Computer hardware

Computer hardware includes the physical, tangible parts or components of a computer,

such as the cabinet, central processing unit, monitor, keyboard, computer data storage,
graphics card, sound card, speakers and motherboard.[1] By contrast, software is
instructions that can be stored and run by hardware. Hardware is so-termed because it is
"hard" or rigid with respect to changes or modifications; whereas software is "soft"
because it is easy to update or change. Intermediate between software and hardware is
"firmware", which is software that is strongly coupled to the particular hardware of a
computer system and thus the most difficult to change but also among the most stable with
respect to consistency of interface. The progression from levels of "hardness" to "softness"
in computer systems parallels a progression of layers of abstraction in computing.
PDP-11 CPU board
Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A
combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, although other
systems exist with only hardware components.

Contents
Von Neumann architecture
Types of computer systems
Personal computer
Case
Power supply
Motherboard
Expansion cards
Storage devices
Fixed media
Removable media
Input and output peripherals
Input
Output device
Mainframe computer
Departmental computing
Supercomputer
Hardware upgrade
Sales
Recycling
Toxic computer components
Environmental effects
National services
See also
Sources
External links
Von Neumann architecture
The template for all modern computers is the Von Neumann architecture,
detailed in a 1945 paper by Hungarian mathematician John von Neumann. This
describes a design architecture for an electronic digital computer with
subdivisions of a processing unit consisting of an arithmetic logic unit and
processor registers, a control unit containing an instruction register and program
counter, a memory to store both data and instructions, external mass storage, and
input and output mechanisms.[2] The meaning of the term has evolved to mean a
stored-program computer in which an instruction fetch and a data operation Von Neumann architecture scheme

cannot occur at the same time because they share a common bus. This is referred
to as the Von Neumann bottleneck and often limits the performance of the
system.[3]

Types of computer systems

Personal computer
The personal computer, also known as the PC, is one of the most common types
of computer due to its versatility and relatively low price. Laptops are generally
very similar, although they may use lower-power or reduced size components,
thus lower performance.

Case
The computer case encloses and holds most of the components of the system. It Basic hardware components of a
provides mechanical support and protection for internal elements such as the modern personal computer, including
motherboard, disk drives, and power supplies, and controls and directs the flow a monitor, a motherboard, a CPU, a
RAM, two expansion cards, a power
of cooling air over internal components. The case is also part of the system to
supply, an optical disc drive, a hard
control electromagnetic interference radiated by the computer, and protects
disk drive, a keyboard and a mouse
internal parts from electrostatic discharge. Large tower cases provide extra
internal space for multiple disk drives or other peripherals and usually stand on
the floor, while desktop cases provide less expansion room. All-in-one style
designs include a video display built into the same case. Portable and laptop
computers require cases that provide impact protection for the unit. A current
development in laptop computers is a detachable keyboard, which allows the
system to be configured as a touch-screen tablet. Hobbyists may decorate the
cases with colored lights, paint, or other features, in an activity called case
modding.

Power supply
A power supply unit (PSU) converts alternating current (AC) electric power to
Inside a custom-built computer:
low-voltage direct current (DC) power for the internal components of the
power supply at the bottom has its
computer. Laptops are capable of running from a built-in battery, normally for a
own cooling fan
period of hours.[4]
Motherboard
The motherboard is the main component of a computer. It is a board with integrated circuitry that connects the other parts of the
computer including the CPU, the RAM, the disk drives (CD, DVD, hard disk, or any others) as well as any peripherals connected
via the ports or the expansion slots.

Components directly attached to or to part of the motherboard include:

The CPU (central processing unit), which performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to function,
and is referred to as the brain of the computer which get a hold of program instruction from RAM, interprets and
processes it and then send it backs to computer result so that the relevant components can carry out the
instructions . It is usually cooled by a heat sink and fan, or water-cooling system. Most newer CPU include an on-
die graphics processing unit (GPU). The clock speed of CPU governs how fast it executes instructions, and is
measured in GHz; typical values lie between 1 GHz and 5 GHz. Many modern computers have the option to
overclock the CPU which enhances performance at the expense of greater thermal output and thus a need for
improved cooling.
The chipset, which includes the north bridge, mediates communication between the CPU and the other
components of the system, including main memory; as well as south bridge, which is connected to the north
bridge, and supports auxiliary interfaces and buses; and, finally, a Super I/O chip, connected through the south
bridge, which supports the slowest and most legacy components like serial ports, hardware monitoring and fan
control.
Random-access memory (RAM), which stores the code and data that are being actively accessed by the CPU.
For example, when a web browser is opened on the computer it takes up memory; this is stored in the RAM until
the web browser is closed. RAM usually comes on DIMMs in the sizes 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB, but can be much
larger.
Read-only memory (ROM), which stores the BIOS that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise
begins execution, a process known as Bootstrapping, or "booting" or "booting up". The BIOS (Basic Input Output
System) includes boot firmware and power management firmware. Newer motherboards use Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface (UEFI) instead of BIOS.
Buses that connect the CPU to various internal components and to expand cards for graphics and sound.
The CMOS (short for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) battery, which powers the memory for date
and time in the BIOS chip. This battery is generally a watch battery.
The video card (also known as the graphics card), which processes computer graphics. More powerful graphics
cards are better suited to handle strenuous tasks, such as playing intensive video games.

Expansion cards
An expansion card in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard
or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the expansion bus. Expansion cards can be used to obtain or expand
on features not offered by the motherboard.

Storage devices
A storage device is any computing hardware and digital media that is used for storing, porting and extracting data files and
objects. It can hold and store information both temporarily and permanently, and can be internal or external to a computer, server
or any similar computing device. Data storage is a core function and fundamental component of computers.

