LAB MANUAL

OF
ENGG. PHYSICS LAB

BY
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCES
(PHYSICS)

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DELHI

DELHI-110036

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This is to declare that this Lab Manual contains all the necessary information for the successful

completion of Engg. Physics Lab. The experiments included in the lab manual are originally

designed and documented by Dr. Gyanendra Sheoran & Dr. Anuj Kr. Sharma Applied Sciences

Department, National Institute of Technology Delhi

Written & Compiled by …… Dr. GYANENDRA SHEORAN Dr. ANUJ KR. SHARMA

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 APPLIED PHYSICS LAB
Paper Code : P C
Paper : Engg. Physics Lab

List of Experiments
1. To study of resonance in parallel RLC circuit & find its resonance frequency.
2. To study of resonance in series RLC circuit & find its resonance frequency.
3. To determination of Plank’s constant using L.E.D. by average method.
4. To determination of Plank’s constant by plotting a curve between threshold voltage and
wavelength of LED.
5. Finding the Energy Band Gap of semiconductor material of a P-N junction diode.
6. To study forward and reverse characteristics of a P-N junction diode.
7. To study the characteristics of LED in forward and reverse biased conditions & also find the
wavelength of LED.
8. To study forward and reverse bias characteristics of Zener Diode.
9. To determine the wavelength of Sodium light using the measurement of diameter in
Newton’s ring.
10. To study & verify Malus law using two polaroids
11. To determination of the wavelength of main spectral line of mercury light source using plane
transmission grating and spectromenter.
12. To determine the e/m ration of an electron by J.J. Thomson method
13. To determine the refractive index of a prism using spectrometer.
14. To determine the dispersive power of prism using spectrometer and mercury source.
15. To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar solution with the help of polarimeter.

Suggested Books:

Note: Atleast 10-12 experiments out of the list of may be chosen. Proper error-analysis must be carried
out with all the experiments.

Lab Incharge

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S. No. Description Page
No.
1. Declaration of Engg. Physics Lab Manual 02

2. List of Experiments 03

3. Instructions for students 05 – 07

4. To study of resonance in parallel RLC circuit & find its resonance

frequency 08-20
5. To study of resonance in series RLC circuit & find its resonance
frequency
6. To determination of Plank’s constant using L.E.D. by average
method 21-54
7. To determination of Plank’s constant by plotting a curve between
threshold voltage and wavelength of LED
8. Finding the Energy Band Gap of semiconductor material of a P-N 88-97
junction diode
9. To study forward and reverse characteristics of a P-N junction diode

10. To study the characteristics of LED in forward and reverse biased 55-87
conditions & also find the wavelength of LED
11. To study forward and reverse bias characteristics of Zener Diode

12. To determine the wavelength of Sodium light using the 98-123

measurement of diameter in Newton’s ring
13. To study & verify Malus law using two polaroids 124-135

14. To determination of the wavelength of main spectral line of mercury

light source using plane transmission grating and spectromenter
15. To determine the refractive index of a prism using spectrometer
136-195
16. To determine the dispersive power of prism using spectrometer and
mercury source
17. To determine the e/m ration of an electron by J.J. Thomson method
18. To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar solution with the
help of polarimeter
19. Virtual lab link & Safety consideration for optics & electronics labs 196-198

Lab Incharge
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1.1. General Information
Laboratory experiments are integral part of the course. It is said that “You see you forget; you
read you remember; you do you understand”. That makes the practical as an integral part of
learning process.

Some of the purpose of conducting experiments can be enumerated as below:

➢ To get familiarized with the basic components, measuring instruments, workbench and basic
machines.
➢ Circuit drawing, making connections, using instruments, collecting and processing data.
➢ Observing basic phenomena and characteristics of machine or circuits.
➢ Reporting and analyzing the observations.
➢ Verify theorems, basic rules and understanding physical concepts.
➢ Hands-on experience on machines, networks and systems.
➢ Observing safety and developing group-working culture.

To make laboratory experiments safe and effective, each student must obey the following
rules.

1.2. Safety
➢ High voltage equipment in the power lab can seriously injure or could be fatal. A
Faculty/technician must check your circuit connection and wiring before you apply power.
➢ Make sure that all the power sources are off, when you are connecting the circuit.
➢ Avoid short circuits by connecting the circuit tight. It may cause destruction and fire.
➢ Keep safe distance from supply source and rotating machines.
➢ For changing any connection, power supply must be switched off first
➢ Follow the instructions given by the faculty or course instructor.
➢ Failure to obey safety rules may result in the disciplinary action.
1.3. Attendance

All students are required to attend and contribute adequately while performing experiments in
the group. Performance will be judged based on experiments conducted, quality & punctual
submission of the lab report for each experiment.

Faculty will take attendance. Failure to be present for an experiment will result in losing entire
mark for the corresponding lab. However, genuine cases may be considered to repeat the
experiment.

Students must not attend a different lab group/section from the one assigned at the beginning of
the class (unless otherwise approved by the instructor).

If a student misses a lab session due to unavoidable circumstances, can provide a Legitimate proof
as soon as possible, he/she may then be allowed by the lab Instructor, to make-it-up with a different
section

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1.4. Preparation and performance

➢ Before leaving the laboratory, each student must ask the lab instructor for the experiment
number to be conducted on the next lab turn, so that the students come prepared after reading
and reviewing the reallocated experiment. Faculty might check your preparedness and
understanding of the experiment and failure to satisfactory reply may de-bar you from
conducting the experiments.
➢ Record your observations and calculations in the Lab Manual’s observation tables. Do not
hesitate to clear any of your doubts concerning the experiments.
➢ Leave the work place clean after you have finished with your experiments. Dismantle the
circuit and put all the wires and equipment back at its original place.

1.5. General working discipline in the Lab

Students are advised to strictly follow the instructions given below while working in the Applied
Physics Lab:

1. Attendance in the laboratory is mandatory. For any absence, students have to fill up the format
available in the lab to indicate reasons for absence.
2. Students will not be allowed after 20 minutes from the scheduled time.
3. No student will leave the Lab without permission.
4. Students should bring their Lab Manual and are understood to have gone through the manual
thoroughly.
5. Any confusion may be clarified from the faculty before starting the experiments.
6. Before switching on the supply, the students MUST get the connections CHECKED & must follow
proper instructions.
7. Students must maintain discipline and silence in the lab.
8. Students are to remain within their allotted experimental area.
9. In any emergency, push the emergency switch installed on the panel?
10. Be attentive all the time.

1.6. Lab Reports:

➢ Each student is required to write reports for the experiments conducted.

➢ Reports are due one week after the completion of the experiment.
➢ All reports must be neatly written.
➢ The Lab report must contain the following:
1. Duly completed Title pages.

2. Each report to include theory, connection diagrams, graphs (Refer special section on how to
plot a graph from this manual), equations, calculations, notes, etc. Only standard symbols
should be used to draw the diagrams.

3. Summary section can be included explaining what you have learned doing the experiments
and subsequent calculations.
(Note: Summary space is not provided on the report page, thus students are requested to write
it in the footer space.)

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 Questions given under the lab report to be answered by student in the space provide in the
Lab Manual.

4. Individual comments/Notes must be written for the further improvement of the lab
manual, on the space provided at the end of the manual, however extra pages could be
attached if required.

HOW TO PLOT A GRAPH

Graphs are drawn for visual observation of the data collected form experiment. Therefore,
correct procedure to be adopted to draw a graph, some of the tips to draw a best-fit graph is
enumerated below:

1. Before drawing a graph between two observed variables, it is necessary to know the
expected theoretical graph.
2. Decide X and Y-axis parameters. (Normally the variable parameter that is direct under
control is considered on X-axis).
3. Selection of scales for the two variables should be chosen such that it appears as square
graph.
4. Points plotted should be joined such that it appears smooth and near to theoretical nature
of the curve. It is not necessary to join all the points on the graph. Average graph is always
advisable, instead of graph that join all the points. Average graph is the line passing
through the vicinity of maximum number of points plotted on the graph.

1. Do not forget to write title of the graph.

2. Scale and parameters on X-axis and Y-axis should be indicated.

3. Mark the unit used on X and Y-axis.

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 Introduction
RLC Resonance Trainer is very exclusive training system provides complete learning content for
both series and parallel resonance. Resonance is an interesting phenomenon in electrical circuits in
which inductive and capacitive elements behave to be like zero impedance circuit. This explanation
is given with the help of passive circuits on the trainer. Multiple combinations of components has
been provided so that students can calculate resonance frequencies for these different
combinations. Concept of Resonance frequency is explained very clearly which can be easily
elaborated either on Oscilloscope or by on board display.

Theory

In many of the electrical circuits, resonance is a very important phenomenon. The study of resonance is
very useful particularly in the area of communications. For example, the ability of a radio receiver to
select a certain frequency, transmitted by a station and to eliminate frequencies from other stations is
based on the principle of resonance. The resonance condition can be achieved by connecting RLC
components either in series or parallel depending on requirement.
Before starting the study of RLC circuit we should get familiar with the components which keep a great
importance in the resonance.
• Resistance (R)
• Inductance (L)
• Capacitance (C

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 Experiment No. 01

AIM:- Study of Resonance in Parallel RLC Circuit and to find its resonance frequency.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:- RLC resonance trainer kit, patch cords and power supply.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RLC PARALLEL:-

Let us define what we already know about parallel RLC circuits.

A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R, an inductance, L and a capacitance, C will produce a parallel
resonance (also called anti-resonance) circuit when the resultant current through the parallel
combination is in phase with the supply voltage. At resonance there will be a large circulating current
between the inductor and the capacitor due to the energy of the oscillations, then parallel circuits
produce current resonance.

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A parallel resonant circuit stores the circuit energy in the magnetic field of the inductor and the electric
field of the capacitor. This energy is constantly being transferred back and forth between the inductor
and the capacitor which results in zero current and energy being drawn from the supply.
This is because the corresponding instantaneous values of IL and IC will always be equal and opposite and
therefore the current drawn from the supply is the vector addition of these two currents and the current
flowing in IR.
In the solution of AC parallel resonance circuits we know that the supply voltage is common for all
branches, so this can be taken as our reference vector. Each parallel branch must be treated separately as
with series circuits so that the total supply current taken by the parallel circuit is the vector addition of
the individual branch currents.
Then there are two methods available to us in the analysis of parallel resonance circuits. We can calculate
the current in each branch and then add together or calculate the admittance of each branch to find the
total current.
We know from the previous series resonance tutorial that resonance takes place when VL= -VC and this
situation occurs when the two reactances are equal, XL = XC. The admittance of a parallel circuit is given
as:

Resonance occurs when XL = XC and the imaginary parts of Y become zero. Then:

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Also at resonance the parallel LC tank circuit acts like an open circuit with the circuit current being
determined by the resistor, R only. So the total impedance of a parallel resonance circuit at resonance
becomes just the value of the resistance in the circuit and Z = R as shown.

Thus at resonance, the impedance of the parallel circuit is at its maximum value and equal to the
resistance of the circuit creating a circuit condition of high resistance and low current. Also at resonance,
as the impedance of the circuit is now that of resistance only, the total circuit current, I will be “in-phase”
with the supply voltage, VS.
We can change the circuit’s frequency response by changing the value of this resistance. Changing the
value of R affects the amount of current that flows through the circuit at resonance, if
both L and C remain constant. Then the impedance of the circuit at resonance Z = RMAX is called the
“dynamic impedance” of the circuit.

Impedance in a Parallel Resonance Circuit

Note that if the parallel circuits impedance is at its maximum at resonance then consequently, the
circuits admittance must be at its minimum and one of the characteristics of a parallel resonance circuit
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is that admittance is very low limiting the circuits current. Unlike the series resonance circuit, the
resistor in a parallel resonance circuit has a damping effect on the circuits bandwidth making the circuit
less selective.
Also, since the circuit current is constant for any value of impedance, Z, the voltage across a parallel
resonance circuit will have the same shape as the total impedance and for a parallel circuit the voltage
waveform is generally taken from across the capacitor.
PROCEDURE:-

• Connect terminals E and F, G and J, so that L3 and C3 will be in parallel.

• Now connect generator output to this parallel combination, for this connect TP9 and
TP10 to Vin and TP8 (Ground) respectively.
• To observe the output of circuit, connect TP5 and TP8 to + and – terminals of display.
• Switch ON the power supply.
• Select 1 KHz range from Frequency Range Selector.
• Vary the frequency by Variable Frequency knob and observe the change in output
voltage on display.
• Apply same process for other two frequency ranges and note the maximum voltage.
• IF APPLICABLE (Now connect the CRO across TP9 and TP10 and find the frequency for
which the output voltage is maximum among these three ranges. This frequency will be the
resonance frequency of this RLC circuit).
• Similarly select other combinations like L3-C4, L4-C3, L4-C4 by connecting terminals
G-K,H-J and J-K respectively one by one and apply same procedure to find the resonance
frequency.
• Record your observations in the observation table.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Sr. Combination Freq. Range Maximum Resonant Frequency Resonant Frequency

No. (Selector) Voltage (Experimentally) (Experimentally)
1. L3-C3 1 KHz
10 KHz
60 KHz
2. L3-C4 1 KHz
10 KHz
60 KHz
3. L3-C3 1 KHz
10 KHz
60 KHz
4. L4-C4 1 KHz
10 KHz
60 KHz

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RESULT:-

Theoretical value of resonant frequency:

Practical value of resonant frequency:

1
𝑓𝑟 = = ⋯ … … … … … … … … . . 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR:-

PRECAUTIONS:-

APPLICATIONS OF RESONANT CIRCUITS:-

➢ Since the parallel resonant circuit has a high impedance, it is often useful for rejecting undesired
frequencies.
➢ Parallel resonant circuit is used in determining the frequency of operation of radio and radar
transmitters.
➢ A parallel resonant LC circuit is used to provide current magnification and also used in the RF
amplifier circuits as the load impedance, the amplifier’s gain is max at the resonant frequency.
➢ A series resonant LC circuit is used to provide voltage magnifications.
➢ Both series and parallel resonant LC circuits are used in induction heating.

