Q Computer H/w review (Processors, Memory, devices, I/O bus)

Here's a concise review of key computer hardware components, focusing on Processors,

Memory, Devices, and I/O Bus:

1. Processors (CPU - Central Processing Unit)

Definition:
The processor is the brain of the computer, executing instructions and managing tasks.

Key Components:

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.

 CU (Control Unit): Directs the operation of the processor.
 Registers: Small, fast storage units for instructions and data.
 Cache: High-speed memory within the CPU for frequently accessed data.

Types:

 Single-core: One processing unit.

 Multi-core (dual, quad, octa): Multiple cores on one chip for parallel processing.
 Hyper-threading: Simulates multiple logical processors per core.

Key Specs:

 Clock Speed (GHz): How fast the CPU operates.

 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): x86, ARM, etc.
 Thermal Design Power (TDP): Heat output, important for cooling solutions.

2. Memory

Definition:
Memory stores data temporarily or permanently for CPU access.

Types of Memory:

 RAM (Random Access Memory):

o Volatile (data lost when power off).
o Temporary storage for active processes.
o Types: DDR3, DDR4, DDR5.
 ROM (Read-Only Memory):
o Non-volatile.
o Stores firmware or BIOS.
 Cache Memory:
o Located on CPU.
 o Levels: L1 (smallest, fastest), L2, L3.
 Virtual Memory:
o Uses part of the hard drive to simulate RAM.
o Enables multitasking when RAM is full.
 Secondary Storage:
o HDD (magnetic, slower, cheaper).
o SSD (faster, more expensive).
o NVMe (faster than SATA SSDs).

3. Devices

Input Devices:

 Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Webcam.

 Convert user actions into digital signals.

Output Devices:

 Monitor, Printer, Speakers.

 Convert digital signals into human-perceivable output.

Storage Devices:

 USB drives, External HDDs/SSDs, Optical drives.

 Store data long-term or portably.

4. I/O Bus (Input/Output Bus)

Definition:
A communication pathway that transfers data between the CPU and peripheral devices.

Types of Buses:

 Data Bus: Carries data.

 Address Bus: Carries memory addresses.
 Control Bus: Carries control signals (read/write, etc).

Examples of I/O Bus Interfaces:

 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect): For internal components like network

cards, sound cards.
 PCIe (PCI Express): High-speed successor to PCI.
 USB (Universal Serial Bus): Standard for connecting peripherals.
 SATA (Serial ATA): Connects storage devices.
 Thunderbolt & FireWire: High-speed data transfer, mostly for media.
Summary Table

Component Role Examples

Processor Executes instructions Intel Core i9, AMD Ryzen 9
Memory Stores data DDR5 RAM, SSD, ROM
Devices User interaction/storage Mouse, Printer, External HDD
I/O Bus Communication channel USB, PCIe, SATA

Q Operating system Basic concepts, Architecture of OS,

Introduction of Different types of Operating System
Operating System (OS) Basics:
1. What is an OS?: Software that manages computer hardware and
provides services to applications.
2. Key Functions: Process management, memory management, file
system management, input/output management, security.
OS Architecture:
1. Kernel: Core part of the OS that interacts with hardware.
2. System Calls: Interface between applications and the OS.
3. User Space: Area where applications run.
Types of Operating Systems:
1. Batch OS: Processes jobs in batches (e.g., mainframe systems).
2. Time-Sharing OS: Allows multiple users to interact with the system
simultaneously (e.g., Unix).
3. Real-Time OS (RTOS): Guarantees predictable and fast responses
to events (e.g., embedded systems).
4. Mobile OS: Designed for mobile devices (e.g., Android, iOS).
5. Distributed OS: Manages multiple computers as a single system
(e.g., clusters, grids).
Other types:
1. Single-user OS: Only one user can use the system at a time (e.g.,
older Windows versions).
2. Multi-user OS: Multiple users can access the system
simultaneously (e.g., Linux, Windows Server).

