
The bearing from O to P can also be described using the phrase “the bearing of
P from O.” Figure 5.105 illustrates some examples of bearings. The north-south line
and the east-west line intersect at right angles.
N N N

6JGDGCTKPI N 40° E 6JGDGCTKPI 6JGDGCTKPI

HTQOOVQP 40° N 65° W HTQOOVQP HTQOOVQP
65°
KU0°' P KU0°9 KU5°'
P
W E W E W P E
O O O
70° S 70° E

S S S
Figure 5.105 An illustration of three
bearings (a) (b) (c)

Each bearing has three parts: a letter (N or S), the measure of an acute angle, and a
letter (E or W). Here’s how we write a bearing:
• If the acute angle is measured from the north side of the north-south line, then
we write N first. [See Figure 5.105(a).] If the acute angle is measured from the
south side of the north-south line, then we write S first. [See Figure 5.105(c).]
• Second, we write the measure of the acute angle.
• If the acute angle is measured on the east side of the north-south line, then we
write E last. [See Figure 5.105(a)]. If the acute angle is measured on the west
side of the north-south line, then we write W last. [See Figure 5.105(b).]

Example 5 Understanding Bearings

Use Figure 5.106 to find each of the following:
a. the bearing from O to B
b. the bearing from O to A.

N 9GPGGFVJKU Solution
CPINGHQTVJG a. To find the bearing from O to B, we need the acute angle between the ray
DGCTKPIHTQO
OVQA OB and the north-south line through O. The measurement of this angle
40°
B is given to be 40°. Figure 5.106 shows that the angle is measured from the
A
north side of the north-south line and lies west of the north-south line. Thus,
20°
W
O
E the bearing from O to B is N 40° W.
75° b. To find the bearing from O to A, we need the acute angle between the ray
C D OA and the north-south line through O. This angle is specified by the voice
25° balloon in Figure 5.106. Because of the given 20° angle, this angle measures
90° - 20°, or 70°. This angle is measured from the north side of the north-
S south line. This angle is also east of the north-south line. Thus, the bearing
Figure 5.106 Finding bearings from O to A is N 70° E. l l l

Check Point 5 Use Figure 5.106 to find each of the following:

a. the bearing from O to D
b. the bearing from O to C.
 Section 5.8 Applications of Trigonometric Functions   653

Example 6 Finding the Bearing of a Boat

N A boat leaves the entrance to a harbor and travels 25 miles on a bearing of N 42° E.
Figure 5.107 shows that the captain then turns the boat 90° clockwise and travels
N
18 miles on a bearing of S 48° E. At that time:
18 mi
25 mi 48° a. How far is the boat, to the nearest tenth of a mile, from the harbor entrance?
42° b. What is the bearing, to the nearest tenth of a degree, of the boat from the
u c harbor entrance?

*CTDQT Solution
GPVTCPEG S
a. The boat’s distance from the harbor entrance is represented by c in
S Figure 5.107. Because we know the length of two sides of the right triangle,
we find c using the Pythagorean Theorem. We have
Figure 5.107 Finding a boat’s bearing
from the harbor entrance
c 2 = a2 + b2 = 252 + 18 2 = 949
c = 2949 ≈ 30.8.
The boat is approximately 30.8 miles from the harbor entrance.
b. The bearing of the boat from the harbor entrance means the bearing from the
harbor entrance to the boat. Look at the north-south line passing through
the harbor entrance on the left in Figure 5.107. The acute angle from this
line to the ray on which the boat lies is 42° + u. Because we are measuring
Great Question! the angle from the north side of the line and the boat is east of the harbor,
I can follow Example 6 because its bearing from the harbor entrance is N(42° + u)E. To find u, we use the
Figure 5.107 is given. What should right triangle shown in Figure 5.107 and the tangent function.
I do if I have to draw the figure?
side opposite u 18
When making a diagram showing tan u = =
side adjacent to u 25
bearings, draw a north-south
line through each point at which 18
a change in course occurs. The u = tan-1
25
north side of the line lies above
each point. The south side of the We can use a calculator in degree mode to find the value of u: u ≈ 35.8°.
line lies below each point. Thus, 42° + u ≈ 42° + 35.8° = 77.8°. The bearing of the boat from the
harbor entrance is N 77.8° E. l l l

Check Point 6 You leave the entrance to a system of hiking trails and hike
2.3 miles on a bearing of S 31° W. Then the trail turns 90° clockwise and you hike
3.5 miles on a bearing of N 59° W. At that time:
a. How far are you, to the nearest tenth of a mile, from the entrance to the
trail system?
b. What is your bearing, to the nearest tenth of a degree, from the entrance
to the trail system?

❸ Model simple harmonic motion. Simple Harmonic Motion

Because of their periodic nature, trigonometric functions are used to model
phenomena that occur again and again. This includes vibratory or oscillatory motion,
such as the motion of a vibrating guitar string, the swinging of a pendulum, or the
bobbing of an object attached to a spring. Trigonometric functions are also used to
describe radio waves from your favorite FM station, television waves from your not-
to-be-missed weekly sitcom, and sound waves from your most-prized CDs.
To see how trigonometric functions are used to model vibratory motion, consider
this: A ball is attached to a spring hung from the ceiling. You pull the ball down
4 inches and then release it. If we neglect the effects of friction and air resistance, the
ball will continue bobbing up and down on the end of the spring. These up-and-down
oscillations are called simple harmonic motion.
654  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

To better understand this motion, we use a d@axis, where d represents distance.