VIVA – VOCE QUESTIONS:-

Q.No.1. What is parallel resonance?

Q.No.2. What is the current at resonance?
Q.No.3. What is the meant by rejector circuit?
Q.No.4. What is a tank circuit?
Q.No.5. What is anti-resonance?
Q.No.6. What is resonance curve?
Q.No.7. What are the characteristics of parallel resonance?
Q.No.8. What is impedance?
Q.No.9. Resonant frequency is given by 𝑓r = 1 /2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
Q.No.10. Define self-inductance of a coil ?
Q.No.11. What is Quality factor(Q) ?
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 Introduction
RLC Resonance Trainer is very exclusive training system provides complete learning content for
both series and parallel resonance. Resonance is an interesting phenomenon in electrical circuits in
which inductive and capacitive elements behave to be like zero impedance circuit. This explanation
is given with the help of passive circuits on the trainer. Multiple combinations of components has
been provided so that students can calculate resonance frequencies for these different
combinations. Concept of Resonance frequency is explained very clearly which can be easily
elaborated either on Oscilloscope or by on board display.

THEORY

In many of the electrical circuits, resonance is a very important phenomenon. The study of
resonance is very useful particularly in the area of communications. For example, the ability of a
radio receiver to select a certain frequency, transmitted by a station and to eliminate
frequencies from other stations is based on the principle of resonance. The resonance condition
can be achieved by connecting RLC components either in series or parallel depending on
requirement.
Before starting the study of RLC circuit we should get familiar with the components which keep
a great importance in the resonance.
• Resistance (R)
• Inductance (L)
• Capacitance (C

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 02

AIM:- Study of Resonance in Series RLC Circuit and to find its resonance frequency

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:- RLC resonance trainer kit, patch cords and power supply.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RLC SERIES:-

Firstly, let us define what we already know about series RLC circuits.

From the above equation for inductive reactance, if either the Frequency or the Inductance is increased
the overall inductive reactance value of the inductor would also increase. As the frequency approaches
infinity the inductors reactance would also increase towards infinity with the circuit element acting like
an open circuit.
However, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the inductors reactance would decrease to zero,
causing the opposite effect acting like a short circuit. This means then that inductive reactance is
“Proportional” to frequency and is small at low frequencies and high at higher frequencies and this
demonstrated in the following curve:

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 At a frequency below the resonant frequency, the current leads the source voltage because the
capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive reactance. The phase angle decreases as the
frequency approaches the resonant value, and is 0° at resonance. At frequencies above
resonance, the current lags behind the source voltage, because the inductive reactance is
greater than capacitive reactance. As the frequency goes higher, the phase angle approaches
90°.

Voltages and current in a series resonant circuit:-

The variation of impedance and current with frequency is shown in figure at resonant
frequency, the capacitive reactance is equal to inductive reactance, and hence the impedance is
minimum. Because of the minimum impedance, maximum current flows through the circuit. The
current variation with frequency is plotted.
The voltage drops across resistance, inductance and capacitance also varies with frequency. At f = 0,
the capacitor acts as an open circuit and blocks current. The complete source voltage appears across
the capacitor. As the frequency increases, X C decreases and XL increases, causing total reactance XC
- XL to decrease. As a result, the impedance decreases and the current increases. As the current
increases, VR also increases, and both VC and VL increase When the frequency reaches its resonant
value fr, the impedance is equal to R, and hence, the current reaches its maximum value, and VR is at
its maximum value.

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Inductive Reactance against Frequency

The graph of inductive reactance against frequency is a straight line linear curve. The inductive reactance
value of an inductor increases linearly as the frequency across it increases. Therefore, inductive
reactance is positive and is directly proportional to frequency ( XL ∝ ƒ )
The same is also true for the capacitive reactance formula above but in reverse. If either
the Frequency or the Capacitance is increased the overall capacitive reactance would decrease. As the
frequency approaches infinity the capacitors reactance would reduce to practically zero causing the
circuit element to act like a perfect conductor of 0Ω.
But as the frequency approaches zero or DC level, the capacitors reactance would rapidly increase up to
infinity causing it to act like a very large resistance, becoming more like an open circuit condition. This
means then that capacitive reactance is “Inversely proportional” to frequency for any given value of
capacitance and this shown below:

Capacitive Reactance against Frequency

The graph of capacitive reactance against frequency is a hyperbolic curve. The Reactance value of a
capacitor has a very high value at low frequencies but quickly decreases as the frequency across it
increases. Therefore, capacitive reactance is negative and is inversely proportional to frequency ( XC ∝ ƒ -
1 ) We can see that the values of these resistances depends upon the frequency of the supply. At a higher

frequency XL is high and at a low frequency XC is high. Then there must be a frequency point were the
value of XL is the same as the value of XC and there is. If we now place the curve for inductive reactance on
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top of the curve for capacitive reactance so that both curves are on the same axes, the point of
intersection will give us the series resonance frequency point, ( ƒr or ωr ) as shown below.

Series Resonance Frequency

where: ƒr is in Hertz, L is in Henries and C is in Farads.

Electrical resonance occurs in an AC circuit when the two reactances which are opposite and equal cancel
each other out as XL = XC and the point on the graph at which this happens is were the two reactance
curves cross each other. In a series resonant circuit, the resonant frequency, ƒr point can be calculated as
follows.

We can see then that at resonance, the two reactances cancel each other out thereby making a series LC
combination act as a short circuit with the only opposition to current flow in a series resonance circuit
being the resistance, R. In complex form, the resonant frequency is the frequency at which the total
impedance of a series RLC circuit becomes purely “real”, that is no imaginary impedance’s exist. This is
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because at resonance they are cancelled out. So the total impedance of the series circuit becomes just the
value of the resistance and therefore: Z = R.
Then at resonance the impedance of the series circuit is at its minimum value and equal only to the
resistance, R of the circuit. The circuit impedance at resonance is called the “dynamic impedance” of the
circuit and depending upon the frequency, XC (typically at high frequencies) or XL (typically at low
frequencies) will dominate either side of resonance as shown below.
PROCEDURE:-

1. Connect terminals A and B so that inductor L1 and capacitor C1 will be in series.

2. Now connect generator output to this series combination, for this connect TP9 and
TP10 to Vin and TP4 (Ground) respectively.
3. To observe the output of circuit, connect TP1 and TP4 to + and – terminals of display.
4. Switch ON the power supply.
5. Select 1KHz range from Frequency Range Selector.
6. Vary the frequency by Variable Frequency knob and observe the change in output
voltage on display.
7. Apply same process for other two frequency ranges and note the minimum voltage.
8. IF APPLICABLE (Now connect the CRO across TP9 and TP10 and find the frequency for
which the output voltage is minimum among these three ranges. This frequency will be the
resonance frequency of this RLC circuit).
9. Similarly select other combinations like L1-C2, L2-C1, L2-C2 by connecting terminals
A-D, C-B and C-D respectively one by one and apply same procedure to find the
resonance frequency.
10. Record your observations in the observation table.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Sr. Combination Freq. Range Minimum Resonant Frequency Resonant Frequency

No. (Selector) Voltage (Experimentally) (Experimentally)
1. L1-C1 1 KHz
10 KHz
60 KHz
2. L1-C2 1 KHz
10 KHz
60 KHz
3. L2-C1 1 KHz
10 KHz
60 KHz
4. L2-C2 1 KHz
10 KHz
60 KHz

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RESULT:-

Theoretical value of resonant frequency:

Practical value of resonant frequency:

1
𝑓𝑟 = = ⋯ … … … … … … … … . . 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR:-

PRECAUTIONS:-

APPLICATIONS OF RESONANT CIRCUITS:-

➢ Since the parallel resonant circuit has a high impedance, it is often useful for rejecting undesired
frequencies.
➢ Parallel resonant circuit is used in determining the frequency of operation of radio and radar transmitters.
➢ A parallel resonant LC circuit is used to provide current magnification and also used in the RF amplifier
circuits as the load impedance, the amplifier’s gain is max at the resonant frequency.
➢ A series resonant LC circuit is used to provide voltage magnifications.
➢ Both series and parallel resonant LC circuits are used in induction heating.

VIVA – VOCE QUESTIONS:-

Q.No.1. What is meant by electrical resonance?
Q.No.2. What is the condition for resonance?
Q.No.3. What is the value of Z in LCR series circuit at resonance?
Q.No.4. What is the resonance frequency?
Q.No.5. Expression for resonance frequency?
Q.No.6. Define band width.
Q.No.7. Expression for bandwidth.
Q.No.8. What are f1, f2 ?
Q.No.9. What are characteristics of series resonance?
Q.No.10. Why do you call LCR series resonance circuit as an acceptor circuit?

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 Introduction
Planck's Constant Determination using LED Setup illustrate the basic concept of the Quantum
Mechanics. It helps to understand the phenomena of photon, its energy, its frequency etc. This setup is
mainly used to determine the fundamental constant of Quantum Mechanics called ―Planck's
Constant‖. It is an effective and easy way to determine this constant. The setup consists of five LEDs of
different colour which are Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. Using this setup we also calculate the
energy of photon. It is useful to student of graduation level. Our trainer provides more accurate result
than other method like Planck's Constant Determination using Phototube. For the invention of Planck's
Constant Max Planck is awarded by Noble Prize in 1918.

Planck‘s Constant relates the energy of light photons to their frequency. It also shows up in De Broglie‘s
relation for the wavelength of matter waves and Schrodinger‘s Equation. Thus, the number is of
fundamental importance in 20th century physics. A common device, the light emitting diode or LED,
could be designed only because some engineers understood quantum science. Thus, knowledge of the
value of Planck‘s Constant is ―hidden‖ in the LED. This short tutorial will show you how you can
determine a value for Planck‘s Constant by using LEDs. An LED begins to emit light when the voltage
applied to it creates a large enough energy difference between the two electronic states in the parts of
the diode for an electron transition to release one quantum of light at the wavelength of the LED.
Diodes today come in a variety of colours. Each colour is achieved by having a slightly different semiconductor
material.

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 Safety Instructions

Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the instrument. To avoid any personal

injury or damage to the instrument or any product connected to the instrument.

Do not operate the instrument if suspect any damage to it.

The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.

For your safety:

Use proper Mains cord : Use only the mains cord designed for this instrument.

Ensure that the mains cord is suitable for your country.

Ground the Instrument : This instrument is grounded through the protective earth

conductor of the mains cord. To avoid electric shock, the

grounding conductor must be connected to the earth ground.
Before making connections to the input terminals, ensure that the
instrument is properly grounded.

Use in proper Atmosphere: Please refer to operating conditions given in the manual.

1. Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.

2. Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.

Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.

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 Theory
Quantum Theory:-

Quantum theory evolved as a new branch of theoretical physics during the first few decades of the
20th century in an endeavour to understand the fundamental properties of matter. It began with the
study of the interactions of matter and radiation. Certain radiation effects could neither be explained
by classical mechanics, nor by the theory of electromagnetism. In particular, physicists were puzzled
by the nature of light. Peculiar lines in the spectrum of sunlight had been discovered earlier by Joseph
Von Fraunhofer (1787-1826). These spectral lines were then systematically cataloged for various
substances, yet nobody could explain why the spectral lines are there and why they would differ for
each substance. It took about one hundred years, until a plausible explanation was supplied by
quantum theory.
In contrast to Einstein's Relativity, which is about the largest things in the universe, quantum theory
deals with the tiniest things we know, the particles that atoms are made of, which we call
"subatomic" particles. In contrast to relativity, quantum theory
was not the work of one individual, but the collaborative effort of some of the most brilliant
physicists of the 20th century, among them Niels Bohr, Erwin Schrodinger,
Wolfgang Pauli, and Max Born. Two names clearly stand out: Max Planck (1858- 1947) and
Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976). Planck is recognized as the originator of the quantum theory, while
Heisenberg formulated one of the most eminent laws of quantum theory, the Uncertainty Principle,
which is occasionally also referred to as the principle of Indeterminacy.
Around 1900, Max Planck from the University of Kiel concerned himself with observations of the
radiation of heated materials. He attempted to draw conclusions from the radiation to the radiating
atom. On basis of empirical data, he developed a new formula which later showed remarkable
agreement with accurate measurements of the spectrum of heat radiation. The result of this
formula was so that 'energy is always emitted or absorbed in discrete units, which he called quanta'.
Planck developed his quantum theory further and derived a universal constant, which came to be
known as Planck's Constant. The resulting law states that the energy of each quantum is equal to the
frequency of the radiation multiplied by the universal constant: E = f x h, where f is frequency of the
emitted photons and h is called as Planck's Constant (~6.63 x 10-34 Js). The discovery of quanta
revolutionized physics, because it contradicted conventional ideas about the nature of radiation and
energy.

