Applied Physics (R-20)

UNIT-3
Part A: Electromagnetic Waves
Syllabus:
Divergence and Curl of Electric and Magnetic Fields -Maxwell’s Equations-Electromagnetic wave
propagation in free space- Poynting Theorem.

Divergence of vector field :

The divergence of a vector field at any point is defined as the amount of flux per unit
volume diverging from that point. If V is a vector function, divergence is expressed

.V iˆ ˆj kˆ . Vxiˆ V y ˆj Vz kˆ
x y z

Vx Vy Vz
x y z

Divergence of a vector function is a scalar.

.V is a measure of how much the vector V spreads out from the point in question.

Fig.(a) Fig.(b) Fig.(c)

The vector function in Fig(a) has large (positive) divergence. Fig(b) indicates large negative
divergence. Fig (c) indicates zero divergence.
The point of large positive divergence is a source and the point of large negative divergence is a
sink.

Curl of a vector field :

The curl of a vector field is defined as the maximum line integral of vector per unit area.
It is a vector quantity. The direction is normal to area.

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iˆ ˆj kˆ

Curl A A
x y z
Ax Ay Az

Curl is a measure of how much the vector A curls around the point in the question. A point of
large curl is a whirlpool.
Gauss divergence theorem (Green’s Theorem)

 (.V)dv =  V.da
v s

Stoke’s Theorem

 (  V)da =  V.dl
s

Maxwell’s equations:

Maxwell’s 1st equation: (Gauss Law in electrostatics)

1
The electric flux through a closed surface is equal to times the charge enclosed by the
o
surface.
q
E . da
s o

Applying the Gauss divergence theorem

E . da ( .E )dv
s v

Also q can be expressed as, q dV

v

where is charge density.

.E dV dV
v v o

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.E
o

This is Gauss law in differential form (Maxwell’s 1st equation)

Physical significance: The electric flux density through a surface enclosing a volume is equal to
charge density  within the volume.

Maxwell’s 2nd equation:

Unlike electric flux lines, magnetic flux lines are closed curves. So if we try to consider a closed
surface in magnetic field the number of flux lines entering the surface is equal to number of flux
lines leaving the surface. So

 B.da = 0
S

According to Gauss theorem

B . da ( .B)dv
s v

.B = 0

Physical significance:
Magnetic monopoles do not exist.

Maxwell’s 3rd equation ( Faraday’s Law):

When magnetic flux linked to a coil is changed emf is induced in the coil. The electric field E
developed in the closed coil drives the charges in the coil.
d
 E.d = −
dt
The negative charge is in support to Lenz’s law. The induced emf is in such a way it opposes the
change that has caused it.
According to Stoke’s theorem

∮ 𝐸̅ . 𝑑𝑙 ̅ = ∫ (∇ × 𝐸̅ ). 𝑑𝑎
𝑠

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Also 𝜙 = ∫ 𝐵̅ . 𝑑𝑎̅
−B
  E = This is Maxwell’s 3rd equation.
t
Physical significance:
The electric field can also be generated by time varying magnetic fields.

Maxwell’s 4th equation :

Ampere’s law:
Ampere’s law states that the line integral of the tangential component of the magnetic field over
any closed path is equal to the amount of current enclosed by the loop.

B .d oi

i
d
r
B

Enclosed current i can be expressed as i J .ds

s

B . dl o J .ds - - - (1) Where J is current density

s

According to Stokes theorem

 (  B).dS =  B.d - - - (2)

S

from (1) and (2)

 (  B).dS = o  J.dS
S S

   B = o J

This is called the differential form of Ampere’s law.

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Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s law:

Consider the differential form of Ampere’s law (∇ × 𝐵̅) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐽 ̅
̅
Applying divergence both sides ∇. (∇ × 𝐵̅) = 𝜇𝑜 (∇. J)

Divergence of curl is always zero. So ∇. (∇ × 𝐵̅) = 0

But the right hand side is not zero. For non steady currents ∇. 𝐽 ̅ ≠ 0
𝜕𝜌
According to equation of continuity ∇. 𝐽 ̅ = − where ρ is charge density.
𝜕𝑡

According to Maxwell’s 1st equation 𝜌 = 𝜖0 (∇. 𝐸̅ )

𝜕𝐸̅
∴ ∇. 𝐽 ̅ = −∇. (𝜖0 )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸 ̅
So if we add 𝜖0 𝜕𝑡 to 𝐽 ̅ in Ampere’s law the extra divergence gets cancelled.

So Ampere’s law can be rewritten as

̅
𝝏𝑬
̅ ) = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑱̅ + 𝝐𝟎
(𝛁 × 𝑩
𝝏𝒕
) This is Maxwell’s 4th equation.

Physical significance:
A magnetic field is generated by time varying electric field.