This axis is shown in Figure 5.108. On this axis, the position of the ball before you
pull it down is d = 0. This rest position is called the equilibrium position. Now you
pull the ball down 4 inches to d = -4 and release it. Figure 5.109 shows a sequence
of “photographs” taken at one-second time intervals illustrating the distance of the
ball from its rest position, d.
4

d=KUVJG
TGUVRQUKVKQP

dCZKU d=
–4

Figure 5.108 Using a d@axis to

d=
describe a ball’s distance from its rest
position

d=–

t = 10

t = 11

t = 12
t=0

t=1

t=2

t=3

t=4

t=5

t=6

t=7

t=8

t=9
Figure 5.109 A sequence of “photographs” showing the bobbing ball’s distance from the rest
position, taken at one-second intervals

The curve in Figure 5.109 shows how the ball’s distance from its rest position
changes over time. The curve is sinusoidal and the motion can be described using a
cosine or a sine function.

Simple Harmonic Motion

An object that moves on a coordinate axis is in simple harmonic motion if its
distance from the origin, d, at time t is given by either
Blitzer Bonus  d = a cos vt or d = a sin vt.
Diminishing Motion The motion has amplitude  a , the maximum displacement of the object from its
with Increasing Time 2p
rest position. The period of the motion is , where v 7 0. The period gives the
Due to friction and other resistive v
time it takes for the motion to go through one complete cycle.
forces, the motion of an oscillating
object decreases over time. The
function In describing simple harmonic motion, the equation with the cosine function,
d = 3e -0.1t
cos 2t d = a cos vt, is used if the object is at its greatest distance from rest position, the
origin, at t = 0. By contrast, the equation with the sine function, d = a sin vt, is used
models this type of motion. The
if the object is at its rest position, the origin, at t = 0.
graph of the function is shown in
a t = [0, 10, 1] by d = [ - 3, 3, 1]
viewing rectangle. Notice how the Example 7 Finding an Equation for an Object
amplitude is decreasing with time
in Simple Harmonic Motion
as the moving object loses energy.
A ball on a spring is pulled 4 inches below its rest position and then released. The
period of the motion is 6 seconds. Write the equation for the ball’s simple harmonic
motion.

Solution
We need to write an equation that describes d, the distance of the ball from its
rest position, after t seconds. (The motion is illustrated by the “photo” sequence
in Figure 5.109.) When the object is released (t = 0), the ball’s distance from its
rest position is 4 inches down. Because it is down 4 inches, d is negative: When
 Section 5.8 Applications of Trigonometric Functions   655

t = 0, d = -4. Notice that the greatest distance from rest position occurs at t = 0.
Thus, we will use the equation with the cosine function,
d = a cos vt,
to model the ball’s simple harmonic motion.
Now we determine values for a and v. Recall that  a is the maximum
displacement. Because the ball is initially below rest position, a = -4.
The value of v in d = a cos vt can be found using the formula for the period.
2p
period = = 6 We are given that the period of the motion is 6 seconds.
v
2p = 6v Multiply both sides by v.
2p p
v = = Divide both sides by 6 and solve for v.
6 3
p
We see that a = -4 and v = . Substitute these values into d = a cos vt. The
3
equation for the ball’s simple harmonic motion is

Blitzer Bonus  p
d = -4 cos t.
3
l l l

Modeling Music
Check Point 7 A ball on a spring is pulled 6 inches below its rest position and
then released. The period for the motion is 4 seconds. Write the equation for the
ball’s simple harmonic motion.

The period of the harmonic motion in Example 7 was 6 seconds. It takes 6 seconds
for the moving object to complete one cycle. Thus, 16 of a cycle is completed every
second. We call 16 the frequency of the moving object. Frequency describes the number
of complete cycles per unit time and is the reciprocal of the period.
Sounds are caused by vibrating
objects that result in variations in Frequency of an Object in Simple Harmonic Motion
pressure in the surrounding air.
Areas of high and low pressure An object in simple harmonic motion given by
moving through the air are modeled d = a cos vt or d = a sin vt
by the harmonic motion formulas.
When these vibrations reach our has frequency f given by
eardrums, the eardrums’ vibrations v
f = , v 7 0.
send signals to our brains, which 2p
create the sensation of hearing.
Whether a sound is heard as Equivalently,
music, speech, noise, or static 1
depends on the various sine waves
f = .
period
that combine to make up the sound.
French mathematician John
Fourier (1768–1830) proved that all
musical sounds—instrumental and Example 8 Analyzing Simple Harmonic Motion
vocal—could be modeled by sums
Figure 5.110 shows a mass on a smooth surface attached to a spring. The mass
involving sine functions. Modeling
musical sounds with sinusoidal moves in simple harmonic motion described by
functions is used by synthesizing p
programs available on computers d = 10 cos t,
to electronically produce sounds 6
unobtainable from ordinary musical where t is measured in seconds
instruments.
and d in centimeters. Find:
a. the maximum displacement
b. the frequency
c. 
the time required for one
d-axis cycle.
Figure 5.110 A mass attached to a
spring, moving in simple harmonic motion
656  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Solution
We begin by identifying values for a and v.

p
d = 10 cos t
6
6JGHQTOQHVJKUGSWCVKQPKU
d=aEQUvt
d-axis
YKVJa=CPFv= p 


Figure 5.110 (repeated)

a. The maximum displacement from the rest position is the amplitude. Because
a = 10, the maximum displacement is 10 centimeters.
b. The frequency, f, is
p
v 6 p # 1 1
f = = = = .
2p 2p 6 2p 12

1
The frequency is 12 cycle (or oscillation) per second.
c. The time required for one cycle is the period.

= 2p #
2p 2p 6
period = = = 12
v p p
6

The time required for one cycle is 12 seconds. This value can also be obtained
by taking the reciprocal of the frequency in part (b). l l l

Check Point 8 An object moves in simple harmonic motion described

p
by d = 12 cos t, where t is measured in seconds and d in centimeters. Find
4
a. the maximum displacement, b. the frequency, and c. the time required for one
cycle.