Q (Mainframe, server side OS Multiprocessor OS, Embedded OS,

Real Time OS, Sensor node OS, Smart card OS)
Types of Operating Systems:
1. Mainframe OS:
- Designed for large-scale computers (mainframes)
- Examples: z/OS, z/VM
2. Server-side OS:
- Manages network resources and services
- Examples: Windows Server, Linux Server
3. Multiprocessor OS:
- Manages multiple CPUs or cores
- Examples: Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP) systems
4. Embedded OS:
- Used in devices like smartphones, appliances, and IoT devices
- Examples: Android, FreeRTOS
5. Real-Time OS (RTOS):
- Guarantees predictable and fast responses to events
 - Examples: VxWorks, QNX
6. Sensor Node OS:
- Designed for wireless sensor networks
- Examples: TinyOS, Contiki
7. Smart Card OS:
- Manages secure data storage and processing on smart cards
- Examples: Java Card, MULTOS
Each type of OS is designed for specific use cases and requirements.

Q Virtualization, Free and Open Source Operating System

Virtualization:
1. Creates virtual versions of hardware, storage, or networks
2. Allows multiple OS to run on a single physical machine
3. Improves resource utilization, flexibility, and scalability
Types of Virtualization:
1. Server Virtualization
2. Desktop Virtualization
3. Network Virtualization
Benefits:
1. Hardware consolidation
2. Increased efficiency
3. Improved disaster recovery
Free and Open-Source Operating Systems:
1. Linux: Popular open-source OS with various distributions (e.g.,
Ubuntu, Fedora)
2. FreeBSD: Open-source OS for servers and embedded systems
3. ReactOS: Open-source OS aiming to be binary-compatible with
Windows
Benefits:
1. Cost-effective
2. Customizable
3. Community-driven development

Q Operating System Architecture

Operating System Architecture:
1. Monolithic Architecture:
- All OS services run in kernel space.
- Examples: Traditional Unix systems.
2. Microkernel Architecture:
- Core services run in kernel space, others in user space.
- Examples: QNX, Mach.
3. Layered Architecture:
- OS divided into layers, each with specific functions.
- Examples: Some older OS designs.
4. Hybrid Architecture:
- Combines elements of monolithic and microkernel designs.
- Examples: Windows NT, macOS (XNU kernel).
Key Components:
1. Kernel: Core part of the OS managing hardware resources.
2. Device Drivers: Manage hardware devices.
3. System Libraries: Provide APIs for applications.
4. System Services: Offer services like process management, file
systems.
Benefits:
1. Modularity: Easier maintenance and updates.
2. Portability: Easier to adapt to different hardware.
3. Security: Better isolation of components.

Q client Server model

Client-Server Model:
A distributed architecture where:
1. Client: Requests services or resources from the server.
2. Server: Provides services, resources, or data to clients.
Key Characteristics:
1. Request-Response: Clients send requests, servers respond with
data or services.
2. Separation of Concerns: Clients focus on user interaction, servers
focus on data management.
Advantages:
1. Scalability: Easy to add more servers or clients as needed.
2. Flexibility: Clients and servers can be developed independently.
3. Security: Servers can control access to sensitive data.
Examples:
1. Web Applications: Web browsers (clients) interact with web
servers.
2. Database Systems: Client applications query database servers.
3. Email Systems: Email clients connect to mail servers.
Benefits:
1. Improved performance
2. Enhanced security
3. Better resource management

Q System Calls
System Calls:
1. Requests services from the operating system kernel.
2. Provides interface between user programs and OS.
Types of System Calls:
1. Process Control: Create, terminate, and manage processes.
2. File Management: Create, read, write, and delete files.
3. Device Management: Request access to hardware devices.
4. Information: Get system information, process status.
5. Protection and Security: Set permissions, access control.
Examples:
1. fork() (create new process)
2. open() (open file)
3. read() (read from file)
4. write() (write to file)
5. exit() (terminate process)
Benefits:
1. Standardized interface
2. Hardware abstraction
3. Security and access control

Q Linker and Loader

Linker and Loader:
Linker (Link Editor):
1. Resolves external references between object files.
2. Combines object files into a single executable file.
3. Resolves library dependencies.
Loader:
1. Loads executable files into memory.
2. Allocates memory for program execution.
3. Prepares program for execution.
Key Functions:
1. Symbol Resolution: Linker resolves symbolic references.
2. Relocation: Loader adjusts addresses for memory allocation.
3. Memory Allocation: Loader allocates memory for program
execution.
Benefits:
1. Modular programming: Linker enables separate compilation.
2. Efficient execution: Loader optimizes memory allocation.