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

An odd aspect of Quantum mechanics is contained in the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP). The
HUP can be stated in different ways, first we talk in terms of momentum and position. If there is a
particle, such as an electron, moving through space, I can characterize its motion by telling you
where it is (its position) and what its velocity is (more precisely, its momentum).
Classically, that is, in our macroscopic world, I could, in principle, measure the position and

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 momentum of the object to infinite precision (more or less). There is really no question about a
particle's position and momentum.
In the Quantum mechanical world, the idea that we can locate objects exactly breaks down. Suppose a
particle has momentum p and position x. In a Quantum mechanical world, I would not be able to
measure p and x precisely. There would be an uncertainty associated with each measurement that I
could never get rid of, even in a perfect experiment. The size of the uncertainties are not independent;
they are related as
1
Δ𝑝. Δ𝑥 ≤ ℏ
2

Where the symbol on the right hand side of the inequality, the h with a slash through, it is known as
"h bar" and represents the Planck Constant h divided 2π. The above is a statement of the Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle. A consequence of the Uncertainty Principle is that if an object's position x is
defined precisely then the momentum of the object will be only weakly constrained, and vice versa.
One cannot simultaneously find both the position and momentum of an object to arbitrary accuracy.
This uncertainty leads to some strange effects. For example, in a quantum mechanical world, we
cannot predict where a particle will be with 100 % certainty. We can only speak in terms of
probabilities. For example, we can only say that an atom will be at some location with a 99 %
probability, and that there will be a 1 % probability it will be somewhere else (in fact, there will be a
small but finite probability that it can even be found across the Universe). This is strange.
We do not know if this indeterminism is actually the way the Universe works, because the theory of
Quantum mechanics is probably incomplete. That is, we do not know if the Universe actually behaves
in a probabilistic manner (there are many possible paths a particle can follow and the observed path is
chosen probabilistically) or if the Universe is deterministic in the sense that we could predict the path
a particle will follow with 100 % certainty.
A consequence of the quantum mechanical nature of the world is that particles can appear in places
where they have no right to be. This has interesting consequences for nuclear fusion in stars.
Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect is a quantum electronic phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from
matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays or visible light.
The emitted electrons can be referred to as photoelectrons in this context. The effect is also termed
the Hertz Effect, due to its discovery by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, although the term has generally fallen
out of use. Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum
nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave– particle duality. The
term may also refer to the photo conductive effect (also known as photo conductivity or photo
resistivity), the photo voltaic effect, or the photo electrochemical effect.

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 The photons of the light beam have a characteristic energy determined by the frequency of the light. In
the photo emission process, if an electron absorbs the energy of one photon and has more energy
than the work function, it is ejected from the material. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is
unable to escape the surface of the material. Increasing the intensity of the light beam does not change
the energy of the constituent photons, only the number of photons. Thus the energy of the
emitted electrons does not depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but only on the energy of
the individual photons. Electrons can absorb energy from photons when irradiated, but they follow an
"all or nothing" principle. All of the energy from one photon must be absorbed and used to liberate one
electron from atomic binding, or the energy is re-emitted. If the photon energy is absorbed, some of
the energy liberates the electron from the atom, and the rest contributes to the electron's kinetic
energy as a free particle.
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
1. For a given metal & frequency of incident radiation, rate at which photoelectrons are ejected
is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
2. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident radiation below
which no photoelectrons can be emitted. This frequency is called the threshold frequency.
3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photo electron is
independent of the intensity of the incident light but depends on the frequency of the
incident light.
4. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photo electron is very
small, less than 10-9 seconds.

Black Body radiation

All objects absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation. The intensity of the radiation absorbed or
emitted by an object may vary for different frequencies and directions of propagation and may be
dependent upon characteristics such as the temperature, shape, and material composition of the
body.

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A blackbody is a special type of object characterized by being a perfect absorber of radiation. From
Kirchhoff's law, a blackbody is not only the most efficient radiation absorber; it is also the most efficient
radiation emitter. One characteristic of all blackbodies is that the spectrum of radiation they emit
depends only upon their temperature. Radiation incident over black bodies will be totally absorbed.
Lamp black is the nearest approach to such a body. Apparently, it neither reflects nor transmits the light
which falls on it, absorbs all, and hence appears black. But the perfectly black body does not exist in
nature, for even the lamp black is found to transmit light of long wavelength. It absorbs about 96% of

visible light; platinum black absorbs about 98%.

A black body is an ideal body which allows the whole of the incident radiation to pass into it (without
reflecting the energy) and absorbs within itself the whole incident radiation (without passing on
the energy). This property is valid for radiation corresponding to all wavelengths and to all
angles of incidence. Therefore the black body is an ideal absorber of incident radiation. Black body
does not depend on the type of object emitting it. Entire spectrum of black body depends on only one
parameter, the temperature, T.
A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that hits it. Therefore it reflects
no radiation and appears perfectly black.

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In practice no material has been found to absorb all incoming radiation, but carbon in its graphite form
absorbs all but about 3%. It is also a perfect emitter of radiation. At a particular temperature the black
body would emit the maximum amount of energy possible for that temperature. This value is known
as the black body radiation. It would emit at every wavelength of light as it must be able to absorb
every wavelength to be sure of absorbing all incoming radiation. The maximum wavelength emitted
by a black body radiator is infinite. It also emits a definite amount of energy at each wavelength for a
particular temperature, so standard black body radiation curves can be drawn for each temperature,
showing the energy radiated at each wavelength. All objects emit radiation above absolute zero. A
simple example of a black body radiator is the furnace. If there is a small hole in the door of the furnace
heat energy can enter from the outside. Inside the furnace this is absorbed by the inside walls. The
walls are very hot and are also emitting thermal radiation. This may be absorbed by another part of
the furnace wall or it may escape through the whole in the door. This radiation that escapes may
contain any wavelength. The furnace is in equilibrium as when it absorbs some radiation it emits some
to make up for this and eventually a small amount of this emitted radiation may escape to
compensate for the radiation that entered through the hole. Stars are also approximate black body
radiators. Most of the light directed at a star is absorbed. It is therefore capable of absorbing all
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, so is also capable of emitting all wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation. Most approximate blackbodies are solids but stars are an exception because
the gas particles in them are so dense they are capable of absorbing the majority of the radiant
energy.

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Black Body Radiation Curves

Theoretical Black Body Curve for 5000K

The black body radiation curve (figure) shows that the black body does radiate energy at every
wavelength. The curve gets infinitely close to the X-axis but never touches it. The curve touches at
infinite wavelength. It also shows that the black body emits at a peak wavelength, at which most of the
radiant energy is emitted. At 5000K the peak wavelength is about 5x10-7m (500nm) which is in the
visible light region, in the yellow-green section. At each temperature the black body emits a standard
amount of energy. This is represented by the area under the curve.

Black Body Radiation Curves showing Peak Wavelengths at Various Temperatures

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 This graph shows how the black body radiation curves change at various temperatures. These all have
their peak wavelengths in the infra-red part of the spectrum as they are at a lower temperature than
the previous graph. The graph shows: As the temperature increases, the peak wavelength emitted by
the black body decreases. It therefore begins to move from the infra-red towards the visible part of
the spectrum. Again, none of the graphs touch the x-axis so they emit at ever y wavelength. This
means that some visible radiation is emitted even at these lower temperatures and at any
temperature above absolute zero, a black body will emit some visible light. The graph also shows: As
temperature increases, the total energy emitted increases, because the total area under the curve
increases. It also shows that the relationship is not linear as the area does not increase in even steps.
The rate of increase of area and therefore energy increases as temperature increases.

Planck's Constant:-
Planck's constant is the fundamental constant in modern physics. It relates the energy of a photon to
its frequency. To determine this constant we can use Light Emitting Diodes (LED) also. Diodes today
come in a variety of colors. Each color is achieved by having a slightly different semiconductor
material. We can choose a number of LEDs, with different colors including Blue, Green, Red and
Orange.
The experiment is based on the fact that the energy of the photon relates to its frequency as:
E=hxf
Where, E is the energy of photon, h is the Planck‘s constant and f is the frequency of the emitted
photons. When the diode first emits light the voltage across the diode, V0, is just enough to give energy
to electrons to jump between two energy levels. Therefore
V0.e = h x f
Where e is the electron charge and V0 is the threshold voltage. Therefore by measuring the voltage
across the diode when the first light is observed for a number of diodes.
The relation between the maximum wavelength, λ, and the turn on voltage, V0, is
E = hf = hc/λ.....................(1)
E = eV0.............................(2)
From (1) and (2) we get, hc/λ = eV0
or h = eV0λ/c..........................(3)
Where,
h is Planck‘s constant,
e is the electronic charge,
V0 is Threshold voltage,
λ is wavelength of LED
c is the velocity of light (3x108 m/s)
Usages of Planck's constant
The Planck constant is used to describe quantization. For instance, the energy (E) carried by a beam of
light with constant frequency (v) can only take on the values
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 E = nhv, nЄN

It is sometimes more convenient to use the angular frequency ω = 2πv, which gives
E = nhw, nЄN

Many such "quantization conditions" exist. A particularly interesting condition governs the
quantization of angular momentum. Let J be the total angular momentum of a system with rotational
invariance, and Jz the angular momentum measured along any given direction. These quantities can
only take on the values
J2 = j (j+1) ħ2 , j=0,1/2, 1, 3/2, ……….
Jz = mħ, m =-j, -j+1,…….,j
Thus, ћ may be said to be the "quantum of angular momentum".
The Planck constant also occurs in statements of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Given a large
number of particles prepared in the same state, the uncertainty in their position, Δx, and the
uncertainty in their momentum (in the same direction), Δp, obey
1
Δp Δx ≤ ℏ
2
Where the uncertainty is given as the standard deviation of the measured value from its expected
value. There are a number of other such pairs of physically measurable values which obey a similar
rule.

Dirac constant
The Dirac constant or the "reduced Planck constant", ħ = h/2π, differs only from the Planck constant
by a factor of 2π. The Planck constant is stated in SI units of measurement, joules per hertz, or joules
per (cycle per second), while the Dirac constant is the same value stated in joules per (radian per
second).
In essence, the Dirac constant is a conversion factor between phase (in radians) and action (in joule-
seconds) as seen in the Schrödinger equation. The Planck constant is similarly a conversion factor
between phase (in cycles) and action. All other uses of Planck's constant and Dirac's constant follow
from that relationship.

Significance of the size of Planck's constant

Expressed in the SI units of joule seconds (J·s), the Planck constant is one of the smallest constants
used in physics. The significance of this is that it reflects the extremely small scales at which quantum
mechanical effects are observed, and hence why we are not familiar with quantum physics in our
everyday lives in the way that we are with classical physics. Indeed, classical physics can essentially be
defined as the limit of quantum mechanics as the Planck constant tends to zero.
In natural units, the Dirac constant is taken as 1 (i.e., the Planck constant is 2π), as is convenient for
describing physics at the atomic scale dominated by quantum effects.

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There are several kinds of photoelectric effects
1. The photoionisation (the photoelectric effect on isolated atoms) – which consists of the extraction
of electrons from the atoms of a gas at their interaction with visible or ultraviolet radiation.
2. The photoelectric effect of X-rays – which is given by the extraction of the interior electrons of
atoms by the X-rays (that have energies of the order of thousands electron volts).
3. The internal photoelectric effect – which represents the increase of the number of ―free‖ electrons
of a metal or a semiconductor without leaving the solid, because of the interaction between the atoms
and the light waves. One will obtain a decrease of the irradiated material electrical resistance.
4. The external photoelectric effect – which represents the emission of electrons by a condensed
substance under the action of radiation from the visible and ultraviolet spectrum.
5. The photovoltaic effect – which consists of the appearance of an electromotor bias at the contacts
between a semiconductor and a metal or between two semiconductors, if the contact region is
irradiated with a light beam.
This work studies the external photoelectric effect for a metal (the cathode of a photoelectric cell).
Voltage V (positive or negative with respect to the cathode); a voltmeter to measure this voltage; a
micrometer to measure the photoelectric current I. The current – voltage characteristics for constant
frequency and variable flow The laws of the external photoelectric effect were experimentally

obtained by Lenard in 1905 and the experimental method was described by Millikan in 1916.
A simple circuit is used (see Figure). It is formed by: a photoelectric cell, whose cathode C is
irradiated with a light beam characterized by the frequency ν and the flow φ; a potentiometer
allowing to apply on the cell anode A a (φ1 < φ2 < φ3) are presented in Figure. From these
characteristics one can determine the saturation current Is and the braking voltage V0. The last
one stands for canceling the photoelectric current intensity and it is a measure of the maximum
photoelectron energy.
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Maintaining constant the flow Φ and changing the frequency ν of the incident light, one can observe
the following:
The photoelectric effect is not produced for a frequency lower than a threshold frequency νt ,
depending on the cathode material.
The modulus of the braking voltage increases linearly with the frequency

On this basis, we can infer the following laws for the external photoelectric effect:
1. The saturation intensity of the photoelectric current is directly proportional with the flow of
the incident radiation at a constant frequency Is ~ φ .