Blitzer Bonus  Resisting Damage of Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion from an earthquake caused
this highway in Oakland, California, to collapse.
By studying the harmonic motion of the soil under the
highway, engineers learn to build structures that can
resist damage.
 Section 5.8 Applications of Trigonometric Functions   657

Concept and Vocabulary Check

Fill in each blank so that the resulting statement is true.

1. Solving a right triangle means finding the missing 3. An object that moves on a coordinate axis is
lengths of its and the measurements of in motion if its distance from the
its . origin, d, at time t is given by either
2. The bearing from point O to point P is the acute d = a cos vt or d = a sin vt.
angle, measured in degrees, between ray OP and
a - line. The motion has amplitude , the maximum
displacement of the object from its rest position. The
period of the motion is and the frequency f is
given by f = , where v 7 0.

Exercise Set 5.8

Practice Exercises
In Exercises 17–20, an object is attached to a coiled spring. In
In Exercises 1–12, solve the right triangle shown in the figure. Exercises 17–18, the object is pulled down (negative direction
Round lengths to two decimal places and express angles to the from the rest position) and then released. In Exercises 19–20,
nearest tenth of a degree. the object is propelled downward from its rest position at time
t = 0. Write an equation for the distance of the object from its
B rest position after t seconds.
c Distance from Rest
a
Position at t = 0 Amplitude Period
A C 17. 6 centimeters 6 centimeters 4 seconds
b
18. 8 inches 8 inches 2 seconds
1. A = 23.5°, b = 10 2. A = 41.5°, b = 20 19. 0 inches 3 inches 1.5 seconds
3. A = 52.6°, c = 54 4. A = 54.8°, c = 80 21. 0 centimeters 5 centimeters 2.5 seconds
5. B = 16.8°, b = 30.5 6. B = 23.8°, b = 40.5
In Exercises 21–28, an object moves in simple harmonic motion
7. a = 30.4, c = 50.2 8. a = 11.2, c = 65.8 described by the given equation, where t is measured in seconds
9. a = 10.8, b = 24.7 10. a = 15.3, b = 17.6 and d in inches. In each exercise, find the following:
11. b = 2, c = 7 12. b = 4, c = 9 a. the maximum displacement
Use the figure shown to solve Exercises 13–16. b. the frequency
c. the time required for one cycle.
N p
21. d = 5 cos t 22. d = 10 cos 2pt
2
p
23. d = -6 cos 2pt 24. d = - 8 cos t
A 2
B
25. d = 12 sin 2t 26. d = 13 sin 2t
60° 75°
2p 3p
W E 27. d = -5 sin t 28. d = - 4 sin t
O 35° 3 2
C
80°
D Practice Plus
In Exercises 29–36, find the length x to the nearest whole unit.
29.
S

13. Find the bearing from O to A.

14. Find the bearing from O to B. x
40°
500
15. Find the bearing from O to C.
25°
16. Find the bearing from O to D.
658  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

30. In Exercises 37–40, an object moves in simple harmonic motion

described by the given equation, where t is measured in seconds
x and d in inches. In each exercise, graph one period of the equation.
20° 100 Then find the following:
8° a. the maximum displacement
b. the frequency
c. the time required for one cycle
31.
x d. the phase shift of the motion.
Describe how (a) through (d) are illustrated by your graph.
p p
37. d = 4 cos apt - b 38. d = 3 cos apt + b
2 2
28°
25° pt p 1 pt p
39. d = -2 sin a + b 40. d = - sin a - b
4 2 2 4 2
600
Application Exercises
32. 41. The tallest television transmitting tower in the world is in
x North Dakota. From a point on level ground 5280 feet (1 mile)
from the base of the tower, the angle of elevation is 21.3°.
Approximate the height of the tower to the nearest foot.
42. From a point on level ground 30 yards from the base of a
40° building, the angle of elevation is 38.7°. Approximate the
28° height of the building to the nearest foot.
43. The Statue of Liberty is approximately 305 feet tall. If the angle
400 of elevation from a ship to the top of the statue is 23.7°, how
far, to the nearest foot, is the ship from the statue’s base?
33. 44. A 200-foot cliff drops vertically into the ocean. If the angle of
elevation from a ship to the top of the cliff is 22.3°, how far off
shore, to the nearest foot, is the ship?
300 45. A helicopter hovers 1000 feet above a small island. The
figure shows that the angle of depression from the helicopter
to point P on the coast is 36°. How far off the coast, to the
64° 34° nearest foot, is the island?

x
36°

34.
1000 ft
500
20° 48°

x P
d

35.
46. A police helicopter is flying at 800 feet. A stolen car is sighted at
x an angle of depression of 72°. Find the distance of the stolen car,
20° 40° to the nearest foot, from a point directly below the helicopter.

400

36.
72°

x 800 ft

38°
43°

100 d
 Section 5.8 Applications of Trigonometric Functions   659

47. A wheelchair ramp is to be built beside the steps to the 59. An object in simple harmonic motion has a frequency of
1
campus library. Find the angle of elevation of the 23-foot 2 oscillation per minute and an amplitude of 6 feet. Write
ramp, to the nearest tenth of a degree, if its final height is an equation in the form d = a sin vt for the object’s simple
6 feet. harmonic motion.
48. A building that is 250 feet high casts a shadow 40 feet long. 60. An object in simple harmonic motion has a frequency of
1
Find the angle of elevation, to the nearest tenth of a degree, 4 oscillation per minute and an amplitude of 8 feet. Write
of the Sun at this time. an equation in the form d = a sin vt for the object’s simple
49. A hot-air balloon is rising vertically. From a point on level harmonic motion.
ground 125 feet from the point directly under the passenger
61. A piano tuner uses a tuning fork. If middle C has a frequency
compartment, the angle of elevation to the ballon changes
of 264 vibrations per second, write an equation in the form
from 19.2° to 31.7°. How far, to the nearest tenth of a foot,
d = sin vt for the simple harmonic motion.
does the balloon rise during this period?
62. A radio station, 98.1 on the FM dial, has radio waves with a
frequency of 98.1 million cycles per second. Write an equation
in the form d = sin vt for the simple harmonic motion of the
radio waves.