Q Booting of an Operating System

Booting an Operating System:
1. BIOS/UEFI Initialization:
- Firmware initializes hardware components.
- Performs Power-On Self-Test (POST).
2. Bootloader:
- Loads OS kernel into memory.
- Examples: GRUB, LILO, NTLDR.
3. Kernel Loading:
- Kernel is loaded into memory.
- Initializes device drivers and system services.
4. System Initialization:
- OS services and daemons are started.
- System is prepared for user interaction.
Types of Booting:
1. Cold Boot: System starts from power-off state.
2. Warm Boot: System restarts without power-off.
Benefits:
1. Hardware initialization
2. OS loading
3. System preparation
Q Process Management:
Process Management:
Key Concepts:
1. Process: A program in execution.
2. Process States: Running, Waiting, Ready, Zombie, Dead.
3. Process Control Block (PCB): Stores process information.
Process Management Functions:
1. Process Creation: Creating new processes.
2. Process Scheduling: Allocating CPU time to processes.
3. Process Termination: Terminating processes.
4. Process Synchronization: Coordinating access to shared resources.
Process Scheduling Algorithms:
1. First-Come-First-Served (FCFS)
2. Shortest Job First (SJF)
3. Priority Scheduling
4. Round Robin (RR)
Benefits:
1. Efficient resource utilization
2. Improved system responsiveness
3. Multitasking support

Q Process, Process State Diagram, Process Control Block, Process

Scheduling criteria, Process scheduling algorithms
Process:
1. A program in execution.
2. Has its own memory space and resources.
Process State Diagram:
1. New: Process creation.
2. Ready: Waiting for CPU allocation.
3. Running: Executing on CPU.
4. Waiting: Waiting for I/O or resources.
5. Zombie: Terminated, but parent hasn't acknowledged.
6. Dead: Process terminated.
Process Control Block (PCB):
1. Stores process information:
- Process ID (PID)
- Program Counter (PC)
- Registers
- Memory limits
- Priority
Process Scheduling Criteria:
1. CPU Utilization: Maximize CPU usage.
2. Throughput: Maximize processes completed.
3. Turnaround Time: Minimize time taken.
4. Waiting Time: Minimize time spent waiting.
5. Response Time: Minimize time to respond.
Process Scheduling Algorithms:
1. First-Come-First-Served (FCFS): Simple, non-preemptive.
2. Shortest Job First (SJF): Prioritizes shortest jobs.
3. Priority Scheduling: Prioritizes based on priority.
4. Round Robin (RR): Time-sliced, preemptive.
5. Multilevel Feedback Queue: Dynamic priority adjustment.

Q Types of schedulers
Types of Schedulers:
1. Long-Term Scheduler (Job Scheduler):
- Decides which processes to admit to the system.
- Determines degree of multiprogramming.
2. Short-Term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler):
- Allocates CPU to processes.
- Makes decisions on which process to run next.
3. Medium-Term Scheduler (Swapper):
- Manages memory by swapping processes in and out.
- Helps with memory management and multitasking.
Each type of scheduler plays a crucial role in managing system
resources and process execution.

Q threads, types of thread, Thread Scheduling

Q Inter Process Communication

Methods:
1. Message Passing: Processes exchange messages.
2. Shared Memory: Processes share a common memory space.
3. Pipes: Unidirectional communication channel.
4. Sockets: Network-based communication.
5. Semaphores: Synchronization mechanism

Q Race Condition

Q Critical region

Q use of Semaphore

✅ What is a Semaphore?

A semaphore is a synchronization tool used to control access to shared

resources in multithreaded or multiprocess systems.
Q mutex
A mutex, short for mutual exclusion, is a synchronization mechanism that allows
only one thread or process to access a shared resource at a time

Q monitor
an electronic device with a screen used for display (as of television pictures or
computer information)

Q Classical problems on Synchronization

Here are simple definitions of the classical synchronization

problems:

1. Producer-Consumer Problem

A producer puts items into a buffer, and a consumer takes them out.
They must not use the buffer at the same time or overflow/underflow
it.

