Intensity, Emissive Power, and Irradiation

Ques.1. A small surface of area A1 = 10-3 m2 is

known to emit diffusely, and from
measurements the total intensity associated
with emission in the normal direction is In =
7000 W/m2sr. Radiation emitted from the
surface is intercepted by three other surfaces of
area A2 = A3 = A4 = 10-3 m2, which are 0.5 m
from A1 and are oriented as shown. What is the
intensity associated with emission in each of
the three directions? What are the solid angles subtended by the three surfaces when viewed
from A1? What is the rate at which radiation emitted by A1 is intercepted by the three surfaces?

Ques.2.What is the irradiation at surfaces A2, A3, and A4 of question 1. due to emission from A1?

Ques.3. Consider a small surface of area A1 = 10-4

m2, which emits diffusely with a total, hemispherical
emissive power of E1 = 5 × 104 W/m2. Determine

(a) At what rate is this emission intercepted by a

small surface of area A2 = 5 × 10-4 m2, which is
oriented as shown?

(b) What is the irradiation G2 on A2?

Ques.4. A furnace with an aperture of 20-mm diameter and emissive power of 3.72 × 105 W/m2
is used to calibrate a heat flux gage having a sensitive area of 1.6 × 10-5 m2.

(a) At what distance, measured along a normal from the aperture, should the gage be positioned
to receive irradiation of 1000 W/m2?
(b) If the gage is tilted off normal by 20º, what will be its irradiation?

Ques.5. Small radiant source A1 emits

diffusely with an intensity I1 =1.2 × 10-5
W/m2.sr. The radiation detector A2 is
aligned normal to the source at a
distance of Lo = 0.2 m. An opaque
screen is positioned midway between A1
and A2 to prevent radiation from the
source reaching the detector. The small
surface Am is a perfectly diffuse mirror
that permits radiation emitted from the
source to be reflected into the detector.

(a) Calculate the radiant power incident on Am due to emission from the source A1, q1→m (W).
(b) Assuming that the radiant power, q1→m, is perfectly and diffusely reflected, calculate the
intensity leaving Am
(c) Calculate the radiant power incident on A2 due to the reflected radiation leaving Am.
Ques.6. On an overcast day the directional distribution of the solar radiation incident on the
earth’s surface may be approximated by an expression of the form Ii = In cosθ, where In = 80
W/m2.sr is the total intensity of radiation directed normal to the surface and θ is the zenith angle.
What is the solar irradiation at the earth’s surface?

Ques.7.The spectral distribution of the radiation emitted

by a diffuse surface may be approximated as follows.

(a) What is the total emissive power?

(b) What is the total intensity of the radiation emitted in
the normal direction and at an angle of 30º from the
normal?
(c) Determine the fraction of emissive power leaving the
surface in the directions π/4 ≤ θ ≤ π/2.

Ques.8. A small stationary surface of

area A1=10-4m2 emits diffusely with a
total intensity of equivalent intensity
area of le =100 W/m2.sr. A second
surface of equivalent area A2 =10-4 m2
is located at a fixed distance of r =0.5
m from A1. The connecting line
between the two surfaces remains perpendicular to A1, while A2 rotates at an angular frequency
of θ2=dθ2/dt=2 rad/s. What is the amount of energy intercepted by the two sides of A2, during
one complete revolution?
 Blackbody Radiation

Ques.1. A spherical aluminum shell of inside diameter D = 2 m is evacuated and is used as a

radiation test chamber. If the inner surface is coated with carbon black and maintained at 600 K,
what is the irradiation on a small test surface placed in the chamber? If the inner surface were not
coated and maintained at 600 K, what would the irradiation be?

Ques.2. An enclosure has an inside area of 100 m2, and its inside surface is black and is
maintained at a constant temperature. A small opening in the enclosure has an area of 0.02 m2.
The radiant power emitted from this opening is 70 W. What is the temperature of the interior
enclosure wall? If the interior surface is maintained at this temperature, but is now polished,
what will be the value of the radiant power emitted from the opening?

Ques.3. Assuming the earth’s surface is black, estimate its temperature if the sun has an
equivalent black body temperature of 5800 K. The diameters of the sun and earth are 1.39 × 109
and 1.29 × 107 m, respectively, and the distance between the sun and earth is 1.5 × 1011 m.