Explaining the Concepts

63. What does it mean to solve a right triangle?
?
64. Explain how to find one of the acute angles of a right triangle
if two sides are known.
31.7° 65. Describe a situation in which a right triangle and a
19.2°
trigonometric function are used to measure a height or
125 ft distance that would otherwise be inconvenient or impossible
to measure.
50. A flagpole is situated on top of a building. The angle of 66. What is meant by the bearing from point O to point P? Give
elevation from a point on level ground 330 feet from the an example with your description.
building to the top of the flagpole is 63°. The angle of elevation 67. What is simple harmonic motion? Give an example with your
from the same point to the bottom of the flagpole is 53°. Find description.
the height of the flagpole to the nearest tenth of a foot. 68. Explain the period and the frequency of simple harmonic
51. A boat leaves the entrance to a harbor and travels 150 miles motion. How are they related?
on a bearing of N 53° E. How many miles north and how 69. Explain how the photograph of the damaged highway on
many miles east from the harbor has the boat traveled? page 656 illustrates simple harmonic motion.
52. A boat leaves the entrance to a harbor and travels 40 miles on
a bearing of S 64° E. How many miles south and how many
miles east from the harbor has the boat traveled? Technology Exercises
53. A forest ranger sights a fire directly to the south. A second The functions in Exercises 70–71 model motion in which the
ranger, 7 miles east of the first ranger, also sights the fire. The amplitude decreases with time due to friction or other resistive
bearing from the second ranger to the fire is S 28° W. How forces. Graph each function in the given viewing rectangle.
far, to the nearest tenth of a mile, is the first ranger from the How many complete oscillations occur on the time interval
fire? 0 … x … 10?
54. A ship sights a lighthouse directly to the south. A second ship, 70. y = 4e -0.1x cos 2x; [0, 10, 1] by [ -4, 4, 1]
9 miles east of the first ship, also sights the lighthouse. The
71. y = -6e -0.09x cos 2px; [0, 10, 1] by [ - 6, 6, 1]
bearing from the second ship to the lighthouse is S 34° W.
How far, to the nearest tenth of a mile, is the first ship from
the lighthouse?
Critical Thinking Exercises
55. You leave your house and run 2 miles due west followed by
1.5 miles due north. At that time, what is your bearing from Make Sense? In Exercises 72–75, determine whether each
your house? statement makes sense or does not make sense, and explain your
reasoning.
56. A ship is 9 miles east and 6 miles south of a harbor. What
bearing should be taken to sail directly to the harbor? 72. A wheelchair ramp must be constructed so that the slope is
57. A jet leaves a runway whose bearing is N 35° E from the not more than 1 inch of rise for every 1 foot of run, so I used
control tower. After flying 5 miles, the jet turns 90° and files the tangent function to determine the maximum angle that
on a bearing of S 55° E for 7 miles. At that time, what is the the ramp can make with the ground.
bearing of the jet from the control tower? 73. The bearing from O to A is N 103° W.
58. A ship leaves port with a bearing of S 40° W. After traveling 74. The bearing from O to B is E 70° S.
7 miles, the ship turns 90° and travels on a bearing of N 50° W 75. I analyzed simple harmonic motion in which the period
for 11 miles. At that time, what is the bearing of the ship from was 10 seconds and the frequency was 0.2 oscillation per
port? second.
660  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

76. The figure shows a satellite circling 112 miles above Earth. Retaining the Concepts
When the satellite is directly above point B, angle A measures
79. You invested $3000 in two accounts paying 6% and 8%
76.6°. Find Earth’s radius to the nearest mile.
annual interest. If the total interest earned for the year was
A $230, how much was invested at each rate?
112 miles (Section 1.3, Example 5)
76.6°
B 80. Solve: (x - 1)2 = 5.
(Section 1.5, Example 2)
81. Graph: f(x) = 23x - 2.

(Section 2.3, Example 4)

r r
Preview Exercises
Exercises 82–84 will help you prepare for the material covered
in the first section of the next chapter. The exercises use identities,
introduced in Section 5.2, that enable you to rewrite trigonometric
expressions so that they contain only sines and cosines:
77. The angle of elevation to the top of a building changes from 1 1
csc x = sec x =
20° to 40° as an observer advances 75 feet toward the building. sin x cos x
Find the height of the building to the nearest foot. sin x cos x
tan x = cot x = .
cos x sin x
Group Exercise
In Exercises 82–84, rewrite each expression by changing to sines
78. Music and mathematics have been linked over the centuries. and cosines. Then simplify the resulting expression.
Group members should research and present a seminar to the
82. sec x cot x 83. tan x csc x cos x
class on music and mathematics. Be sure to include the role of
trigonometric functions in the music-mathematics link. 84. sec x + tan x