2. Reader-Writer Problem

Multiple readers can read shared data at the same time, but a writer
must have exclusive access. The goal is to prevent conflicts between
reading and writing.

3. Dining Philosophers Problem

Philosophers sit at a table with one fork between each of them. Each
needs two forks to eat. The problem is to avoid deadlock and ensure
everyone gets a turn.
4. Sleeping Barber Problem

A barber sleeps when no customers are present. If customers arrive,

they wake the barber or wait if the barber is busy. If the waiting room
is full, they leave.

Q Deadlock
Deadlock is a situation in computing where two or more
processes are unable to proceed because each is waiting for the
other to release a resource. This typically happens in multitasking
or multiprocessing environments where processes compete for
limited resources (like memory, files, or printers).

Q Deadlock Characterization
Deadlock Characterization:
Necessary Conditions:
1. Mutual Exclusion: Resources are non-shareable.
2. Hold and Wait: Processes hold resources while waiting for others.
3. No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken away.
4. Circular Wait: Processes wait for each other in a circular chain.
Deadlock Implications:
1. System deadlock: Entire system comes to a halt.
2. Resource waste: Resources are held but not used.
Handling Deadlocks:
1. Prevention: Prevent one of the necessary conditions.
2. Avoidance: Use algorithms to avoid deadlocks (e.g., Banker's
algorithm).
3. Detection: Detect deadlocks and recover.
4. Recovery: Abort processes or preempt resources.

Q Methods of handling Deadlock

🔧 Methods of Handling Deadlock

There are four primary strategies for handling deadlocks in an

operating system. Each has its advantages and trade-offs depending
on system requirements (e.g., real-time vs. general-purpose).

1. Deadlock Prevention

 Goal: Prevent at least one of the four Coffman conditions from

occurring.
 How:
o Mutual Exclusion: Make resources sharable where
possible (not always feasible).
o Hold and Wait: Require a process to request all resources
at once before execution.
o No Preemption: Allow the OS to forcibly take resources
from a process.
o Circular Wait: Impose a total ordering on resource types
and require processes to request resources in that order.
 ✅ Pros: Avoids deadlock entirely.
 ❌ Cons: Can lead to low resource utilization and reduced
concurrency.

2. Deadlock Avoidance
  Goal: Avoid entering unsafe states that might lead to deadlock.
 How: System uses algorithms (e.g., Banker’s Algorithm) to
check whether resource allocation will keep the system in a safe
state.
 ✅ Pros: Allows better resource use than prevention.
 ❌ Cons: Requires advance knowledge of future requests; not
scalable for large systems.

3. Deadlock Detection and Recovery

 Goal: Let deadlocks occur, then detect and recover.

 How:
o Run a deadlock detection algorithm periodically.
o Use Resource Allocation Graphs or wait-for graphs (for
single instances).
o Once detected, recover by:
 Terminating one or more processes involved in the
deadlock.
 Preempting resources and rolling back processes.

 ✅ Pros: Efficient resource utilization; good for systems where

deadlocks are rare.
 ❌ Cons: Detection overhead, and recovery can be complex or
cause data loss.

4. Ignore the Problem (Ostrich Algorithm)

 Goal: Do nothing.
 How: Simply assume that deadlocks are rare and ignore them.
 ✅ Pros: Simplifies OS design.
 ❌ Cons: Risk of indefinite freezing or system failure.
 🚨 Used in UNIX, Linux, and other general-purpose operating
systems.
Q Deadlock prevention and avoidance

1. Deadlock Prevention

 Goal: Prevent at least one of the four Coffman conditions from

occurring.
 How:
o Mutual Exclusion: Make resources sharable where
possible (not always feasible).
o Hold and Wait: Require a process to request all resources
at once before execution.
o No Preemption: Allow the OS to forcibly take resources
from a process.
o Circular Wait: Impose a total ordering on resource types
and require processes to request resources in that order.
 ✅ Pros: Avoids deadlock entirely.
 ❌ Cons: Can lead to low resource utilization and reduced
concurrency.

2. Deadlock Avoidance

 Goal: Avoid entering unsafe states that might lead to deadlock.