Ques.4. The energy flux associated with solar radiation incident on the outer surface of the
earth’s atmosphere has been accurately measured and is known to be 1353 W/m2. The diameters
of the sun and earth are 1.39 × 109 and 1.29 × 107 m, respectively, and the distance between the
sun and earth is 1.5 × 1011 m.
(a) What is the emissive power of the sun?
(b) Approximating the sun’s surface as black, what is its temperature?
(c) At what wavelength is the spectral emissive power of the sun a maximum?
(d) Assuming the earth’s surface to be black and the sun to be the only source of energy for the
earth, estimate the earth’s surface temperature.

Ques.5. Estimate the wavelength corresponding to maximum emission from each of the
following surfaces: the sun, a tungsten filament at 2500 K, a heated metal at 1500 K, human skin
at 305 K, and a cryogenically cooled metal surface at 60 K. Estimate the fraction of the solar
emission that is in the following spectral regions: the ultraviolet, the visible, and the infrared.

Ques.7 The human eye, as well as the light sensitive chemicals on colour photographic film,
responds differently to light sources with different spectral distribution. Daylight lighting
corresponds to the spectral distribution of the solar disk, which may be approximated as a
blackbody at 5800K. Incandescent lighting from the usual household lamp bulb
corresponds approximately to the spectral distribution of a blackbody at 2900K.
(a) Calculate the band emission fraction for the visible region, 0.47µm to 0.65µm for each of
two lighting sources.
(b) Calculate the wavelength corresponding to the maximum spectral intensity for each of the
lighting sources. Comment on the result of your calculation in term of the rendering of
true color under the different lighting conditions.
 Properties: Emissivity
Ques.1 The spectral, hemispherical emissivity of tungsten may be approximated by the
distribution depicted below .Consider a cylindrical tungsten filament that is of diameter of
D=0.8mm and length L=20 mm. The filament is enclosed in an evacuated bulb and heated by an
electrical current to a steady state temperature of 2900 K.
(a) What is the total hemispherical emissivity when the filament temperature is 2900 K.
(b) Assuming the surroundings are at 300 K, what is the initial rate of cooling of the
filament when the current is switched off?

Ques.2 A zirconia based ceramic has a spectral, hemispherical emissivity shown below and is
being considered for use as filament of light bulb.
(a) What is the total hemispherical emissvity of a zirconia filament operating at 3000K.
(b) Using the spectral distribution provided in problem 1 determine the total hemispherical
emissivity of a tungsten filament at 3000 K and compare the result with that obtained for
zirconia. For zirconia and tungsten operating at 3000 k in an evacuated bulb, what
filament requires the larger power consumption.
(c) With respect to the production of visible radiations , which of the two filaments is more
efficient? Justify your answer quantitatively.

Ques.3. For materials A and B, whose spectral hemispherical emissivities vary with wavelength
as shown below, how does the total, hemispherical emissivity vary with temperature? Explain
briefly.

Ques.4.The spectral, hemispherical absorptivity of an opaque surface and the spectral irradiation
at the surface are as shown. How does the spectral, hemispherical reflectivity vary with
wavelength? What is the total, hemispherical absorptivity of the surface? If the surface is initially
at 500 K and has a total, hemispherical emissivity of 0.8, how will its temperature change upon
exposure to the irradiation?
Ques.5. Consider the metallic surface of Ques 5. Additional measurements of the spectral,
hemispherical emissivity yield a spectral distribution which may be approximated as follows:

(a) Determine corresponding values of the total, hemispherical emissivity ε and the total
emissive power E at 2000 K.
(b) Plot the emissivity as a function of temperature for 500 ≤ T ≤ 3000 K. Explain the variation.

Ques.6. The spectral, directional emissivity of a diffuse material at 2000 K has the following
distribution:

Determine the total, hemispherical emissivity at 2000 K. Determine the emissive power over the
spectral range 0.8 to 2.5 µm and for the directions 0 ≤ θ ≤ 30º.

Ques.7. The total directional emissivity of non-metallic materials may be approximated as

εθ=εncosθ , where εn is the normal emissivity. Show the total hemispherical emissivity for such
material is 2/3 of total emissivity.

Ques 8. A large body of non luminous gas at a temperature of 1200 K has emission bands
between 2.5 and 3.5 µm and between 5 and 8 µm. The effective emissivity in the first band is 0.8
and in the second 0.6. Determine the emissive power of this gas?
 Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity
Ques.1. An opaque surface with the prescribed spectral, hemispherical reflectivity distribution is
subjected to the spectral irradiation shown.

(a) Sketch the spectral, hemispherical absorptivity distribution.