Chapter 5 Summary, Review, and Test

Summary
Definitions and Concepts Examples
5.1 Angles and Radian Measure
a. An angle consists of two rays with a common endpoint, the vertex.
b. An angle is in standard position if its vertex is at the origin and its initial side lies along the
positive x@axis. Figure 5.3 on page 543 shows positive and negative angles in standard position.
c. A quadrantal angle is an angle with its terminal side on the x@axis or the y@axis.
1
d. Angles can be measured in degrees. 1° is 360 of a complete rotation.
e. Acute angles measure more than 0° but less than 90°, right angles 90°, obtuse angles more Figure 5.5, p. 543
than 90° but less than 180°, and straight angles 180°.
f. Angles can be measured in radians. One radian is the measure of the central angle when the Ex. 1, p. 545
intercepted arc and radius have the same length. In general, the radian measure of a central
s
angle is the length of the intercepted arc divided by the circle’s radius: u = .
r
p radians Ex. 2, p. 546;
g. To convert from degrees to radians, multiply degrees by . To convert from radians Ex. 3, p. 546
180° 180°
to degrees, multiply radians by .
p radians
 Summary, Review, and Test   661

Definitions and Concepts Examples

h. To draw angles measured in radians in standard position, it is helpful to “think in radians” Ex. 4, p. 547
without having to convert to degrees. See Figure 5.15 on page 549.
i. Two angles with the same initial and terminal sides are called coterminal angles. Increasing Ex. 5, p. 550;
or decreasing an angle’s measure by integer multiples of 360° or 2p produces coterminal Ex. 6, p. 551;
angles. Ex. 7, p. 552
j. The arc length formula is s = ru, as described in the box on page 553. Ex. 8, p. 553
s u
k. The definition of linear speed is y = ; angular speed is v = , as given in the box on page 554.
t t
l. Linear speed is expressed in terms of angular speed by v = rv, where v is the linear speed Ex. 9, p. 555
of a point a distance r from the center of rotation and v is the angular speed in radians per
unit of time.

5.2 Right Triangle Trigonometry

a. The right triangle definitions of the six trigonometric functions are given in the box on page 560: Ex. 1, p. 561;
opp hyp adj hyp opp adj Ex. 2, p. 562
sin u = ; csc u = ; cos u = ; sec u = ; tan u = ; cot u =
hyp opp hyp adj adj opp
b. Function values for 30°, 45°, and 60° can be Ex. 3, p. 562;
obtained using these special triangles. Ex. 4, p. 563

2
√3
30° = p6 45°
√2
1

60° = p3 45° = p4

1 1

c. Fundamental Identities Ex. 5, p. 565;

1. Reciprocal Identities Ex. 6, p. 566
1 1 1 1 1 1
sin u = and csc u = ; cos u = and sec u = ; tan u = and cot u =
csc u sin u sec u cos u cot u tan u
2. Quotient Identities
sin u cos u
tan u = ; cot u =
cos u sin u
3. Pythagorean Identities
sin2 u + cos2 u = 1; 1 + tan2 u = sec2 u; 1 + cot2 u = csc2 u
p Ex. 7, p. 567
d. Two angles are complements if their sum is 90° or . The value of a trigonometric function
2
of u is equal to the cofunction of the complement of u. Cofunction identities are listed in the
box on page 567.
5.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle
a. Definitions of the trigonometric functions of any angle are given in the box on page 577: Ex. 1, p. 577;
y r x r y x Ex. 2, p. 578
sin u = ; csc u = ; cos u = ; sec u = ; tan u = ; cot u = : r = 2x 2 + y2
r y r x x y
b. Signs of the trigonometric functions: All functions are positive in quadrant I. If u lies in Ex. 3, p. 579;
quadrant II, sin u and csc u are positive. If u lies in quadrant III, tan u and cot u are positive. Ex. 4, p. 579
If u lies in quadrant IV, cos u and sec u are positive.
662  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

Definitions and Concepts Examples

c. If u is a nonacute angle in standard position that lies in a quadrant, its reference angle is the Ex. 5, p. 581;
positive acute angle u = formed by the terminal side of u and the x@axis. The reference angle Ex. 6, p. 582
for a given angle can be found by making a sketch that shows the angle in standard position.
Figure 5.40 on page 580 shows reference angles for u in quadrants II, III, and IV.
d. The values of the trigonometric functions of a given angle are the same as the values of the Ex. 7, p. 583;
functions of the reference angle, except possibly for the sign. A procedure for using reference Ex. 8, p. 585
angles to evaluate trigonometric functions is given in the box on page 583.

5.4 Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers; Periodic Functions

a. Definitions of the trigonometric functions in terms of a unit circle are given in the box on Ex. 1, p. 590;
page 590. Ex. 2, p. 591
b. The cosine and secant functions are even: Ex. 3, p. 593
cos( -t) = cos t, sec( -t) = sec t.
The other trigonometric functions are odd:
sin( -t) = -sin t, csc( -t) = -csc t,
tan( -t) = -tan t, cot( -t) = -cot t.
c. If f(t + p) = f(t), the function f is periodic. The smallest positive value of p for which Ex. 4, p. 593
f(t + p) = f(t) is the period of f. The tangent and cotangent functions have period p. The
other four trigonometric functions have period 2p.

