Okay, here are the answers to your Human Anatomy and Physiology question paper:

SECTION A: Very Short Answer (10 x 1 = 10 Marks)

i. Define blood. Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the body,
transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
ii. What is pH of blood? The normal pH of blood is slightly alkaline, ranging from approximately
7.35 to 7.45.
iii. What is leukemia? Leukemia is a type of cancer of the blood and bone marrow
characterized by an abnormal increase in immature white blood cells.
iv. What is hemopoiesis? Hemopoiesis (or hematopoiesis) is the process of blood cell
formation, including the production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
v. What is lymph? Lymph is a clear, watery fluid that circulates through the lymphatic system,
collecting waste products, bacteria, and excess fluid from tissues.
vi. Write the function of lymph. Lymph plays a crucial role in the immune system by
transporting lymphocytes and filtering out pathogens and cellular debris. It also helps in fluid
balance by returning excess interstitial fluid to the bloodstream.
vii. Define lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is a network of vessels, nodes, and
organs that helps to maintain fluid balance in the body and plays a key role in the immune
system.
viii. What is heart? The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the circulatory
system, delivering oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing waste products.
ix. What is blood pressure? Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the
walls of blood vessels. It is typically measured as systolic pressure (when the heart contracts)
over diastolic pressure (when the heart relaxes).
x. Define electrocardiogram? An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a diagnostic tool that
records the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time, providing information about its
rhythm and function.
SECTION B: Short Answer (5 x 3 = 15 Marks)
1.​ What are the functions of blood?
○​ Transportation: Carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, and waste
products.
○​ Regulation: Helps regulate body temperature, pH, and fluid balance.
○​ Protection: Contains white blood cells that fight infection and platelets that aid in
blood clotting.
2.​ Write the function of lymphatic system.
○​ Fluid Balance: Returns excess interstitial fluid (lymph) to the bloodstream,
preventing edema.
○​ Immune Defense: Filters lymph through lymph nodes, where lymphocytes identify
and destroy pathogens. Transports lymphocytes throughout the body.
○​ Fat Absorption: Transports absorbed fats from the small intestine to the
bloodstream via lacteals.
3.​ Give a brief note on blood vessels. Blood vessels form a network throughout the body
that carries blood. There are three main types:
○​ Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except for the pulmonary
artery). They have thick, elastic walls to withstand high pressure.
○​ Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart (except for the pulmonary
veins). They have thinner walls and valves to prevent backflow.
○​ Capillaries: Tiny, thin-walled vessels that connect arteries and veins. They are the
site of exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between blood and
 tissues.
4.​ What is cardiac cycle? The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occurs in one
complete heartbeat. It includes two main phases:
○​ Systole: The contraction of the heart muscle (primarily the ventricles), which
pumps blood out of the heart.
○​ Diastole: The relaxation of the heart muscle, which allows the chambers to fill with
blood. The cycle involves the coordinated contraction and relaxation of the atria and
ventricles, along with the opening and closing of the heart valves.
5.​ Write the functions of spleen. The spleen is an organ of the lymphatic system with
several important functions:
○​ Filtration of Blood: Removes old or damaged red blood cells and platelets from
the circulation.
○​ Immune Surveillance: Contains lymphocytes and macrophages that monitor the
blood for pathogens and initiate immune responses.
○​ Blood Storage: Stores a reserve of blood, which can be released in case of blood
loss.
○​ Hemopoiesis (in fetus): In the developing fetus, the spleen plays a role in blood
cell production.
SECTION C: Long Answer (3 x 5 = 15 Marks)
1.​ Write a note on blood coagulation and blood groups.
○​ Blood Coagulation (Hemostasis): This is the process by which blood clots to stop
bleeding. It involves a complex cascade of enzymatic reactions involving platelets
and plasma proteins called clotting factors. When a blood vessel is injured, platelets
adhere to the damaged site and release substances that activate the clotting
cascade. This cascade ultimately leads to the formation of fibrin, a thread-like
protein that forms a meshwork, trapping blood cells and platelets to create a clot.