 How: System uses algorithms (e.g., Banker’s Algorithm) to
check whether resource allocation will keep the system in a safe
state.
 ✅ Pros: Allows better resource use than prevention.
 ❌ Cons: Requires advance knowledge of future requests; not
scalable for large systems.

Q deadlock detection and Recovery from deadlock

Q Memory Management:
Memory management is the process of controlling and coordinating
a computer's main memory. It ensures that blocks of memory space
are properly managed and allocated so the operating system (OS),
applications and other running processes have the memory they
need to carry out their operations.

Q Continuous Memory Allocation

Contiguous memory allocation is a method where a process is
assigned a single, continuous block of memory. This means all
the memory space required by the process is located together,
not scattered across different areas.

Q Paging
Paging is a function of memory management where a computer will
store and retrieve data from a device's secondary storage to the
primary storage
Q Swapping.

Swapping is a memory management technique where an

operating system temporarily moves processes between main
memory (RAM) and secondary storage (like a hard disk) to improve
memory utilization and enable more processes to run concurrently

Q Virtual memory:
Virtual memory is a memory management technique that allows
a computer to use secondary storage (like a hard drive or SSD)
as if it were part of the RAM, creating the illusion of a larger
memory space.

Q paging

Paging is a way for your computer to manage memory.

It breaks memory into small, equal-sized parts so it
can be used more easily and efficiently.

Q Page table Structure

The page table is like a list or table that helps the computer keep
track of where each part (page) of a program is stored in RAM
(memory).

Q Page Table for large memory

When a computer has a lot of memory (like in modern 64-bit

systems), the page table can become very big because:

 More memory = more pages

  More pages = more entries in the page table

Q Page replacement Algorithms

🔄 Page Replacement Algorithms – Simple Explanation

When a program needs a page that’s not in memory, and the RAM is
already full, the system must remove a page to make space. This is
called page replacement.

Page Replacement Algorithms decide which page to remove

Q page Size

Page Size – Simple Explanation

Page size is the size of each page in memory. Both virtual
memory (your program’s memory) and physical memory
(RAM) are split into equal-sized pages and frames.

Q Page Fault Handling

A page fault happens when a program tries to use memory (a page)
that is not currently in RAM.

Q Segmentation
Instead of dividing memory into fixed-size pages, segmentation
divides a program’s memory into logical parts called segments.
Q File management:
File Management is how an operating system (OS) organizes,
stores, and retrieves data on storage devices like hard drives, SSDs,
or USB drives

Q File naming
File naming is how we give a name to a file so it can be identified
and accessed by the operating system and users

Q File structures
File structure refers to how data is organized inside a file. Just like
books can have chapters or sections, files can be organized in
different ways depending on how the data will be used.

Q file types
File types tell us what kind of data a file contains and which
program can open it.

Each file type has a specific file extension, like .txt, .jpg, or .mp3.
Q Single Level and Hierarchical OS

Q Shared file

A shared file is a file that can be accessed by multiple users or

programs, either at the same time or at different times. It's
commonly used

Q Disk managent and related algorithms

Disk management is a crucial component of operating systems and

computer architecture that deals with how data is stored, retrieved,
and managed on storage devices like hard drives and SSDs. It
includes various techniques and algorithms to optimize storage use,
improve access time, and ensure data integrity.
Q Security and Protection:

Security and protection are core responsibilities of an operating

system (OS), ensuring that data and system resources are used
safely, securely, and correctly.

Q security Threats and Attackers

🔐 What is a Security Threat?

A security threat is anything that can harm your computer

system or steal your data.

🧑💻 Who are the Attackers?

Attackers are people who try to break into your computer

or system for different reasons.

Q Controlling Access to Resources (Protection Domain,

access Control List,)
🔐 What is Controlling Access to Resources?

Your computer has many resources like:

 Files and folders

 Printers
 Memory
 Programs

We need to control who can use what, to keep things safe and
organized.
This is where protection comes in — the operating system decides
what each user or program is allowed to do.

🧑 1. Protection Domain

A Protection Domain is like a permission box.

It defines what a user or program can access and what actions they
can perform.

🔹 Think of it like this:

Imagine you’re in a school.

 A student can go to the classroom and library, but not the

principal's office.
 A teacher can go to the classroom, library, and staff room.