Maxwells equation (Differential form)


(a) .E = (Gauss law) (b) .B = 0
o

−B 𝜕𝐸̅
(c)   E = (Faraday 's law) (d) (∇ × 𝐵̅) = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐽 ̅ + 𝜖0 𝜕𝑡 )
t

Maxwell’s equations in free space

In free space where there is no charge or current, ρ=0 and J=0 and so the Maxwell’s equations
read
−B
(a) .E = 0 (c)   E =
t
𝜕𝐸̅
(b) .B = 0 (d) ∇ × 𝐵̅ = 𝜇𝑜 𝜖0 . 𝜕𝑡

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These are coupled, first order, partial differential equations for 𝐸̅ and 𝐵̅

The equations (c) and (d) can be decoupled by applying curl.

𝜕𝐵̅
∇ × (∇ × 𝐸̅ ) = ∇(∇. 𝐸̅ ) − ∇2 𝐸 = ∇ × (− )
𝜕𝑡
̅̅̅̅
𝜕(∇×𝐵) 𝜕2 𝐸̅
=− = -𝜇𝑜 𝜖0 . 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝑡

̅
𝜕𝐸
∇ × (∇ × 𝐵̅ ) = ∇(∇. 𝐵̅ ) − ∇2 𝐵 = ∇ × (𝜇𝑜 𝜖0 . )
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜕 𝐵 2̅
= 𝜇𝑜 𝜖0 𝜕𝑡 (∇ × 𝐸̅ ) = −𝜇𝑜 𝜖0 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2 𝐸̅ 𝜕2 𝐵̅
Since .E = 0 and .B = 0 ∇2 𝐸 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜖0 . 𝜕𝑡 2 and ∇2 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜖0 𝜕𝑡 2

1 𝜕2𝑓
Comparing the above with classical wave equation ∇2 𝑓 = the speed of electromagnetic
𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
1 8
wave in free space can be expressed as 𝑣 = = 3× 10 𝑚/𝑠
√𝜇𝑜 𝜖0

Poynting’s Theorem:
Suppose we have some charge and current configuration which at time ‘t’ produces fields 𝐸̅ and
𝐵̅ . In the next instant, dt , the charges move around a bit. Let dW is the work done by
electromagnetic forces on these charges in the interval dt. According to Lorentz force law the
work done on an element of charge dq is
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ = 𝑑𝑞(𝐸̅ + 𝑣̅ × 𝐵̅ ). 𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸̅ . 𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
𝐹.
Now dq= ρ dV and 𝜌𝑣̅ = 𝐽 ̅
So the rate at which work is done on all the charges in some volume V is given by
dW
=  E. J dV ………………(1)
dt V

1 E
We have E. J = E.(  B) −  0 E.
0 t

From product rule we have ∇. (𝐸̅ × 𝐵̅ ) = 𝐵̅ . ( ∇ × 𝐸̅ ) − 𝐸̅ . ( 𝛻 × 𝐵̅ )

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−B
According to Faraday’s law   E =
t
𝜕𝐵̅
𝐸̅ . ( 𝛻 × 𝐵̅ ) = −𝐵̅ . − ∇. (𝐸̅ × 𝐵̅ )
𝜕𝑡
Also
̅𝜕𝐵 1 𝜕𝐵2 𝜕𝐸 1 𝜕𝐸 2
𝐵̅ . 𝜕𝑡 = and 𝐸̅ . 𝜕𝑡 =
2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡

1 𝜕 1 1
So 𝐸̅ . 𝐽 ̅ = − 2 𝜕𝑡 (∈0 𝐸 2 + 𝜇 𝐵 2 ) − 𝜇 ∇. (𝐸̅ × 𝐵̅ ) ………………..(2)
0 0

Substituting (2) into (1) and applying divergence theorem to second term,
dW d 1 2 1 2 1
= −  ( 0 E + B ) dV −  (E  B).da
dt dt V 2 0 0 s

This is Poynting’s theorem.

Poynting’s Theorem says that the work done on the charges by the electromagnetic force is equal
to decrease in the energy stored in the field, less the energy which flowed out through the
surface.
The energy per unit time , per unit area, transported by the fields is called the Poynting vector ̅
𝑺.
1
̅=
𝑺 (𝐸̅ × 𝐵̅ ).
𝜇0

𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑊𝐸𝐵
Poynting’s theorem can more compactly expressed as =− − ∮̅
𝑺 . 𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

NOTE:
Also the work done on the charges will increase their mechanical energy. If 𝑈𝑀 denote the
mechanical energy density,
dW d
= −  U M dV
dt dt V

1 2 1 2
The energy density of fields U EB = ( 0 E + B )
2 0

d
Then  (U M + U EB ) dV = −  S.da = −  (.S)dV
dt V s V


Hence .S = − (U M + U EB ) This is the differential form of Poynting’s theorem.
t

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