2. The maximum photoelectron kinetic energy increases linearly with the radiation frequency and
does not depend on their flow (Ek max = aν + b) .The slope of this line does not depend on the
experimental conditions (a is an universal constant).

3. The external photoelectric effect is produced only if the incident radiation frequency is greater
than or equal with a minimum value, called threshold frequency νt , specific for each material.
The external photoelectric effect is practically instantaneous.

These laws appear to be in total contradiction with the electromagnetic wave theory of the light, but

they become obvious in the frame of the corpuscular theory of light. Their theoretical explanation was
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 given by Einstein in 1905.
This theory considers the light as a flow of photons having the energy hν and effect corresponds to the
energy transfer from a photon to an electron, in other words represents a plastic collision between the
photon and the electron, with photon annihilation. If the energy of the photon hν is greater than the
extraction work, the emitted electron leaves the substance with a kinetic energy Ek.
The momentum h /λ (h is Planck‘s constant, ν represents the frequency and λ is the light wavelength.).
The energy conservation theorem applied to this effect leads to the following formula:

hν =We + Ek , (1)
where We is the extraction work (the energy needed for the electron to leave the substance). The
equation (1) is called Einstein‘s equation. In the case of the threshold frequency, the electron kinetic
energy is zero and we have:

hνt =We . (2)

The determination of the kinetic energy Ek for the emitted electrons is made by using the braking
electric field method: on the photoelectric cell anode is applied a negative bias with respect to the
cathode. This leads to the braking of the electrons and the decrease of the photoelectric current braking
voltage V0 is experimentally determined for different frequencies intensity I. The maximum value of the
modulus of this bias is called braking voltage and is quoted V0. It corresponds to the case when no
electron reaches the anode and I becomes zero. Then

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐸𝑘 = = 𝑒|𝑉0 | (3)
2
Where e is the elementary charge.

From the equations (1-3), we obtain:

ℎ𝑣 = ℎ𝑣𝑡 + 𝑒|𝑉0 |
and therefore:
ℎ ℎ
|𝑉0 | = 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑡
𝑒 𝑒

The last formula explains the second and the third laws of the external photoelectric effect and the
experimental results shown in Figure. The, straight line corresponding to the equation |V0| = f (ν) is
drawn and from its slope the Planck‘s constant is computed

Semiconductor Diode
It is widely used in many areas of electronics today. Although they use the same basic structure of an
area of p-type material meeting an area of n-type material, there are many different types of diode
that are available in today's electronics scene. Whatever the type of diode, the basic idea of the diode is

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 important in the electronics industry today, whether it be used for the production of commercial or
industrial equipment, of for use by the hobbyist, or anyone studying electronics.
Diode
A diode is the simplest sort of semiconductor device. Broadly speaking, a semiconductor is a material
with a varying ability to conduct electrical current. Most semiconductors are made of a poor conductor
that has bad impurities (atoms of another material) added to it. The process of adding impurities is
called doping.
In the case of LEDs, the conductor material is typically aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs). In pure
aluminum-gallium-arsenide, all of the atoms bond perfectly to their neighbours, leaving no free
electrons (negatively-charged particles) to conduct electric current. In doped material, additional
atoms change the balance, either adding free electrons or creating holes where electrons can go.
Either of these additions make the material more conductive.
A semiconductor with extra electrons is called N-type material, since it has extra negatively-charged
particles. In N-type material, free electrons move from a negatively- charged area to a positively
charged area.
A semiconductor with extra holes is called P-type material, since it effectively has extra positively-
charged particles. Electrons can jump from hole to hole, moving from a negatively-charged area to a
positively-charged area. As a result, the holes themselves appear to move from a positively-charged

area to a negatively-charged area.

(a) Fused or Alloy Method (b) Diffused Method (c) Growing Method

Knee Voltage or Threshold Voltage

The voltage at which a particular characteristic of an electronic device first appears.

The voltage at which conduction of current begins in a p-n junction. The voltage at which channel
formation occurs in a metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor.

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The voltage at which a solid-state lamp begins to emit light is known as a threshold voltage. The
forward voltage, at which the current through the junction begins to increase rapidly, is known as knee
voltage. It is different for different material. For example the knee voltage for silicon and germanium is

given in figure.
When the forward bias is applied to a diode, it conducts very slowly until it overcomes the potential
barrier. As shown in figure, the knee voltage for silicon diode is 0.7 V and
0.3 V for germanium diode.
When the forward voltage larger than the knee voltage is applied, the current starts rising rapidly.
The applied voltage must be more than the knee voltage to obtain the significant current.

Diode V/I Behaviour

Unlike a resistor, the amount of current through a diode will depend upon 'which way round' we apply
the voltage.

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An LED is a particular example of a variety of semiconductor junction diodes that conduct electric
current only in one direction, and will not conduct if the applied voltage is reversed.

When the voltage is applied this way round it tends to pull the free electrons and holes apart, and
increases the height of the energy barrier between the two sides of the diode. As a result it is
almost impossible for any electrons or holes to cross the depletion zone and the diode current
produced is virtually zero. A few lucky electrons and holes may happen to pick up a lot of thermal
(kinetic) energy. This gives them enough 'go' to cross the barrier; hence the reversed biased current is not
zero, just very small.

When the voltage is applied this way round it tends to push the electrons and holes towards the
junction. It also reduces the height of the energy barrier and reduces the width of the depletion zone.
These effects make it easier for free electrons and holes with modest amounts of thermal (kinetic)
energy to cross the junction. As a result, we get a sizable current through the diode when we apply a
forward bias voltage.

The following diagram illustrates the current voltage characteristic.

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I-V Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode
Typically, LEDs are p-n junctions of Gallium-Arsenide-Phosphide combinations, with the relative
proportions of the different constituent atoms determining the band gap energy, Eg.
Characteristics of Diodes
1. Diodes are two terminal devices like resistors and capacitors. They don't have many terminals like
transistors or integrated circuits.
2. In diodes current is directly related to voltage, like in a resistor. They're not like capacitors where
current is related to the time derivative of voltage or inductors where the derivative of current is
related to voltage.
3. In diodes the current is not linearly related to voltage, like in a resistor.

4. Diodes only consume power. They don't produce power like a battery. They are said to be passive
devices.

5. Diodes are nonlinear, two terminal, passive electrical devices.

6. In general, diodes tend to permit current flow in one direction, but tend to inhibit current flow in
the opposite direction.
The graph below shows how current can depend upon voltage for a diode.

Note the following

1. When the voltage across the diode is positive, a lot of current can flow once the voltage
becomes large enough.

2. When the voltage across the diode is negative, virtually no current flows.
Types of Diode
There is a host of different types of diode that are manufactured and used in today's electronics. Each
type has different properties and this makes them suitable for different applications or jobs.
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1. Laser Diode
This type of diode is different to the ordinary Light Emitting Diode in that it produces laser (coherent)
light. They are used in many applications including CD and DVD drives. Although much cheaper than
other forms of laser generators, these diodes are more expensive than ordinary LEDs.
2. Photo Diode
When light strikes a PN junction it can create electrons and holes, causing a current to flow. As a
result it is possible to use semiconductors to detect light.

These types of diodes can also be used to generate electricity. For some applications, PIN diodes
work very well as photo-detectors.
3. PIN Diode
This diode type has areas of P-type and N-type silicon, but between them there is an area of
intrinsic semiconductor (i.e., no doping). This increases the size of what is
termed the depletion region. This type of diode is used in a number of applications including
radio frequency switches and as photodiodes.

4. Point Contact Diode

This type of diode performs in the same way as a simple PN junction diode, but the construction is
much easier. They consist of a piece of n-type semiconductor, onto which a sharp point of a specific
type of metal wire (group III metal for chemists) is placed. Some of the metal migrates into the
semiconductor and produces a PN junction. These diodes have a very low level of capacitance and
are ideal for many radio frequency (RF) applications. They also have the advantage that they are
very cheap to manufacture, although their performance is not particularly repeatable.

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 5.P-N Junction Diode
The standard PN junction may be thought of as the normal or standard type of diode in use today.
These diodes can come as small signal types for use in radio frequency, or other low current
applications, or other types may be high current and high voltage ones that can be used for power
applications.

6. Schottky Diode
This type of diode has a lower forward voltage drop than ordinary silicon PN junction diodes. At low
currents the drop may be somewhere between 0.15 and 0.4 volts as opposed to 0.6 volts for a silicon
diode. To achieve this performance they are constructed in a different way to normal diodes having a

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 metal to semiconductor contact. They are used as clamping diodes, and in RF applications.

7. Varicap or Varactor Diode

This type of diode is used in radio frequency (RF) applications. The diode has a reverse bias
placed upon it and in this way no current flows across the junction. However the width of the
depletion layer varies according to the amount of bias placed on it. The diode can be thought
of as two plates of a capacitor, with the depletion layer between them. As the capacitance varies
according to the width of the depletion layer and this can be varied by changing the reverse
bias on the diode, it is possible to control the capacitance of the diode.

8. Zener Diode
The zener diode is a very useful type of diode. It is run under reverse bias and when a certain voltage
is reached it breaks down. If the current is limited through a resistor, it enables a stable voltage to be
produced. This type of diode is therefore widely used to provide a reference voltage in power
supplies.

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9. Light Emitting Diode
The light emitting diode or LED is one of the most popular types of diode. When forward biased
with current flowing through the junction, light is produced. The diodes use component
semiconductors, and can produce a variety of colour, although the original colour was red.

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when an electric current
passes through it. The light is not particularly bright, but in most LEDs it is monochromatic, occurring
at a single wavelength. The output from an LED can range from red (at a wavelength of approximately
700 nanometers) to blue-violet (about 400 nanometers)

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Colours of Light Emitting Diodes
LEDs are available in many colours such as: red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue
and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours.
The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the
'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in uncoloured packages which may be
diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The coloured packages are also available as
diffused (the standard type)
or transparent.

How can a Diode Produce Light?

Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is made up of many small particle-like
packets that have energy and momentum but no mass. These particles, called photons, are the most
basic units of light.
Photons are released as a result of moving electrons. In an atom, electrons move in orbitals around
the nucleus. Electrons in different orbitals have different amounts of energy. Generally speaking,
electrons with greater energy move in orbitals farther away from the nucleus.
For an electron to jump from a lower orbital to a higher orbital, something has to boost its energy
level. Conversely, an electron releases energy when it drops from a higher orbital to a lower one.
This energy is released in the form of a photon. A greater energy drop releases a higher-energy
photon, which is characterized by a higher frequency.
As we saw in the last section, free electrons moving across a diode can fall into empty holes from the P-
type layer. This involves a drop from the conduction band to a lower orbital, so the electrons release
energy in the form of photons. This happens in any diode, but you can only see the photons when the
diode is composed of certain materials. The atoms in a standard silicon diode, for example, are arranged
in such a way that the electron drops a relatively short distance. As a result, the photon's frequency is so
low that it is invisible to the human eye -- it is in the infrared portion of the light spectrum. This isn't
necessarily a bad thing, of course: Infrared LEDs are ideal for remote controls, among other things.

Physical function of LED

Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped with
impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to

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 the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers-electrons and holes flow into
the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower
energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its colour, depends on the band gap energy of the
materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine
by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap
materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-
infrared, visible or near- ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made
with gallium arsenide. Advances in material science have made possible the production of devices
with ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colours. LEDs are usually built on an n-
type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type
substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use
sapphire substrate. Substrates that are transparent to the emitted wavelength, and backed by a
reflective layer, and light spreading layer, increase the LED efficiency. The refractive index of the
package material should match the index of the semiconductor, otherwise the produced light gets
partially reflected back into the semiconductor, where it may be absorbed and turned into additional
heat, thus lowering the efficiency.
This type of reflection also occurs at the surface of the package if the LED is coupled to a medium
with a different refractive index such as a glass fiber or air. The refractive index of most LED
semiconductors is quite high, so in almost all cases the LED is coupled into a much lower-index
medium. The large index difference makes the reflection quite substantial (per the Fresnel
coefficients), and this is usually one of the dominant causes of LED inefficiency. Often more than half
of the emitted light is reflected back at the LED-package and package-air interfaces. The reflection is
most commonly reduced by using a dome-shaped (half-sphere) package with the diode in the center
so that the outgoing light rays strike the surface perpendicularly, at which angle the reflection is
minimized. An anti-reflection coating may be added as well. The package may be cheap plastic,
which may be coloured, but this is only for cosmetic reasons or to improve the contrast ratio; the
colour of the packaging does not substantially affect the colour of the light emitted. Other strategies
for reducing the impact of the interface reflections include designing the LED to reabsorb and re-emit
the reflected light (called photon recycling) and manipulating the microscopic structure of the surface
to reduce the reflectance, either by introducing random roughness or by creating programmed moth
eye surface patterns.