🗂️ 2. Access Control List (ACL)

An Access Control List (ACL) is like a list of permissions attached

to each resource.

Q Exploiting Software ( Buffer overflow attack, Integer Overflow

attack, Dangling Pointer, Null Pointer Dereference Attack),
⚠️ 1. Buffer Overflow Attack

 What happens?
A program tries to put more data into a memory space (buffer)
than it can hold.
 Why is it bad?
The extra data can overwrite nearby memory, causing crashes
or letting attackers run harmful code.
 Simple example:
Imagine a cup that holds 10 ounces of water, but you pour 15
ounces — the extra spills over and makes a mess.

⚠️ 2. Integer Overflow Attack

 What happens?
When a number gets too big for the space reserved (like a small
container), it wraps around to a small or negative number.
 Why is it bad?
This can trick the program into thinking a calculation is safe
when it’s not, causing bugs or security holes.
 Simple example:
Imagine a clock that goes up to 12, but if you add 1 after 12, it
resets to 1. If your program doesn’t expect this, it can cause
errors.

⚠️ 3. Dangling Pointer

 What happens?
A pointer (a variable that holds a memory address) points to
memory that has already been freed or deleted.
 Why is it bad?
Using a dangling pointer can crash the program or cause
unpredictable behavior.
  Simple example:
It’s like having a map to a house, but the house has been torn
down — trying to go there leads nowhere or danger.

⚠️ 4. Null Pointer Dereference Attack

 What happens?
The program tries to use a pointer that points to nothing (null).
 Why is it bad?
Accessing null memory causes the program to crash (crash or
denial of service).
 Simple example:
It’s like trying to open a door that doesn’t exist — you can’t
enter and might hurt yourself.

🛡️ How to Prevent These Attacks

 Use safe programming languages or tools that check these

errors automatically.
 Validate all input data before using it.
 Use bounds checking for buffers.
 Manage memory carefully (avoid dangling pointers).
 Use modern techniques like Address Space Layout
Randomization (ASLR) and Stack Canaries to protect against
buffer overflows.

Q Malware (Worm, virus and Trojan)

🧑 What is Malware?

Malware means “malicious software.”

It’s software designed to harm your computer, steal your data, or
cause trouble without your permission.
🐛 Virus

 What it is:
A virus is a program that attaches itself to other programs or
files and spreads when those files run.
 How it spreads:
When you run an infected program or open an infected file, the
virus activates and tries to infect other files.
 What it does:
Can delete files, slow down your computer, or cause crashes.
 Analogy:
Like a cold virus that spreads when people shake hands.

2. 🐌 Worm

 What it is:
A worm is a standalone program that can copy itself and
spread independently over networks.
 How it spreads:
Without needing to attach to other programs, worms move from
computer to computer on the internet or local networks.
 What it does:
Can clog networks, slow down systems, or install backdoors.
 Analogy:
Like a worm that moves through soil by itself, infecting
everything it touches.

Q Distributed Operating System

🌐 What is a Distributed Operating System?

A Distributed Operating System is software that manages a group

of multiple computers (nodes) connected by a network, making
them work together like a single computer.
Q Goal of Distributed OS

🎯 Main Goals of a Distributed Operating System

A Distributed OS is designed to manage multiple computers

working together smoothly. Its main goals are:

1. Transparency
Make the whole system look like one single computer to
users and programs, hiding the complexity of multiple
machines.
 Types of transparency:
o Access transparency: Users access resources

without knowing their physical location.

o Location transparency: Users don’t need to know

where resources are stored.

o Concurrency transparency: Multiple users can

use resources at the same time without conflict.

o Replication transparency: Users don’t see if

resources are duplicated for reliability.

o Failure transparency: System hides failures and

recovers without user intervention.

Q Remoter Procedure call

🔌 What is a Remote Procedure Call (RPC)?

RPC is a way for a program on one computer to call a function or

procedure on another computer over a network — just like calling
a local function!
Q Name resolution
Name Resolution is the process of converting a human-friendly
name into a machine-friendly address that computers use to
communicate

Q Clock Synchronization

🧑 What is Clock Synchronization?

Clock synchronization means making sure all computers in a

network have the same (or very close) time.