(b) Determine the total irradiation on the surface.
(c) Determine the radiant flux that is absorbed by the surface.
(d) What is the total, hemispherical absorptivity of this surface?

Ques.2. A small, opaque, diffuse object at Ts = 400 K is suspended in a large furnace whose
interior walls are at Tf = 2000 K. The walls are diffuse and gray and have an emissivity of 0.20.
The spectral, hemispherical emissivity for the surface of the small object is given below.

(a) Determine the total emissivity and absorptivity of the surface.

(b) Evaluate the reflected radiant flux and the net radiative flux to the surface.
(c) What is the spectral emissive power at λ = 2µm?
(d) What is the wavelength λ1/2 for which one-half of the total radiation emitted by the surface is
in the spectral region λ  λ1/2 ?

Ques.3. The spectral reflectivity distribution for white paint can be approximated by the
following stair-step function:

A small flat plate coated with this paint is suspended inside a large enclosure, and its temperature
is maintained at 400 K. The surface of the enclosure is maintained at 3000 K and the spectral
distribution of its emissivity has the following characteristics:

(a) Determine the total emissivity, ε, of the enclosure surface.

(b) Determine the total emissivity, ε, and absorptivity, α, of the plate.

Ques.4. An opaque surface, 2 m × 2 m, is maintained at 400 K and is simultaneously exposed to

solar irradiation with G = 1200 W/m2. The surface is diffuse and its spectral absorptivity is
αλ = 0, 0.8, 0, and 0.9 for 0 ≤ λ ≤ 0.5µm, 0.5µm < λ ≤ 1µm, 1µm < λ ≤ 2 µm, and λ > 2µm,
respectively. Determine the absorbed irradiation, emissive power, radiosity, and net radiation
heat transfer from the surface.
Ques.5. A small disk 5 mm in diameter is positioned at the center of an isothermal,
hemispherical enclosure. The disk is diffuse and gray with an emissivity of 0.7 and is maintained
at 900 K. The hemispherical enclosure, maintained at 300 K, has a radius of 100 mm and an
emissivity of 0.85.

Calculate the radiant power leaving an aperture of diameter 2 mm located on the enclosure as
shown.

Ques.6. The spectral, hemispherical absorptivity of an opaque surface is as shown. What is the
solar absorptivity, αS? If it is assumed that ελ = αλ and that the surface is at a temperature of 340
K, what is its total, hemispherical emissivity?

Ques.7. The spectral, hemispherical absorptivity of an opaque surface and the spectral
distribution of radiation incident on the surface are as shown. What is the total, hemispherical
absorptivity of the surface? If it is assumed that ελ = αλ and that the surface is at 1000 K, what is
its total, hemispherical emissivity? What is the net radiant heat flux to the surface?

Ques.8. Consider an opaque, diffuse surface for which the spectral absorptivity and irradiation
are as follows:

What is the total absorptivity of the surface for the prescribed irradiation? If the surface is at a
temperature of 1250 K, what is its emissive power? How will the surface temperature vary with
time, for the prescribed conditions?

Ques.9. The spectral emissivity of an opaque, diffuse surface is

as shown.
(a) If the surface is maintained at 1000 K, what is the total,
hemispherical emissivity?
(b) What is the total, hemispherical absorptivity of the surface
when irradiated by large surroundings of emissivity 0.8 and
temperature 1500 K?
(c) What is the radiosity of the surface when it is maintained at 1000 K and subjected to the
irradiation prescribed in part (b)?
(d) Determine the net radiation flux into the surface for the conditions of part (c).

Ques.10. Radiation leaves a furnace of inside surface temperature 1500 K through an aperture
20mm in diameter. A portion of the radiation is intercepted by a detector that is 1 m from the
aperture, has a surface area of 10-5 m2, and is oriented as shown. If the aperture is open, what is
the rate at which radiation leaving the furnace is intercepted by the detector? If the aperture is
covered with a diffuse, semitransparent material of spectral transmissivity τλ = 0.8 for λ ≤ 2 µm
and τλ = 0 for λ > 2µm, what is the rate at which radiation leaving the furnace is intercepted by
the detector?

Ques.11. The spectral transmissivity of plain and tinted glass can be approximated as follows:
Plain glass: τλ = 0.9 0.3 ≤ λ ≤ 2.5 m
Tinted glass: τλ = 0.9 0.5 ≤ λ ≤ 1.5 m
Outside the specified wavelength ranges, the spectral transmissivity is zero for both glasses.
Compare the solar energy that could be transmitted through the glasses. With solar irradiation on
the glasses, compare the visible radiant energy that could be transmitted.