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, producing the
following colours:
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) — red and infrared Aluminium
gallium phosphide (AlGaP) — green
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide — high-brightness orange- (AlGaInP)
red, orange, yellow, and green
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) — red, orange-red, orange, and

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 yellow
Yellow Gallium phosphide(GaP) — red, yellow and green
Gallium nitride (GaN) — green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue
also white
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) — 450–470 nm, bluish-green and blue
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate — blue Sapphire (Al2O3) as substrate
blue Zinc selenide (ZnSe) — blue
Diamond — ultraviolet
Aluminium gallium — near to far ultraviolet(down to Nitride (AlGaN),
Aluminium nitride, aluminum 210nm)
With this wide variety of colours, arrays of multicolour LEDs can be designed to produce
unconventional colour patterns.
Advantages of LED
While all diodes release light, most don't do it very effectively. In an ordinary diode, the semiconductor
material itself ends up absorbing a lot of the light energy. LEDs are specially constructed to release a
large number of photons outward. Additionally, the y are housed in a plastic bulb that concentrates
the light in a particular direction. As you can see in the diagram, most of the light from the diode
bounces off the sides of the bulb, traveling on through the rounded end.
Size and Efficiency
LEDs measure from 3 to 8 mm long and can be used singly or as part of an array. The small size and
low profile of LEDs allow them to be used in spaces that are too small for other light bulbs. In
addition, because LEDs give off light in a specific direction, they are more efficient in application
than incandescent and fluorescent bulbs, which waste energy by emitting light in all directions.
Long Life
The life of a high-power white LED is projected to be from 35,000 to 50,000 hours, compared to 750
to 2,000 hours for an incandescent bulb, 8,000 to 10,000 hours for a compact fluorescent and 20,000
to 30,000 hours for a linear fluorescent bulb. LED lifetimes are rated differently than conventional
lights, which go out when the filament breaks. Typical lifetime is defined as the average number of
hours until light falls to 70 percent of initial brightness, in lumens. LEDs typically just fade gradually.

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Lower Temperatures
Conventional light bulbs waste most of their energy as heat. For example, an incandescent bulb gives
off 90 percent of its energy as heat; while a compact fluorescent bulb wastes 80 percent as heat.
LEDs remain cool. In addition, since they contain no glass components, they are not vulnerable to
vibration or breakage like conventional bulbs. LEDs are thus better suited for use in areas like sports
facilities and high-crime locations.

LEDs have several advantages over conventional incandescent lamps. For one thing, they don't have
a filament that will burn out, so they last much longer. Additionally, their small plastic bulb makes
them a lot more durable. They also fit more easily into modern electronic circuits.
But the main advantage is efficiency. In conventional incandescent bulbs, the light- production process
involves generating a lot of heat (the filament must be warmed). This is completely wasted energy,
unless you're using the lamp as a heater, because a huge portion of the available electricity isn't
going toward producing visible light. LEDs generate very little heat, relatively speaking. A much
higher percentage of the electrical power is going directly to generating light, which cuts down on the
electricity demands considerably.
Up until recently, LEDs were too expensive to use for most lighting applications because they're built
around advanced semiconductor material. The price of semiconductor devices has plummeted over
the past decade, however, making LEDs a more cost-effective lighting option for a wide range of
situations. While they may be more expensive than incandescent lights up front, their lower cost in
the long run can make them a better buy. In the future, they will play an even bigger role in the world
of technology.

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Planck's Constant
Planck's Constant is the fundamental constant in modern physics. It relates the energy of a photon to
its frequency. To determine this constant we use Light Emitting Diodes (LED). Diodes today come in
a variety of colours. Each colour is achieved by having a slightly different semiconductor material. This
experiment has being carried out in many manners with a variety of recipes. We chose to do the
experiment using a number of LEDs, with different colours including Blue, Green, Red and Orange.
The experiment is based on the fact that the energy of the photon relates to its frequency as:
E = hf
Where, E is the energy of photon, h is the Planck‘s Constant and f is the frequency of the emitted
photons. When the diode first emits light the voltage across the diode, V0, is just enough to give energy
to electrons to jump between two energy levels. Therefore
V0.e = hf
Where e is the electron charge and V0 is the threshold voltage. Therefore by measuring the voltage
across the diode when the first light is observed for a number of diodes.

In this experiment, you will use light emitting diodes (LEDs) to measure Planck‘s Constant. You should
be familiar with semiconductors and diodes from Moderns Physics. To review: LEDs are
semiconductor that emit electromagnetic radiation in optical and near optical frequencies when a
voltage is applied to them. LEDs emit light only when
the voltage is forward bias and above a minimum threshold value. This combination of conditions
creates and electron hole pair is diode. Electron hole pairs are charge carries and move when placed
in and electrical potential. Thus many electron hole pairs produce a current when placed in an
electric field. Above the threshold value the current increases exponentially with voltage.
A quanta of energy is required to create an electron hole pair and this energy is released and electron
and a hole recombine. In most diodes this energy is absorbed by the semiconductor as heat, but in
LEDs this quanta of energy produces a photon of discreet energy E = hf. Because multiple states may
be excited by increasing the voltage across a diode, photons of increasing energies will be emitted
with increasing voltage. Thus the light emitted by an LED may span a range of discrete wavelength
that decrease with increasing voltage above the threshold voltage (shorter wavelength= higher
energy). We are interested in the maximum wavelength that is determined by the minimum energy
needed to just to create an electron hole pair. It is numerically equal to the turn on voltage of the LED.
The relation between the maximum wavelength, λ, and the turn on voltage, V0, is
E=hf = hc/λ…………………….(1)

E = eV0 … ……………..(2)

From (1) and (2) we get,

hc/λ = eV0

or h = eV0λ/c......................(3)
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 Where,
h is Planck‘s Constant,
e is the electronic charge,
V0 is Threshold voltage,
λ is wavelength of LED
c is the velocity of light
The maximum wavelength of the LED can be measured to a resolution of a few nanometers with a
good spectrometer. If the turn on voltage V0, is measured for several diodes of different colour (and
different maximum wavelength λ), a graph of V0 Vs 1/ λ should be linear with slope of hc/e. An
experimental value of the speed of light c, and the charge of electron, and computing h.
Dirac Constant
The Dirac Constant or the "reduced Planck Constant", h = h/2π , differs only from the Planck Constant
by a factor of 2π. The Planck Constant is stated in SI units of measurement, joules per hertz, or joules
per (cycle per second), while the Dirac Constant is the same value stated in joules per (radian per
second).
In essence, the Dirac Constant is a conversion factor between phase (in radians) and action (in joule-
seconds) as seen in the Schrodinger equation. The Planck Constant is similarly a conversion factor
between phase (in cycles) and action. All other uses of Planck's Constant and Dirac's Constant follow
from that relationship.
Significance of the size of Planck's Constant
Expressed in the SI units of joule seconds (J·s), the Planck Constant is one of the smallest constants
used in physics. The significance of this is that it reflects the extremely small scales at which quantum
mechanical effects are observed, and hence why we are not familiar with quantum physics in our
everyday lives in the way that we are with classical physics. Indeed, classical physics can essentially be
defined as the limit of quantum mechanics as the Planck Constant tends to zero.
In natural units, the Dirac Constant is taken as 1 (i.e., the Planck Constant is 2π), as is convenient for
describing physics at the atomic scale dominated by quantum effects.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 03 (A) (Average method)
AIM: Determination of Planck's constant using Light Emitting Diode (LED).

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:- Plank’s constant trainer kit, patch cord etc.

FORMULA:

h = eV0λ/c

Where
h is Planck‘s Constant,
e is the electronic charge (1.60217662 × 10-19 coulombs)
V0 is Threshold voltage,
λ is wavelength of LED,
c is the velocity of light (3x108 m/s)

THEORY: as above

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: as above

PROCEDURE:-

1. Take the Planck's Constant Determination Setup. Make the connections as shown in figure
below.
2. Connect + ve terminal of DC power supply to + ve terminal of DC voltmeter and + ve terminal
of any one LED.
3. Now connect - ve terminal of DC power supply to - ve terminal of DC voltmeter and - ve terminal
of LED.
4. Set the range of DC voltmeter at 20 V.
5. Connect the mains cord and switch ON the power supply.
6. Now vary the DC voltage slowly by variable resistance pot and see the LED connected in
circuit.
7. When the LED is just start to emit light note the value of applied voltage by DC voltmeter.
8. Now switch OFF the DC power supply and break the LED connection.
9. Again make same connection for another colour of LED.
10. Now repeat the step 8 and 9.
11. Repeat above experiment for different colours of LEDs.
12.Now use the formula given below and put the value of all parameters used in formula and calculate
the value of Planck's Constant for different LEDs.

Take mean value of h calculated for different LEDs

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RESULT: The value of the Planck’s constant (h) =

Percentage Error:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Care should be taken to ensure that when no light is falling on the cathode, the deflection in the
galvanometer is zero.
2. The position of the mercury lamp should not be changed during the experiment.
3. Care should be taken to note down the stopping potential.
4. The voltage across the photocell should be increased very slowly.

VIVA –VOCE QUESTIONS:-

Q.No.01. Define photoelectric effect.

Q.No.02. What is photoelectric cell?

Q.No.03. What is plank’s constant and what is its value?

Q.No.04. What sensitive material is used when the cell is to be used for a visible light?

Q.No.05. On what factors, the number of electrons emitted per unit area depend?

Q.No.06. Define the terms work function & stopping potential.

Q.No.07. What is difference between photo electric effect and thermionic emission?

Q.No.08. What are the laws of photoelectric emission?

Q.No.09. What is threshold frequency?

Q.No.10. What Does Planck’s constant represent?

Q.No.11. What is the unit of Planck’s constant?

Q.No.12. What is the relation between energy of photon and its wavelength?

Q.No.13. If the frequency of light increases will the energy increase or decrease?

Q.No.14. How wavelengths of light affect the production of photo electron?

Q.No.15. What is Plank's constant?

Q.No.16. Describe the importance of Planck’s constant.

Q.No.17. When photoelectrons are emitted from a metallic surface?

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 EXPERIMENT NO.03 (B){Graphical method}
AIM: Draw the V-I characteristic for Light Emitting Diode (LED) and determine the value of
Planck's Constant.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Plank’s constant trainer kit, patch cord, power supply etc.

FORMULA: If any

THEORY: as above

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: as above

PROCEDURE:

1. Take the Planck's constant Determination Setup. Make the connections as shown in
figure below.
2. Connect + ve terminal of power supply to + ve terminal of DC voltmeter and -ve
terminal to - ve terminal of DC voltmeter.
3. Now take another patch cord and connect + ve of power supply to + ve of any one
LED.
4. Connect - ve of power supply to - ve of ammeter.
5. Connect +ve of ammeter to - ve of selected LED.
6. Set the voltmeter at the range of 20 V and ammeter at the 200 mA.
7. Connect the mains cord and switch ‗On‘ the power supply.
8. Now increase the DC voltage at the fix interval of 0.1 volt or 100 mV.
9. Note the corresponding current by DC ammeter in Observation Table.
10. Now take the current of Y-axis and voltage on X-axis and plot a graph between current
and voltage as shown below :

11. Not the reading of voltage at which the current flow suddenly through the LED, at this
point the graph suddenly change their direction. Say this point to be knee- voltage or
threshold-voltage.
12. Put this value in given formula and calculate the Planck's Constant.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No Voltage (in V) I(mA)

RESULT: The value of the Planck’s constant (h) =

PERCENTAGE ERRORS:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Care should be taken to ensure that when no light is falling on the cathode, the deflection in the
galvanometer is zero.
2. The position of the mercury lamp should not be changed during the experiment.
3. Care should be taken to note down the stopping potential.
4. The voltage across the photocell should be increased very slowly.

VIVA – VOCE QUESTIONS:

Q.No.01. Define photoelectric effect.
Q.No.02. What is photoelectric cell?
Q.No.03. What is plank’s constant and what is its value?
Q.No.04. What sensitive material is used when the cell is to be used for a visible light?
Q.No.05. On what factors, the number of electrons emitted per unit area depend?
Q.No.06. Define the terms work function & stopping potential.
Q.No.07. What is difference between photo electric effect and thermionic emission?
Q.No.08. What are the laws of photoelectric emission?
Q.No.09. What is threshold frequency?
Q.No.10. What Does Planck’s constant represent?
Q.No.11. What is the unit of Planck’s constant?
Q.No.12. What is the relation between energy of photon and its wavelength?
Q.No.13. If the frequency of light increases will the energy increase or decrease?
Q.No.14. How wavelengths of light affect the production of photo electron?
Q.No.15. What is Plank's constant?
Q.No.16. Describe the importance of Planck’s constant.
Q.No.17. When photoelectrons are emitted from a metallic surface?
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 EXPERIMENT NO. 03(C){OPTIONAL METHOD}
AIM: Determination of Planck's Constant by plotting a curve between Threshold voltage and
wavelength of LEDs.