5.5 and 5.6 Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

a. Graphs of the six trigonometric functions, with a description of the domain, range, and period
of each function, are given in Table 5.6 on page 628.
b. The graph of y = A sin(Bx - C), B 7 0, can be obtained using amplitude =  A  , Ex. 1, p. 601;
2p C Ex. 2, p. 602;
period = , and phase shift = . See the illustration in the box on page 606. Ex. 3, p. 604;
B B
Ex. 4, p. 606
c. The graph of y = A cos(Bx - C), B 7 0, can be obtained using amplitude =  A  , Ex. 5, p. 609;
2p C Ex. 6, p. 611
period = , and phase shift = . See the illustration in the box on page 611.
B B
d. The constant D in y = A sin(Bx - C) + D and y = A cos(Bx - C) + D causes vertical Ex. 7, p. 612
shifts in the graphs in the preceding items (b) and (c). If D 7 0, the shift is D units
upward and if D 6 0, the shift is 0 D 0 units downward. Oscillation is about the horizontal
line y = D.
e. The graph of y = A tan(Bx - C), B 7 0, is obtained using the procedure in the box on Ex. 1, p. 622;
page 622. Consecutive asymptotes Ex. 2, p. 623
p p p p
asolve - 6 Bx - C 6 ; consecutive asymptotes occur at Bx - C = - and Bx - C = b
2 2 2 2
and an x@intercept midway between them play a key role in the graphing process.
f. The graph of y = A cot(Bx - C), B 7 0, is obtained using the procedure in the lower box on Ex. 3, p. 624
page 624. Consecutive asymptotes (solve 0 6 Bx - C 6 p; consecutive asymptotes occur
at Bx - C = 0 and Bx - C = p) and an x@intercept midway between them play a key role
in the graphing process.
g. To graph a cosecant curve, begin by graphing the corresponding sine curve. Draw Ex. 4, p. 626;
vertical asymptotes through x@intercepts, using asymptotes as guides to sketch the graph. Ex. 5, p. 627
To graph a secant curve, first graph the corresponding cosine curve and use the same
procedure.
 Summary, Review, and Test   663

Definitions and Concepts Examples

5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
p p Ex. 1, p. 635;
a. On the restricted domain - … x … , y = sin x has an inverse function, defined in the
2 2 p p Ex. 2, p. 636
box on page 634. Think of sin-1 x as the angle in c - , d whose sine is x. A procedure for
2 2
finding exact values of sin-1 x is given in the box on page 635.
b. On the restricted domain 0 … x … p, y = cos x has an inverse function, defined in the Ex. 3, p. 637
upper box on page 637. Think of cos-1 x as the angle in [0, p] whose cosine is x. A procedure
for finding exact values of cos-1 x is given in the lower box on page 637.
p p Ex. 4, p. 639
c. On the restricted domain - 6 x 6 , y = tan x has an inverse function, defined in the
2 2
-1 p p
box on page 638. Think of tan x as the angle in a - , b whose tangent is x. A procedure
2 2
for finding exact values of tan-1 x is given in the box on page 639.
d. Graphs of the three basic inverse trigonometric functions, with a description of the domain
and range of each function, are given in Table 5.10 on page 640.
e. Inverse properties are given in the box on page 642. Points on terminal sides of angles in Ex. 6, p. 643;
standard position and right triangles are used to find exact values of the composition of a Ex. 7, p. 643;
function and a different inverse function. Ex. 8, p. 644;
Ex. 9, p. 645

5.8 Applications of Trigonometric Functions

a. Solving a right triangle means finding the missing lengths of its sides and the measurements Ex. 1, p. 649;
of its angles. The Pythagorean Theorem, two acute angles whose sum is 90°, and appropriate Ex. 2, p. 650;
trigonometric functions are used in this process. Ex. 3, p. 651;
Ex. 4, p. 651
b. The bearing from point O to point P is the acute angle between ray OP and a north-south Ex. 5, p. 652;
line, shown in Figure 5.105 on page 652. Ex. 6, p. 653
c. Simple harmonic motion, described in the box on page 654, is modeled by d = a cos vt or Ex. 7, p. 654;
2p v 1 Ex. 8, p. 655
d = a sin vt, with amplitude =  a , period = , and frequency = = .
v 2p period

Achieving Success
This was a long chapter! Here’s where you can find the essential information to achieve success as you continue studying trigonometry.
Much of the essential information in this chapter can be found in three places:
• The Achieving Success feature on page 586, showing special angles and how to obtain exact values of trigonometric functions at
these angles
• Table 5.6 on page 628, showing the graphs of the six trigonometric functions, with their domains, ranges, and periods
• Table 5.10 on page 640, showing graphs of the three basic inverse trigonometric functions, with their domains and ranges.
Make copies of these pages and mount them on cardstock. Use this reference sheet as you work the review exercises until you have
all the information on the reference sheet memorized for the chapter test.

Review Exercises
5.1 In Exercises 5–7, convert each angle in radians to degrees.
5p 7p 5p
1. Find the radian measure of the central angle of a circle 5. 6. 7. -
of radius 6 centimeters that intercepts an arc of length 3 5 6
27 centimeters.
In Exercises 8–12, draw each angle in standard position.
In Exercises 2–4, convert each angle in degrees to radians. Express 5p 2p 8p
your answer as a multiple of p. 8. 9. - 10.
6 3 3
2. 15° 3. 120° 4. 315° 11. 190° 12. -135°
664  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

In Exercises 13–17, find a positive angle less than 360° or 2p that is 1 p

coterminal with the given angle. 32. If sin u = and u is acute, find tan a - u b.
4 2
13p
13. 400° 14. -445° 15. 33. A hiker climbs for a half mile up a slope whose inclination
4 is 17°. How many feet of altitude, to the nearest foot, does the
31p 8p
16. 17. - hiker gain?
6 3
34. To find the distance across a lake, a surveyor took the
18. Find the length of the arc on a circle of radius 10 feet
measurements in the figure shown. What is the distance
intercepted by a 135° central angle. Express arc length
across the lake? Round to the nearest meter.
in terms of p. Then round your answer to two decimal
places.