○​ Blood Groups: Human blood is classified into different blood groups based on the
presence or absence of specific antigens (proteins and sugars) on the surface of
red blood cells and antibodies in the plasma. The most important blood group
system is the ABO system, which classifies blood into four main types: A, B, AB,
and O. Another significant system is the Rh system, which determines whether a
person is Rh-positive or Rh-negative. Blood typing is crucial for safe blood
transfusions, as incompatible blood types can lead to dangerous immune reactions.
2.​ What are lymph? Give the structure and function of lymphatic system.
○​ Lymph: As defined earlier, lymph is a clear, watery fluid derived from interstitial
fluid. It has a similar composition to plasma but with fewer proteins. It contains
lymphocytes, waste products, cellular debris, and potentially pathogens.
○​ Structure of the Lymphatic System: The lymphatic system consists of:
■​ Lymphatic Vessels: A network of thin-walled vessels that originate as
blind-ended capillaries in tissues. These vessels collect lymph and transport it
towards the heart. Smaller vessels merge into larger ones, eventually forming
lymphatic ducts (thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct) that empty lymph into
the subclavian veins. Lymphatic vessels have valves to ensure unidirectional
flow of lymph.
■​ Lymph Nodes: Small, bean-shaped organs located along lymphatic vessels.
They contain lymphocytes (B cells and T cells) and macrophages. As lymph
flows through the nodes, these immune cells filter out pathogens, cellular
debris, and cancerous cells. Lymph nodes are concentrated in areas like the
 neck, axillae (armpits), and groin.
■​ Lymphatic Organs: These include the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and Peyer's
patches in the small intestine. They are involved in the production,
maturation, and storage of lymphocytes and play a role in immune
surveillance.
○​ Functions of the Lymphatic System: (As described in Section B, question 2)
Fluid balance, immune defense, and fat absorption.
3.​ Give the structure and function of various parts of the heart.
○​ Structure of the Heart: The heart is a four-chambered muscular organ located in
the chest between the lungs. It is enclosed in a protective sac called the
pericardium. The four chambers are:
■​ Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the superior
and inferior vena cava.
■​ Right Ventricle: Receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and
pumps it to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
■​ Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary
veins.
■​ Left Ventricle: Receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium and pumps it
to the rest of the body via the aorta. The left ventricle has thicker walls than
the right ventricle because it needs to generate higher pressure to pump
blood throughout the systemic circulation. The heart also has valves that
ensure unidirectional blood flow:
■​ Tricuspid Valve: Between the right atrium and right ventricle.
■​ Pulmonary Valve: Between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery.
■​ Mitral Valve (Bicuspid Valve): Between the left atrium and left ventricle.
■​ Aortic Valve: Between the left ventricle and aorta. The heart wall consists of
three layers: the epicardium (outer), myocardium (muscular middle layer
responsible for contraction), and endocardium (inner lining).
○​ Functions of Various Parts:
■​ Atria (Right and Left): Receive blood returning to the heart and pump it into
the ventricles.
■​ Ventricles (Right and Left): Pump blood away from the heart to the lungs
(right ventricle) and the rest of the body (left ventricle).
■​ Valves (Tricuspid, Pulmonary, Mitral, Aortic): Ensure that blood flows in
one direction through the heart, preventing backflow between chambers and
into the major blood vessels.
■​ Pericardium: Protects the heart and reduces friction during heartbeats.
■​ Myocardium: Contracts rhythmically to pump blood.
■​ Sinoatrial (SA) Node: The heart's natural pacemaker, initiating the electrical
impulses that cause the heart to beat.
■​ Atrioventricular (AV) Node: Delays the electrical impulse from the SA node,
allowing the atria to contract before the ventricles. It then transmits the
impulse to the ventricles via the bundle of His and Purkinje fibers, causing
ventricular contraction.
Let me know if you have any other questions!