EQUIPMENTS NEEDED: Plank’s constant trainer kit, patch cord, power supply etc.

FORMULA : If any

THEORY: as above

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: as above

PROCEDURE:

1. Take the Planck's constant Determination Setup & make the connections as shown in
figure below.
2. Connect + ve terminal of power supply to + ve terminal of DC voltmeter and - ve
terminal to - ve terminal of DC voltmeter.
3. Now take another patch cord and connect + ve of power supply to + ve of any one
LED.
4. Connect - ve of power supply to - ve of ammeter.
5. Connect + ve of ammeter to - ve of selected LED.
6. Set the voltmeter at the range of 20V and ammeter at the 200mA.
7. Connect the mains cord and switch ‗On‘ the power supply.
8. Now increase the DC voltage at the fix interval of 0.1 Volt or 100mV.
9. Note the corresponding current by DC ammeter.
10. Now take the current on Y-axis and voltage on X-axis and plot a graph between current
and voltage.
11. Not the reading of voltage at which the current flow suddenly through the LED, at this
point the graph suddenly change their direction. Say this point to be knee- voltage or
threshold-voltage.
12. Now plot a graph between Threshold voltage and Wavelength for different colour of
LEDs and get a slop S which is equals to hc/e and as shown below :

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 13. Put the values of S, c and e and solve for Planck's Constant (h).

Slope =
Where
h is Planck‘s Constant, e is the electronic charge, c is the velocity of light

Threshold
Wavelength
Colour 1/λ(nm) Voltage (in
(λ) in nm
Volt)
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red

RESULT: The value of the Planck’s constant (h) =

PERCENTAGE ERROR:

PRECAUTIONS:

• Care should be taken to ensure that when no light is falling on the cathode, the deflection in the
galvanometer is zero.
• The position of the mercury lamp should not be changed during the experiment.
• Care should be taken to note down the stopping potential.
• The voltage across the photocell should be increased very slowly.

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 Introduction

Diode Characteristics Trainer is very useful for basic electronics Laboratories. This is
useful for students to plot different characteristics of diode in all different types’
configurations and to understand various region of operation of diode. This is a stand alone
unit with inbuilt DC power supply and as well as built in Voltmeter and Ammeter. This is a
complete system to study the Diode Characteristics. It is designed such that student can
easily plot the forward and reverse characteristics of different Diode. It is a compact, ready
to use Diode Characteristics experiment board. This is useful for students to plot V-I
characteristics of Si Diode, Zener Diode, Germanium Diode and Light Emitting Diode in
forward as well as in reverse bias region of operation.

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 Theory
Introduction:

A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with
greater ease than in the other. The most common type of diode in modern circuit design is
the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes
are symbolized in schematic diagrams as shown below :

Figure 1
When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage :

Figure 2
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the diode,
the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is "backward" and the
diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse biased. A diode may be thought of as a
kind of switch: "closed" when forward-biased and "open" when reverse-biased.

V-I Characteristic:
The static voltage-current characteristic for a P-N Junction Diode is

Figure 3

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Forward Characteristic:

When the diode is in forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased from zero, hardly
any current flows through the device in the beginning. It is so because the external voltage
is being opposed by the internal barrier voltage VB whose value is 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for
Ge. As soon as VB is neutralized, current through the diode increases rapidly with
increasing applied supply voltage. It is found that as little a voltage as 1.0 V produces a
forward current of about 50mA.
Reverse Characteristic:
When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carrier are blocked and only a small current
(due to minority carrier) flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage is increased from
zero, the reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or saturation value Io which is
also known as leakage current. It is of the order of nano amperes (nA) and microamperes
(µA) for Ge.
As seen from Figure 3, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called breakdown
voltage VBR, the leakage current suddenly and sharply increases, the curve indicating zero
resistance at this point.
Zener Diode:
It is the reverse-biased heavily-dopped silicon (or germanium) P-N Junction diode which is
operated in the breakdown region where current is limited by both external resistance and
power dissipation of the diode. Silicon is preferred to diode because of its higher
temperature and current capability. Zener breakdown occurs due to breaking of covalent
bonds by the strong electric field set up in the depletion region by the reverse voltage.
It produces an extremely large number of electrons and holes, which constitute the reverse
saturation current (called zener current Iz) whose value is limited only by the external
resistance in the circuit.

V-I Characteristic:
Figure 4 shows typical characteristics in the negative quadrant. The forward characteristic
is simply that of an ordinary forward-biased junction diode. The important points of the
reverse characteristic are Vz = Zener breakdown voltage.
Iz min = Minimum current to sustain breakdown Iz max = Maximum Zener current limited
by, maximum power dissipation. Since its reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical, the
diode possesses some resistance called Zener dynamic impedance. Its value is given by Zz =
∆Vz / ∆Iz.
Zener diode are available having zener voltage of 2.4V to 200V. This voltage is temperature
dependent. The product Vz, Iz, gives their power dissipation. Maximum ratings vary from
150mV to 50W.

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 Figure 4
For proper working of a Zener diode in any circuit, it is essential that it must
1. Be reverse-biased,
2. Have voltage across it which is greater than Vz,
3. Be in a circuit where current is less than Iz maximum

Light-Emitting Diodes:
Diodes, like all semiconductor devices, are governed by the principles described in
quantum physics. One of these principles is the emission of specific-frequency radiant
energy whenever electrons fall from a higher energy level to a lower energy level.
A diode intentionally designed to glow like a lamp is called a light-emitting diode, or LED.
Diodes made from a combination of the elements gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus (called
gallium-arsenide-phosphide) glow bright red, and are some of the most common LEDs
manufactured. By altering the chemical constituency of the PN junction, different colours
may be obtained. Some of the currently available colours other than red are green, blue,
and infra-red (invisible light at a frequency lower than red). Other colours may be obtained
by combining two or more primary-colours (red, green, and blue). The schematic symbol for
an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle, with two small arrows pointing away
(indicating emitted light).

Figure 5
This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is common to the
schematic symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor devices. Conversely, if a device is
light-activated (meaning that incoming light stimulates it), then the symbol will have two
small arrows pointing toward it. It is interesting to note, though, that LEDs are capable of
acting as light-sensing devices: they will generate a small voltage when exposed to light,
much like a solar cell on a small scale. This property can be gainfully applied in a variety of
light-sensing circuits.
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 Because LEDs are made of different chemical substances than normal rectifying diodes,
their forward voltage drops will be different. Typically, LEDs have much larger forward
voltage drops than rectifying diodes, anywhere from about 1.6 volts to over 3 volts,
depending on the color. Typical operating current for a standard-sized LED is around 20
mA. When operating an LED from a DC voltage source greater than the LEDs forward
voltage, a series-connected "dropping" resistor must be included to prevent full source
voltage from damaging the LED. LED starts emitting light as its forward voltage reaches at a
particular level and its intensity will increase further with the increase in applied forward
voltage. LEDs emit no light when reverse biased. In fact, operating LEDs in reverse direction
will quickly destroy them if the applied voltage is quite large. LEDs V-I characteristic curve is
shown in Figure 6.

Characteristics of LED
Figure 6

General Theory of Diode and Applications:

1. Diodes
2. Rectification
3. Power supply filter
4. Applications of Diodes
• Signal rectifier
• Diode gate
• Diode clamps
• Limiter
1. Diode:
Some elements are linear (resistors, capacitors, inductors), which means that doubling the
applied signal (let us say a voltage) produces a doubling of the response (let us say a
current). They are also passive – they do not have built-in source of power. They are two-
terminal devices, (which is self-explanatory).

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Diode is also two-terminal, passive but non-linear a device. Figure 7 shows the diode.

Diode voltage-current curve, U-I curve

Figure 7

In Figure 7 there is U-I (voltage-current) curve (characteristic). The diode arrow, anode
terminal, shows the direction of forward current flow. If the diode is in a circuit in which a
current of 10mA=10*10-3A is flowing from anode to cathode, then the anode is
approximately 0.5 Volt more positive than cathode. We call it the forward voltage drop.
The reverse current is measured in nanoampers and 1nA=1×10-9A. It is so small in
comparison to mA that can be neglected until we reach the reverse breakdown voltage.
Typically it is approximately 75V and normally we never subject a diode to voltage large
enough to cause reverse breakdown.
Similarly, the forward voltage drop, which is about 0.5 or 0.8 V, is of little concern. For
these reasons we treat the diode as a good approximation of an ideal one-way conductor.
Commercially available diodes are described also by other important characteristics, e.g.:
maximum forward current, capacitance (measured in pF), leaking current, reverse
recovery time (measured in nanoseconds, 0-2-4-5000).
2. Rectification:
A rectifier changes AC (alternating current) to DC (direct current). This is the most
important application of diodes. Diodes are sometimes called Rectifiers.
The basic circuit is shown in Figure 8.

Half-wave rectifier
Figure 8

The ac represents a source of AC voltage. It can be a transformer or just ac sine-wave power

line. For sine-wave input, of amplitude much larger than forward voltage drop, the output
will look like it is shown in Figure 9.

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 Voltage across R Load in
Figure 9
The process and the circuit we call a half-wave rectifier, because only half of the input
waveform is used.
In Figure 10 is shown a full-wave rectifier and Figure 10 shows the voltage across the load.
The small gaps across zero voltage occur because of the forward voltage drop.

Full-wave bridge rectifier Voltage across RLoad in Figure

Figure 10

3. Power supply filtering:

The rectified wave from Figure 10 is not good for application: it is dc only in the sense that
it does not change polarity. But it does not have constant value and has plenty of ripples i.e.
small waves or undulations (wave like forms). It has to be smoothed out in order to obtain
authentic direct current. This can be done by means of a low-pass filter, which is shown in
Figure 11.

Full-wave bridge with RC filter

Figure 11

The full-wave bridge diodes prevent flow of current back out of the capacitor. The capacitor
is an energy storage element. The energy stored in a capacitor is
𝟏
𝑬 = 𝑪𝑼𝟐
𝟐

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 For C in F (farads) and U in V (Volts), E comes out in J (joule) and J=Watt/sec. The capacitor
value is chosen so that𝑹𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 ≫ 𝟏/𝒇, Where f is the ripple frequency. For power line sine wave it
is 2×50Hz =100Hz. It allows ensuring small ripples, by making the time constant for discharge
much longer than the time between recharging (the capacitor is charging very quickly, while
discharging is very slow).
It is quite easy to calculate the approximate ripple voltage (see figure 12). Let us assume that
the load current stays constant (it will, for small ripples). The load causes the capacitor to
discharge somewhat between cycles. The capacitor will loose some voltage, let us say ∆U . In
this case, we have:

𝑰 𝒅𝑼
∆𝑼 = ∆𝒕, (𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑰 = 𝑪 )
𝑪 𝒅𝒕

Power-supply ripple calculation Figure 12

Instead of ∆t we use 1/f or 1/2f respectively for half – wave rectification and for full wave
rectification. Finally we obtain approximate ripple voltage.
𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
• For half wave ∆𝑈 =
𝑓𝐶

𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
• For full wave ∆𝑈 =
2𝑓𝐶

If one wanted to do exact calculation (with no approximation), one would use the exact
exponential formula (see lecture Capacitors, RC circuits). Sometimes it may be necessary.
A DC power supply using the bridge circuit looks (in the USA) as shown in figure 13.

Bridge rectifier circuit Figure 13

The curved electrode indicates a polarized capacitor, which must not be allowed the
opposite polarity.

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4. Applications of diodes:

• Signal rectifier
If the input is not a sine wave, we usually do not think of it as a rectification in the sense as
it was for power supply. For instance, we might want to have a series of pulses
corresponding to the rising edge of a square wave (see figure 14, left hand side and right
hand side of the capacitor C). While both, the rising and the falling, pulses are in the output
after differentiation performed by CR circuit. The simplest way is to rectify the
differentiated wave.

A series of pulses' rectifier Figure 14

We should remember about forward drop voltage of the diode: This circuit gives no output
for signal for input smaller then, forward drop voltage, let us say 0.5 Vpp (peak to peak). If
this is a problem, there are various tricks that help to combat this limitation. For instance:
1. Use Schottky diodes with smaller forward drop voltage(approximately 0.2V),
2. Use so called circuit solution, which means modifying the circuit structure and
compensating the drop,
3. Use matched-pair compensation, use transistors, FETs.
• Diode gates :
Another application of diode is to pass the higher of two voltages without affecting the
lower. A good example is battery backup, a method of keeping devices running (for
instance a precision electronic clock) in case of power failure. Figure 15 shows a circuit that
does the job.

Diode OR gate, battery backup. Figure 15

[OR gate : The output of OR gate is high if either input (or both) is high. In general, gates can
have any number of inputs. The output is low only if all inputs are low].
1. The battery does nothing until the power fails.

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 2. Then the battery takes over the control, without interruption.

• Diode clamps (stabilizatory poziomu) :

Sometimes it is necessary to limit the range of signal (for instance not to exceed certain
voltage limit and not to destroy a device). The circuit in Figure 16 will accomplish this.