19. The angular speed of a propeller on a wind generator is

10.3 revolutions per minute. Express this angular speed in
radians per minute.
20. The propeller of an airplane has a radius of 3 feet. The
propeller is rotating at 2250 revolutions per minute. Find the
linear speed, in feet per minute, of the tip of the propeller. 32°
50 m
5.2
21. Use the triangle to find each of the six trigonometric 35. When a six-foot pole casts a four-foot shadow, what is the
functions of u. angle of elevation of the Sun? Round to the nearest whole
B degree.
5
u 5.3 and 5.4
A 8 C In Exercises 36–37, a point on the terminal side of angle u is given.
In Exercises 22–25, find the exact value of each expression. Do not Find the exact value of each of the six trigonometric functions of u,
use a calculator. or state that the function is undefined.
p p p p 36. ( -1, - 5) 37. (0, - 1)
22. sin + tan2 23. cos2 - tan2
6 3 4 4
2p 2p 2p 2p In Exercises 38–39, let u be an angle in standard position. Name the
24. sec - tan 25. cos sec
5 5 9 9 quadrant in which u lies.
227 38. tan u 7 0 and sec u 7 0 39. tan u 7 0 and cos u 6 0
26. If u is an acute angle and sin u = , use the identity
7
sin2 u + cos2 u = 1 to find cos u.
In Exercises 40–42, find the exact value of each of the remaining
In Exercises 27–28, find a cofunction with the same value as the trigonometric functions of u.
given expression.
p 40. cos u = 25, sin u 6 0 41. tan u = - 13, sin u 7 0
27. sin 70° 28. cos 42. cot u = 3, cos u 6 0
2
In Exercises 29–31, find the measure of the side of the right triangle
whose length is designated by a lowercase letter. Round answers to In Exercises 43–47, find the reference angle for each angle.
the nearest whole number. 5p
43. 265° 44. 45. - 410°
29. B 8
17p 11p
46. 47. -
a 6 3

23°
A C In Exercises 48–58, find the exact value of each expression. Do not
100 mm
use a calculator.
30. B 31. B 7p
48. sin 240° 49. tan 120° 50. sec
4
11p 2p
50 in. 51. cos 52. cot( - 210°) 53. csc a - b
c a 6 3
20 cm p 13p
54. sin a - b 55. sin 495° 56. tan
48° 3 4
C A
61° 22p 35p
A 57. sin 58. cos a - b
C 3 6
 Summary, Review, and Test   665

5.5 78. y = 2 cot 3x

1 p
79. y = - cot x
In Exercises 59–64, determine the amplitude and period of each 2 2
function. Then graph one period of the function. p
80. y = 2 cot ax + b
2
59. y = 3 sin 4x 60. y = -2 cos 2x
In Exercises 81–84, graph two full periods of the given cosecant or
1 1 p
61. y = 2 cos x 62. y = sin x secant function.
2 2 3
x 81. y = 3 sec 2px 82. y = -2 csc px
63. y = - sin px 64. y = 3 cos 5
3 83. y = 3 sec(x + p) 84. y = 2 csc(x - p)

In Exercises 65–69, determine the amplitude, period, and phase 5.7

shift of each function. Then graph one period of the function.
In Exercises 85–103, find the exact value of each expression. Do not
65. y = 2 sin(x - p) 66. y = -3 cos(x + p) use a calculator.
3 p 5 p 85. sin-1 1 86. cos-1 1
67. y = cos a2x + b 68. y = sin a2x + b
2 4 2 2
23
p 87. tan-1 1 88. sin-1 ¢ - ≤
69. y = - 3 sin a x - 3pb 2
3
1 23
89. cos-1 a - b 90. tan-1 ¢ - ≤
In Exercises 70–71, use a vertical shift to graph one period of the 2 3
function.
22
91. cos ¢sin-1 ≤ 92. sin(cos-1 0)
70. y = sin 2x + 1 71. y = 2 cos 13 x - 2 2
72. The function 1 23
93. tanc sin-1 a - b d 94. tanc cos-1 a - bd
p 11p 2 2
y = 98.6 + 0.3 sin a x - b
12 12 23 3
95. csc atan-1 b 96. cos atan-1 b
3 4
models variation in body temperature, y, in °F, x hours after
midnight. 3 3
97. sin acos-1 b 98. tanJsin-1 a - b R
a. What is body temperature at midnight? 5 5
b. What is the period of the body temperature cycle?
4 1
c. When is body temperature highest? What is the body 99. tanc cos-1 a - b d 100. sinc tan-1 a - b d
5 3
temperature at this time?
d. When is body temperature lowest? What is the body p 2p
101. sin-1 asin b 102. sin-1 asin b
temperature at this time? 3 3
e. Graph one period of the body temperature function.
2p
73. Light waves can be modeled by sine functions. The graphs 103. sin-1 acos b
3
show waves of red and blue light. Write an equation in the
form y = A sin Bx that models each of these light waves.
In Exercises 104–105, use a right triangle to write each expression as
y an algebraic expression. Assume that x is positive and that the given
inverse trigonometric function is defined for the expression in x.

1 x 1
104. cos atan-1 b 105. sec asin-1 b
2 x

x
120 200 320 400 520 600 720 800 5.8
Nanometers
In Exercises 106–109, solve the right triangle shown in the figure.
–1 Round lengths to two decimal places and express angles to the
nearest tenth of a degree.
B

5.6
c
In Exercises 74–80, graph two full periods of the given tangent or a
cotangent function.
p A
74. y = 4 tan 2x 75. y = -2 tan x b C
4
p 106. A = 22.3°, c = 10 107. B = 37.4°, b = 6
76. y = tan(x + p) 77. y = -tan ax - b
4 108. a = 2, c = 7 109. a = 1.4, b = 3.6
666  Chapter 5 Trigonometric Functions