Fixed media
Data is stored by a computer using a variety of media. Hard disk drives are found in virtually all older computers, due to their
high capacity and low cost, but solid-state drives are faster and more power efficient, although currently more expensive than
hard drives in terms of dollar per gigabyte,[5] so are often found in personal computers built post-2007.[6] Some systems may use
a disk array controller for greater performance or reliability.

Removable media
To transfer data between computers, a USB flash drive or optical disc may be used. Their usefulness depends on being readable
by other systems; the majority of machines have an optical disk drive, and virtually all have at least one USB port.

Input and output peripherals

Input and output devices are typically housed externally to the main computer chassis. The following are either standard or very
common to many computer systems.

Input
Input devices allow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most personal computers have a mouse
and keyboard, but laptop systems typically use a touchpad instead of a mouse. Other input devices include webcams,
microphones, joysticks, and image scanners.

Output device
Output devices display information in a human readable form. Such devices could include printers, speakers, monitors or a
Braille embosser.

Mainframe computer
A mainframe computer is a much larger computer that typically fills a room and may cost many hundreds or thousands of times
as much as a personal computer. They are designed to perform large numbers of calculations for governments and large
enterprises.

Departmental computing
In the 1960s and 1970s, more and more departments started to use cheaper and dedicated
systems for specific purposes like process control and laboratory automation.

Supercomputer
A supercomputer is superficially similar to a mainframe, but is instead intended for
extremely demanding computational tasks. As of June 2018, the fastest supercomputer on
the TOP500supercomputer list is the Summit, in the United States, with a LINPACK
benchmarkscore of 122.3 PFLOPS Light, by around 29 PFLOPS.
An IBM System z9
mainframe
The term supercomputer does not refer to a specific technology. Rather it indicates the
fastest computations available at any given time. In mid 2011, the fastest supercomputers
boasted speeds exceeding one petaflop, or 1 quadrillion (10^15 or 1,000 trillion) floating point operations per second.
Supercomputers are fast but extremely costly, so they are generally used by large organizations to execute computationally
demanding tasks involving large data sets. Supercomputers typically run military and scientific applications. Although costly,
they are also being used for commercial applications where huge amounts of data must be analyzed. For example, large banks
employ supercomputers to calculate the risks and returns of various investment strategies, and healthcare organizations use them
to analyze giant databases of patient data to determine optimal treatments for various diseases and problems incurring to the
country.

Hardware upgrade
When using computer hardware, an upgrade means adding new hardware to a computer that improves its performance, adds
capacity or new features. For example, a user could perform a hardware upgrade to replace the hard drive with a SSD to get a
boost in performance or increase the amount of files that may be stored. Also, the user could increase the RAM so the computer
may run more smoothly. The user could add a USB 3.0 expansion card in order to fully use USB 3.0 devices, or could upgrade
the GPU for extra rendering power. Performing such hardware upgrades may be necessary for older computers to meet a
programs' system requirements.

Sales
For the third consecutive year, U.S. business-to-business channel sales (sales through distributors and commercial resellers)
increased, ending up in 2013 at nearly 6 percent at $61.7 billion. The growth was the fastest sales increase since the end of the
recession. Sales growth accelerated in the second half of the year peaking in fourth quarter with a 6.956 percent increase over the
fourth quarter of 2012.[7]

Recycling
Because computer parts contain hazardous materials, there is a growing
movement to recycle old and outdated parts.[8] Computer hardware contain
dangerous chemicals such as: lead, mercury, nickel, and cadmium. According to
the EPA these e-wastes have a harmful effect on the environment unless they are
disposed of properly. Making hardware requires energy, and recycling parts will
reduce air pollution, water pollution, as well as greenhouse gas emissions.[9]
Disposing unauthorized computer equipment is in fact illegal. Legislation makes
it mandatory to recycle computers through the government approved facilities.
Recycling a computer can be made easier by taking out certain reusable parts.
For example, the RAM, DVD drive, the graphics card, hard drive or SSD, and
other similar removable parts can be reused.

Toxic computer components

The central processing unit contains many toxic materials. It contains lead and chromium in the metal plates. Resistors, semi-
conductors, infrared detectors, stabilizers, cables, and wires contain cadmium. The circuit boards in a computer contain mercury,
and chromium.[10] When these types of materials, and chemicals are disposed improperly will become hazardous for the
environment.

Environmental effects
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency only around 15% of the e-waste actually is recycled. When e-
waste byproducts leach into ground water, are burned, or get mishandled during recycling, it causes harm. Health problems
associated with such toxins include impaired mental development, cancer, and damage to the lungs, liver, and kidneys.[11] That's
why even wires have to be recycled. Different companies have different techniques to recycle a wire. The most popular one is the
grinder that separates the copper wires from the plastic/rubber casing. When the processes is done there are two different piles
left; one containing the copper powder, and the other containing plastic/rubber pieces.[12] Computer monitors, mice, and
keyboards all have a similar way of being recycled. For example, first each of the parts are taken apart then all of the inner parts
get separated and placed into its own bin.[13]

National services
Recycling a computer is made easier by a few of the national services, such as Dell and Apple. Both companies will take back the
computer of their make or any other make. Otherwise a computer can be donated to Computer Aid International which is an
organization that recycles and refurbishes old computers for hospitals, schools, universities, etc.[14]

See also
Computer architecture
Electronic hardware
Glossary of computer hardware terms
History of computing hardware
Microprocessor
MOSFET
List of computer hardware manufacturers
Open-source computing hardware
Transistor

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External links
Media related to Computer hardware at Wikimedia Commons
Learning materials related to Computer hardware at Wikiversity

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