Diode voltage clamp Figure 16

The diode prevents the output from exceeding ≡5.6V, with no effect on voltages smaller
than this, including negative voltages. The only limitation is that the input must not be so
negative that the reverse breakdown voltage is exceeded. Diode clamps are the standard
equipment on all inputs in the CMOS family of digital logic (Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor). Without them, the delicate input
circuits are easily destroyed by static electricity.
• Limiter :
The circuit in Figure 17 limits the output swing to one diode drop, roughly 0.6V.

Diode limiter Figure 17

It might seem very small, but if the next device is an amplifier with large voltage
amplification, its input has to be always near zero voltage. Otherwise the output is in state
of saturation. For instance we have an op-amp with a gain of 1000. The amplifier operates
with supply voltage ±15V. Sometimes it can be ±12V or ±18V or something in between. It
will never give output voltage bigger than the supply voltage, i.e. ±15V. It means that the
input signal ±15mV (±15V/1000) or bigger will saturate the output. This particular
amplifier gives the output proportional to the input (proportionality factor is 1000) only for
input signals from the interval (-15mV, +15mV).
This diode limiter is often used as input protection for high-gain amplifiers.
Over-voltage protection :
Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive
electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal
circumstances. When the voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become
forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-
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 bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the
damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. (Any diode used in such an
application is called a flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the
connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors.
Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see Diode types
above) Logic gates. Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and
OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic.

Ionising radiation detectors :

In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more
energetic radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionising radiation cause
noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors. This effect is sometimes exploited by
particle detectors to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or
millions of electron volts of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is
deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the
whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of the
particle’s energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the
complexity of a magnetic spectrometer or etc. These semiconductor radiation detectors
need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current. They are often cooled
by liquid nitrogen. For longer range (about a centimetre) particles they need a very large
depletion depth and large area. For short range particles, they need any contact or un-
depleted semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are
near breakdown (around a thousand volts per centimetre). Germanium and Silicon are
common materials. Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy. They have a
finite life, especially when detecting heavy particles, because of radiation damage. Silicon
and Germanium are quite different in their ability to convert gamma rays to electron
showers.
Semiconductor detectors for high energy particles are used in large numbers. Because of
energy loss fluctuations, accurate measurement of the energy deposited is of less use.

Temperature measuring :
A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward voltage drop
across the diode depends on temperature. From the Schottky ideal diode equation given
above, it appears the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient (at a constant
current)but depends on doping concentration and operating temperature (Sze 2007). The
temperature coefficient can be negative as in typical thermistors or positive for
temperature sense diodes down to about 20 kelvins.

Semiconductor Theory:
There are three basic types of materials that we are concerned with in electronics. These
are conductors, semiconductors and insulators. Materials that have very low electrical
resistivity (in the order of 1 x 10-6 ohm-meters) are called conductors. Materials that have
very high electrical resistivity (in the order of 1 x 1013 ohm- meters) are called insulators.
Semiconductors are materials that have resistivity values in between those of conductors
and insulators; they are neither good conductors nor good insulators.

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Examples of conductors: Examples of insulators: Examples of Semiconductors:

Copper Rubber Silicon

Aluminum PVC Germanium

Silver Paper

Gold Mica

Semiconductor materials are used to make a range of devices that are used in modern
electronic circuits. In order to understand how these devices work we must first gain an
understanding of the electrical properties of naturally occurring (intrinsic)
semiconductors. We then need to learn about the electrical properties of extrinsic
semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductor material is just a naturally occurring pure
semiconductor material that has been modified by a manufacturing process.

First we will look at the atomic structure of intrinsic semiconductors to understand their
electrical properties. Then we will look at how this structure is modified to produce
extrinsic semiconductor material and how this changes the materials electrical properties.
Finally we will look at the construction and operation of a semiconductor diode which is
the most basic semiconductor device used in electronic circuits. During this section we will
consider "true" electron flow rather than conventional current flow which is used in
electrical circuit analysis.

Pure Silicon :
First a very pure crystal of silicon must be produced. The atomic structure of the silicon
can be represented by the diagram below. Silicon like all semiconductors is a group 4

Figure 18
element and its atoms have only four electrons in the outer shell (4 valence electrons). It
takes eight electrons to fill the outer shell and make it stable. The atoms share their valence
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 electrons with neighbouring atoms so that each atom effectively contains eight electrons in
the outer shell. This sharing of valence electrons with neighbouring atoms forms covalent
bonds. It is these covalent bonds that bind the atoms together.
Note this is a simplified diagram showing a 2 dimensional representation of the structure
of silicon. Obviously silicon has a 3 dimensional structure and the covalent bonds do not
really lie in a single plane as shown in the diagram. The actual arrangement of covalent
bonds forms a shape called a tetrahedron.
This diagram does give a good representation of how the electrons are bound to the atoms.
This reflects the fact that there are no free electrons to produce an electrical current if a
voltage is applied to the material. However an energy level diagram is better for explaining
more about the electrical properties of silicon.

Semiconductor diodes :
Most modern diodes are based on semiconductor p-n junctions. In a p-n diode,
conventional current can flow from the p-type side (the anode) to the n-type side (the
cathode), but cannot flow in the opposite direction. Another type of semiconductor diode,
the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor
rather than by a p-n junction.

Voltage-Current characteristics :
A semiconductor diode’s voltage-current, or V-I, characteristic curve is related to the
transport of carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at
the p-n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created,
conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped
region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron
is present) with which the electrons “recombine”. When a mobile electron recombines with
a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor
on the N-side and negatively charged acceptor on the P-side. The region around the p-n
junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.
However, the depletion width cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that
recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a
negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination
proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the
depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is
a “built-in” potential across the depletion zone.
If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential,
the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator preventing a significant electric current.
This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes
the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed resulting in substantial electric
current

through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus,
if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the
diode such that the P- doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode
is said to be “turned on” as it has a forward bias.
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 I–V characteristics of a P-N junction diode Figure 19

A diode’s I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation (see the
figure 19).
At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse
breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current that usually damages the device
permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in the avalanche region.
In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A Zener diode contains a heavily
doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type
material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is
“clamped” to a known value (called the Zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both
devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power in the clamped reverse
voltage region.
The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, only a very small reverse
saturation current flows. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the
current through the device is very low (in the µA range).
The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward current is
conducted.
As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined cut-in voltage or on-
voltage, the diode current becomes

appreciable (the level of current considered “appreciable” and the value of cut-in voltage
depends on the application), and the diode presents a very low resistance.
The current–voltage curve is exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the
arbitrary 'cut-in' voltage is defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode
types — Schottky diodes can be as low as 0.2 V and red light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more and blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V.
At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1v to 1.5v is
typical at full rated current for power diodes.
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Shockley diode equation:
The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after transistor co- inventor
William Bradford Shockley, not to be confused with tetrode inventor Walter
H. Schottky) is the I–V characteristic of an ideal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or
no bias). The equation is:
Where
I is the diode current,
IS is a scale factor called the saturation current,
VD is the voltage across the diode,
VT is the thermal voltage,
and n is the emission coefficient, also known as the ideality factor. The emission coefficient
n varies from about 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor
material and in many cases is assumed to be approximately equal to 1 (thus the notation n is
omitted).
The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K, a temperature close to “room
temperature” commonly used in device simulation software. At any temperature it is a
known constant defined by:
where
q is the magnitude of charge on an electron (the elementary charge),
k is Boltzmann’s constant,
T is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction in kelvins
The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law is derived with the assumption that the only
processes giving rise to current in the diode are drift (due to electrical field), diffusion, and
thermal recombination-generation. It also assumes that the recombination-generation (R-G)
current in the depletion region is insignificant. This means that the Shockley equation doesn’t
account for the

processes involved in reverse breakdown and photon-assisted R-G. Additionally, it doesn’t

describe the “leveling off” of the I–V curve at high forward bias due to internal resistance.
Under reverse bias voltages (see figure 19) the exponential in the diode equation is
negligible, and the current is a constant (negative) reverse current value of -IS. The reverse
breakdown region is not modeled by the Shockley diode equation.
For even rather small forward bias voltages (see figure 19) the exponential is very large
because the thermal voltage is very small, so the subtracted ‘1’ in the diode equation is
negligible and the forward diode current is often approximated as
The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the article on diode
modeling.

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Small-signal behavior :
For circuit design, a small-signal model of the diode behavior often proves useful. A specific
example of diode modeling is discussed in the article on small-signal circuits. Types of
semiconductor diode
There are several types of junction diodes, which either emphasizes a different physical
aspects of a diode often by geometric scaling, doping level, choosing the right electrodes,
are just an application of a diode in a special circuit, or are really different devices like the
Gunn and laser diode and the JFET:
Normal (p-n) diodes which operate as described above. Usually made of doped silicon or,
more rarely, germanium. Before the development of modern silicon power rectifier diodes,
cuprous oxide and later selenium was used; its low efficiency gave it a much higher
forward voltage drop (typically 1.4–1.7 V per “cell”, with multiple cells stacked to increase
the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink
(often an extension of the diode’s metal substrate), much larger than a silicon diode of the
same current ratings would require. The vast majority of all diodes are the p-n diodes
found in CMOS integrated circuits, which include 2 diodes per pin and many other internal
diodes.

Avalanche diodes :
Diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the
breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often
mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the avalanche effect.
This occurs when the reverse electric field across the p-n junction causes a wave of ionization,
reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break
down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the
avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the
channel length of the former exceeds the “mean free path” of the electrons, so there are
collisions between them on the way out. The only practical difference is that the two types
have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities.

Crystal diodes :
These are a type of point contact diode. The cat’s whisker diode consists of a thin or
sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a piece
of coal. The wire forms the anode and the crystal forms the cathode. Cat’s whisker diodes
were also called crystal diodes and found application in crystal radio receivers. Cat’s
whisker diodes are obsolete.
Constant current diodes :
These are actually a JFET with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-
terminal current-limiting analog to the Zener diode; they allow a current through them to
rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-
current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes.

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Esaki or tunnel diodes :
These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum
tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. These
diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation.

Gunn diodes :
These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP
that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole
domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to
be built.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) :

In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers
that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the
other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near
ultraviolet may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the
wavelength of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 to violet. The first LEDs
were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All
LEDs are monochromatic; “white” LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a
different color, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can also be used as
low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode
or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator.

Laser diodes :
When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the
parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical
storage devices and for high speed optical communication.

Peltier diodes :
are used as sensors, heat engines for thermoelectric cooling. Charge carriers absorb and
emit their band gap energies as heat.
Photodiodes :
All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an
undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material.
Photodiodes are intended to sense light (photodetector), so they are packaged in materials
that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light). A
photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications.
Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a
two dimensional array. These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices.

Point-contact diodes :
These work the same as the junction semiconductor diodes described above, but their
construction is simpler. A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp-
point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor.
Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type
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 semiconductor near the contact. The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in
radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics.

PIN diodes :
A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type / intrinsic / n-type
structure. They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as
large volume ionizing radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used
in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the
PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power
MOSFETs, and thyristors.

Switching diodes :
Switching diodes, sometimes also called small signal diodes, are a single p-n diode in a
discrete package. A switching diode provides essentially the same function as a switch.
Below the specified applied voltage it has high resistance similar to an open switch, while
above that voltage it suddenly changes to the low resistance of a closed switch. They are
used in devices such as ring modulation.

Schottky diodes :
Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower
forward voltage drop than any p-n junction diode. Their forward voltage drop at forward
currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage
clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as
low loss rectifiers although their reverse leakage current is generally much higher than
non Schottky rectifiers. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer
from minority carrier storage problems that slow down most normal diodes-so they have a
faster“reverse recovery” than any p-n junction diode. They also tend to have much lower
junction capacitance than PN diodes and this contributes towards their high switching
speed and their suitability in high speed circuits and RF devices such as switched-mode
power supply, mixers and detectors.

Super Barrier Diodes :

Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop of
the Schottky diode with the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage current of a
normal p-n junction diode.
Gold-doped” diodes :
As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which help a fast
recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies,
at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop. Gold doped diodes are faster than other p-
n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less reverse-current leakage
than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p-n diodes).A typical example is the 1N914.

Snap-off or Step recovery diodes :

The term ‘step recovery’ relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these
devices. After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted

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 or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs
can therefore provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the
charge carriers.

Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS) :

These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices
from high-voltage transients. Their p-n junctions have a much larger cross- sectional area
than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without
sustaining damage.

Varicap or varactor diodes :

These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phase- locked
loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in
television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm
up and lock. A PLL is faster than a FLL, but prone to integer harmonic locking (if one
attempts to lock to a broadband signal). They also enabled tunable oscillators in early
discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator
provided the reference frequency for a voltage- controlled oscillator.