110. From a point on level ground 80 feet from the base of a 116. From city A to city B, a plane flies 850 miles at a bearing of
building, the angle of elevation is 25.6°. Approximate the N 58° E. From city B to city C, the plane flies 960 miles at a
height of the building to the nearest foot. bearing of S 32° E.
111. Two buildings with flat roofs are 60 yards apart. The height a. Find, to the nearest tenth of a mile, the distance from
of the shorter building is 40 yards. From its roof, the angle of city A to city C.
elevation to the edge of the roof of the taller building is 40°. b. What is the bearing from city A to city C?
Find the height of the taller building to the nearest yard.
112. You want to measure the height of an antenna on the top
of a 125-foot building. From a point in front of the building, In Exercises 117–118, an object moves in simple harmonic motion
you measure the angle of elevation to the top of the building described by the given equation, where t is measured in seconds
to be 68° and the angle of elevation to the top of the antenna and d in centimeters. In each exercise, find:
to be 71°. How tall is the antenna, to the nearest tenth of a a. the maximum displacement
foot? b. the frequency
c. the time required for one cycle.
In Exercises 113–114, use the figures shown to find the bearing
from O to A. p 1
117. d = 20 cos t 118. d = 2 sin 4t
4
113. N
114. N In Exercises 119–120, an object is attached to a coiled spring. In
A Exercise 119, the object is pulled down (negative direction from
O
W E the rest position) and then released. In Exercise 120, the object is
55° 55° propelled downward from its rest position. Write an equation for
W E the distance of the object from its rest position after t seconds.
O A

S Distance from Rest

115. A ship is due west of a lighthouse. A second ship isS 12 miles Position at t = 0 Amplitude Period
south of the first ship. The bearing from the second ship to 119. 30 inches 30 inches 2 seconds
the lighthouse is N 64° E. How far, to the nearest tenth of
120. 0 inches 1
inch 5 seconds
a mile, is the first ship from the lighthouse? 4

Chapter 5 Test
1. Convert 135° to an exact radian measure. 8p
11. cot a - b
2. Find the length of the arc on a circle of radius 20 feet 3
intercepted by a 75° central angle. Express arc length in terms 7p
of p. Then round your answer to two decimal places. 12. tan a + npb, n is an integer.
3
3. a. Find a positive angle less than 2p that is coterminal
16p 13. If sin u = a and cos u = b, represent each of the following in
with . terms of a and b.
3
16p a. sin( -u) + cos( - u)
b. Find the reference angle for .
3
4. If ( -2, 5) is a point on the terminal side of angle u, find the b. tan u - sec u
exact value of each of the six trigonometric functions of u.
5. Determine the quadrant in which u lies if cos u 6 0 and In Exercises 14–17, graph one period of each function.
cot u 7 0.
p
6. If cos u = 13 and tan u 6 0, find the exact value of each of the 14. y = 3 sin 2x 15. y = -2 cos ax - b
2
remaining trigonometric functions of u.
x
16. y = 2 tan 17. y = - 12 csc px
In Exercises 7–12, find the exact value of each expression. Do not 2
use a calculator. 18. Find the exact value of tan 3 cos-1 1 - 12 2 4 .
p p p
7. tan cos - cos 8. tan 300° x
6 3 2 19. Write sin acos-1 b as an algebraic expression. Assume that
3
7p 22p x
9. sin 10. sec x 7 0 and is in the domain of the inverse cosine function.
4 3 3
 Summary, Review, and Test   667

20. Solve the right triangle in the figure shown. Round lengths 23. Use the figure to find the bearing from O to P.
to one decimal place.
N
B
13 P
a
21° W E
O
A C 10°
b
S
21. The angle of elevation to the top of a building from a point
on the ground 30 yards from its base is 37°. Find the height of 24. An object moves in simple harmonic motion described by
the building to the nearest yard. d = -6 cos pt, where t is measured in seconds and d in
22. A 73-foot rope from the top of a circus tent pole is anchored inches. Find a. the maximum displacement, b. the frequency,
to the flat ground 43 feet from the bottom of the pole. Find and c. the time required for one oscillation.
the angle, to the nearest tenth of a degree, that the rope 25. Why are trigonometric functions ideally suited to model
makes with the pole. phenomena that repeat in cycles?

Cumulative Review Exercises (Chapters 1–5)

Solve each equation or inequality in Exercises 1–6. p
15. y = sin a2x + b, from 0 to 2p
2
1. x = 18 + 3x 2

2. x 3 + 5x 2 - 4x - 20 = 0 16. y = 2 tan 3x; Graph two complete cycles.

3. log2 x + log2(x - 2) = 3 17. You invest in a new play. The cost includes an overhead of
$30,000, plus production costs of $2500 per performance.
4. 2x - 3 + 5 = x A sold-out performance brings you $3125. How many sold-
5. x 3 - 4x 2 + x + 6 = 0 out performances must be played in order for you to break
even?
6.  2x - 5 … 11
18. Use the exponential growth model A = A0e kt to solve
7. If f(x) = 2x - 6, find f -1(x). this exercise. In 2000, there were 110 million cellphone
8. Divide 20x 3 - 6x 2 - 9x + 10 by 5x + 2. subscribers in the United States. By 2010, there were
303 million subscribers. (Source: CTIA)
9. Write as a single logarithm and evaluate: log 25 + log 40.
a. Find the exponential function that models the data.
14p
10. Convert radians to degrees. b. According to the model, in which year were there
9
400 ­million cellphone subscribers in the United States?
11. Find the maximum number of positive and negative real
roots of the equation 3x 4 - 2x 3 + 5x 2 + x - 9 = 0. 19. The rate of heat lost through insulation varies inversely as
the thickness of the insulation. The rate of heat lost through
In Exercises 12–16, graph each equation. a 3.5-inch thickness of insulation is 2200 Btu per hour. What
x is the rate of heat lost through a 5-inch thickness of the same
12. f(x) = 2 insulation?
x - 1
20. A tower is 200 feet tall. To the nearest degree, find the angle
13. (x - 2)2 + y2 = 1
of elevation from a point 50 feet from the base of the tower
14. y = (x - 1)(x + 2)2 to the top of the tower.
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