Ques.12. Four diffuse surfaces having the spectral characteristics shown are at 300 K and are
exposed to solar radiation. Which of the surfaces may be approximated as being gray?

Ques.13. Consider a material that is gray, but directionally selective with αθ(θ,Φ)= 0.5(1-
cosΦ). Determine the hemispherical absorptivity α when collimated solar flux irradiates the
surface of the material in the direction θ = 45º and Φ = 0º. Determine the hemispherical
emissivity ε of the material.
 Energy Balances and Properties
Ques.1 An opaque, horizontal flat plate has a top surface area of 3 m2, and its edges and lower
surface are well insulated. The plate is uniformly irradiated its top surface at a rate (for the entire
plate) of 1300 W. Consider the steady state condition for which 1000W of the incident radiations
are absorbed, the plate temperature is 500 K, and heat transfer by convection from the surface is
300 W. Determine the irradiation G , emissive power E, radiosity J, absorptivity α, reflectivity ρ,
and emissivity ε.

Ques.2. Two small surfaces, A and B, are placed inside an isothermal enclosure at a uniform
temperature. The enclosure provides an irradiation of 6300 W/m2 to each of the surfaces, and
surfaces A and B absorb incident radiation at rates of 5600 and 630 W/m2, respectively. Consider
conditions after a long time has elapsed.
(a) What are the net heat fluxes for each surface? What are their temperatures?
(b) Determine the absorptivity of each surface.
(c) What are the emissive powers of each surface?
(d) Determine the emissivity of each surface.

Ques.3 Consider an opaque horizontal plate that is well insulated at its back side. The irradiation
on the plate is 2500 W/m2. Of which 500 W/m2 is reflected. The plate is at 227 oC and has an
emissive power of 1200 W/m2. Air at 127 oC flow over the plate with a heat transfer convection
coefficient of 15 W/m2.K. Determine the emissivity, absorptivity and radiosity of the plate.
What is the net heat transfer rate per unit area.

Ques.4 A horizontal, opaque surface at a steady state temperature of 77 oC is exposed to an air

flow having a free stream temperature of 27 oC with a convective heat transfer coefficient of 28
W/m2.K. The emissive power of the surface is 628 W/m2, the irradiation is 1380 W/m2, and the
reflectivity is 0.40. Determine the absorptivity of the surface. Determine the net radiation heat
transfer rate for this surface. Is this heat transfer to the surface or from the surface? Determine
the combined heat transfer rate for the surface. Is this heat transfer to the surface or from the
surface?

Ques.5. Consider an opaque, diffuse surface whose spectral reflectivity varies with wavelength
as shown. The surface is at 750 K, and irradiation on one side varies with wavelength as shown.
The other side of the surface is insulated. What are the total absorptivity and emissivity of the
surface? What is the net radiative heat flux to the surface?

Ques.6. An opaque , gray surface at 27oC is exposed to to an irradiation of 1000 W/m2, and 800
W/m2 is reflected. Air at 17oC flow over the surface, and convective heat transfer coefficient is
15 W/m2. K. Determine the net heat flux from the surface.

Ques.7 A horizontal semitransparent plate is uniformly irradiated from above and below , while
the air at T∞=300K flow over top and bottom surfaces , provided a uniform heat transfer
coefficient of 40 W/m2.K. The total hemispherical absorptivity of the plate to the irradiation is
0.40. Under steady state conditions measurement made with the radiation detector above the top
surface indicate a radiosity (which include transmission , as well as reflection and emission ) of
J=5000 W/m2, while plate is at a uniform temperature of T=350K.
Determine the irradiation G and the total hemispherical emissivity of the plate. Is the plate grey
for the prescribed conditions.

Ques.8. A thermocouple whose surface is diffuse and gray with an emissivity of 0.6 indicates a
temperature of 180 ºC when used to measure the temperature of a gas flowing through a large
duct whose walls have an emissivity of 0.85 and a uniform temperature of 450 ºC.
(a) If the convection heat transfer coefficient between the thermocouple and the gas stream is
h = 1000 W/m2K and there are negligible conduction losses from the thermocouple, determine
the temperature of the gas.

Ques.9. A temperature sensor embedded in the tip of a small tube having a diffuse, gray surface
with an emissivity of 0.8 is centrally positioned within a large airconditioned room whose walls
and air temperature are 30 and 20 ºC, respectively.
(a) What temperature will the sensor indicate if the convection coefficient between the
sensor tube and the air is 5 W/m2K?