Zener diodes :
Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs
at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage
reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes areconnected
in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near zero. Some
devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes. Two
(equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a
transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark). They are named for Dr. Clarence
Melvin Zener of Southern Illinois University, inventor of the device.
Other uses for semiconductor diodes include sensing temperature, and computing analog
logarithms numbering.
A standardized 1N-series numbering system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC (Joint
Electron Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Among the most popular in this series
were: 1N34A/1N270 (Germanium signal), IN914/1N4148 (Silicon signal) and 1N4001-
1N4007 (Silicon 1A power rectifier)
In optics, an equivalent device for the diode but with laser light would be the Optical
isolator, also known as an Optical Diode, that allows light to only pass in 1 direction. It uses
a Faraday rotator as the main component.
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far
greater ease than in the other. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is
the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes
are symbolized in schematic diagrams such as figure below. The term “diode” is
customarily reserved for small signal devices, I ≤ 1 A. The term rectifier is used for power
devices, I > 1 A.

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Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of electron current
flow.
When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure 20
below)

Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted the diode is forward biased. (b) Current
flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.
Figure 20
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the diode,
the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is “backward” and the
diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be thought of as
like a switch: “closed” when forward-biased and “open” when reverse-biased.
Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol's “arrowhead” points against the direction
of electron flow. This is because the diode symbol was invented by engineers, who
predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics, showing current as a
flow of charge from the positive (+) side of the voltage source to the negative (-). This
convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing “arrowheads:” the arrow
points in the permitted direction of conventional flow, and against the permitted direction
of electron flow.
Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check valve. A
check valve allows fluid flow through it in only one direction as in figure 21 below.

Hydraulic check valve analogy: (a) Electron current flow permitted. (b) Current flow
prohibited. Figure 21
Check valves are essentially pressure-operated devices: they open and allow flow if the
pressure across them is of the correct “polarity” to open the gate (in the analogy shown,
greater fluid pressure on the right than on the left). If the pressure is of the opposite
“polarity,” the pressure difference across the check valve will close and hold the gate so that
no flow occurs.
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 Like check valves, diodes are essentially “pressure-” operated (voltage-operated) devices.
The essential difference between forward-bias and reverse-bias is the polarity of the voltage
dropped across the diode. Lets take a closer look at the simple battery- diode-lamp circuit
shown earlier, this time investigating voltage drops across the various components in
figure 22 below.

Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) forward biased. (b) Reverse biased.
Figure 22
A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it, leaving most of
the battery voltage droppedacross the lamp. If the battery's polarity is reversed, the diode
becomes reverse-biased, and drops all of the battery's voltage leaving none for the lamp. If we
consider the diode to be a self-actuating switch (closed in the forward-bias mode and open in
the reverse-bias mode), this behavior makes sense. The most substantial difference is that the
diode drops a lot more voltage when conducting than the average mechanical switch (0.7 volts
versus tens ofmillivolts).
This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the depletion
region formed by the P-N junction under the influence of an applied voltage. If no voltage
applied is across a semiconductor diode, a thin depletion region exists around the region of
the P-N junction, preventing current flow. (Figure 23 below (a)) The depletion region is
almost devoid of available charge carriers, and acts as an insulator:
Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part.

Figure 23
The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in figure 23 above (b) such that the anode
(pointing end) corresponds to the P-type semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, non-
pointing end, at (b) corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note that the cathode
stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the cathode on the symbol.

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 If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this depletion region
expands, further resisting any current through

Depletion region expands with reverse bias. Figure 24

Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the depletion
region collapses becoming thinner. The diode becomes less resistive to current through it.
In order for a sustained current to go through the diode; though, the depletion region must
be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. This takes a certain minimum voltage to
accomplish, called the forward voltage as illustrated in figure 25.

Increasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region thickness.
Figure 25

For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For germanium diodes,
the forward voltage is only 0.3 volts. The chemical constituency of the P-N junction
comprising the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure, which is why silicon
and germanium diodes have such different forward voltages. Forward voltage drop
remains approximately constant for a wide range of diode currents, meaning that diode
voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal (closed) switch. For most
simplified circuit analysis, the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be considered
constant at the nominal figure and not related to the amount of current.
Actually, forward qV
voltage
/NKT
drop is more complex. An equation describes the exact current
through a diode, given the voltage dropped across the junction, the temperature of the
junction, and several physical constants. It is commonly known as the diode equation:
𝒒𝑽𝑫⁄
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝑺 (𝒆 𝑵𝑲𝑻 − 𝟏)
Where ,

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ID = Diode current in amps

Is = Saturation current in amps (typically 1x10-12amps)

e = Euler's constant (~2.718281828)
q = Charge of elctron (1.6x10-19 coulombs)
VD = Voltage applied across diode in Volts
N = "Nonideality" or "emission" coeffcient
(typically between 1 and 2)
K = Boltzmann's constant (1.38x10-33 )
T = Junction temperature in Kelvins
The term kT/q describes the voltage produced within the P-N junction due to the action of
temperature, and is called the thermal voltage, or Vt of the junction. At room temperature,
this is about 26 millivolts. Knowing this, and assuming a “non ideality” coefficient of 1, we
may simplify the diode equation and re-write it as such:
𝑽𝑫⁄
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝑺 (𝒆 𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟔 − 𝟏)
Where ,
ID = Diode current in amps

Is = Saturation current in amps (typically 1x10-12amps)

e = Euler's constant (~2.718281828)
VD = Voltage applied across diode in Volts
You need not be familiar with the “diode equation” to analyze simple diode circuits. Just
understand that the voltage dropped across a current-conducting diode does change with
the amount of current going through it, but that this change is fairly small over a wide range
of currents. This is why many textbooks simply say the voltage drop across a conducting,
semiconductor diode remains constant at 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium.
However, some circuits intentionally make use of the P-N junctions inherent exponential
current/voltage relationship and thus can only be understood in the context of this
equation. Also, since temperature is a factor in the diode equation, a forward-biased P-N
junction may also be used as a temperature-sensing device, and thus can only be
understood if one has a conceptual grasp on this mathematical relationship.

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 A reverse-biased diode prevents current from going through it, due to the expanded
depletion region. In actuality, a very small amount of current can and does go through a
reverse-biased diode, called the leakage current, but it can be ignored for mostpurposes.
The ability of a diode to withstand reverse-bias voltages is limited, as it is for any insulator.
If the applied reverse-bias voltage becomes too great, the diode will experience a condition
known as breakdown (Figure 26 below), which is usually destructive. A diode's maximum
reverse-bias voltage rating is known as the Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV, and may be
obtained from the manufacturer. Like forward voltage, the PIV rating of a diode varies with
temperature, except that PIV increases with increased temperature and decreases as the
diode becomes cooler--exactly opposite that of forward voltage.
Diode curve: showing knee at 0.7 V forward bias for Si, and reverse breakdown.

Figure 26

Typically, the PIV rating of a generic “rectifier” diode is at least 50 volts at room
temperature. Diodes with PIV ratings in the many thousands of volts are available for
modest prices.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 04(a)

AIM:
i). Study of Forward Characteristics of Silicon diode.
ii). Study of Reverse Characteristics of Germanium Diode

EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Diode characteristics trainer kit, patch cords, power supply etc.

FORMULA: If any

THEORY: as above

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: as above

PROCEDURE:-

• To plot Forward Characteristics proceed as follows

1. Before switch ‘On’ the supply rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter
clockwise direction).
2. Connect Ammeter between TP4 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA) & set
Ammeter at 2mA / 200mA range (as per instructor instructions).
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage V D & set Voltmeter
at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from 0 to 1V
(0.83V) in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current I D in mA and
note down in the Observation Table 1.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in figure 3 (First
quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 1. This curve is the
required forward characteristics of Si diode.
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

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OBSERVATION TABLE FOR FORWARD BIAS:

S. No. Diode Voltage (VD) Diode current ID (mA)

1 0.0V
2 0.1V
3 0.2V
4 0.3V
5 0.4V
6 0.5V
7 0.6V
8 0.7V
9 0.8V
0.9V
1.0V

• To plot reverse Characteristics proceed as follows:

1. Before switch ‘On’ the supply rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter
clockwise direction).
2. Connect Ammeter between TP5 and TP10, to measure diode current I D (µA) & set
Ammeter at 200µA range (as per instructor instructions).
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage V D & set Voltmeter
at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from 0 to
maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current ID in A and
note down in the Observation Table 2.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in figure 3 (third
quadrant) using suitable scale with the help of Observation Table 2. This curve is the
required reverse characteristics of Ge diode.

7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

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OBSERVATION TABLE FOR REVERSE BIAS:

S. No. Diode Voltage (VD) Diode current ID (µA)

1. 1 Volt
2. 2 Volt
3. 3 Volt
4. 4 Volt
5. 5 Volt
6. 6 Volt
7. 7 Volt
8. 8 Volt
9. 9 Volt
10.
11.

RESULT:

PERCENTAGE ERROR: if any applicable

PRECAUTIONS:

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 05

AIM: Study of characteristics of Zener diode

1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias

EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Diode characteristics trainer kit, Patch cords, power supply etc.

FORMULA: If any

THEORY: as above

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: as above

PROCEDURE:

• To plot Forward Characteristics proceed as follows :

1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).
2. Connect Ammeter between TP8 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA) & set
Ammeter at 2mA / 200mA range (as per instructor instructions).
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage V D & set Voltmeter
at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of Zener voltage Vz from zero to
1V in steps and measure the corresponding values of Zener current Iz in mA & note
down in the Observation Table.

6. Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in figure 4 (First
quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 3. This curve is the
required Forward Characteristics of Zener diode.

7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

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OBSERVATION TABLE FOR FORWARD BIAS:

S. No. Diode Voltage (Vz) Diode current Iz (mA)

1. 0.0V
2. 0.lV
3. 0.2V
4. 0.3V
5. 0.4V
6. 0.5V
7. 0.6V
8. 0.7V
9. 0.8V
10 0.9V
11 1.0V

• To plot Reverse Characteristics of a Zener diode proceed as follows:

1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

2. Connect Ammeter between TP9 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA) & set
Ammeter at 2 mA / 200mA range (as per instructor instructions).
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage V D & set Voltmeter
at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from zero to
6.8V in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current Iz in mA & note
down in the Observation Table.

6. Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in figure 4 (third
quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 4. This curve is the
required Reverse Characteristics of Zener diode.

7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

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OBSERVATION TABLE FOR REVERSE BIAS:

S. No. Diode Voltage Diode current Iz (mA)

(Vz)
1. 0.0V
2. 1.0V
3. 2.0V
4. 3.0V
5. 4.0V
6. 5.0V
7. 6.0V
8. 6.2V
9. 6.4V
6.6V
6.8V
7.0V

RESULT:

PERCENTAGE ERROR: if any applicable

PRECAUTIONS:

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 06
AIM: Study of Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode (LED)

i). Forward bias

ii). Reverse bias Equipments

EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Diode characteristics trainer kit, patch cords, power supply etc.

FORMULA: If any

THEORY:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

• To plot Forward Characteristics proceed as follows :

1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).
2. Connect Ammeter between TP6 and TP10, to measure diode current I D (mA) & set
Ammeter at 2mA / 200mA range (as per instructor instructions).
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage V D & set Voltmeter
at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of LED voltage V D from zero to
maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of LED current ID in mA &
note down in the Observation Table.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in figure 6 (first
quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 5. This curve is the
required Forward Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode.
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

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OBSERVATION TABLE FOR FORWARD BIAS:
S. No. Diode Voltage(VD) Diode current ID (mA)

1. .15V
2. .30V
3. .45V
4. .60V
5. .75V
6. .90V
7. 1.05V
8. 1.2V
9. 1.35V
10. onwards

• To plot Reverse Characteristics proceed as follows :

1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).
2. Connect Ammeter between TP7 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA).
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage VD.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from zero to
maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current ID in an
Observation Table.

6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in figure 6 (third
quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 6. This curve is the
required Reverse Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode.
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR REVERSE BIAS:

S. No. Diode Voltage(VD) Diode current ID
(mA)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
.
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RESULT:

PERCENTAGE ERRORS: if any applicable

PRECAUTIONS:

VIVA VOCE
Q.No.01. What is a LED?
Q.No.02. How is a LED different from other light sources?
Q.No.03. What is the difference between a rectifier diode and a LED?
Q.No.04. What are the applications of LED’s?
Q.No.05. What are the materials used in the manufacture of LED’s?
Q.No.06. What is the precaution regarding applied voltage?
Q.No.07. What is the principle involved behind the emission of light from LEDs?
Q.No.08. If we increase the LED voltage what happened to LED current?
Q.No.09. How can we classify the LEDs
Q.No.10. What is meant by Breakdown Voltage?
Q.No.11. Define Photoelectric effect?
Q.No.12. What is Reverse Photoelectric effect?
Q.No.13. What is the photo cell?
Q.No.14. Can we observe reverse photoelectric with Metal surface?
Q.No.15. What is the learning outcome of this practical?
Q.No.16. Define conductors, insulators and Semi conductors.
Q.No.17. How many types of semi conductors are there?
Q.No.18. Define intrinsic and extrinsic semi conductor?
Q.No.19. What do you mean by Fermi energy level?
Q.No.20. Define Doping and Dopant?
Q.No.21. What are P-type and N-type semi conductors?
Q.No.22. Why P-type (N-type) semi conductor is called Acceptor (Donor)?
Q.No.23. What is P-N junction diode?
Q.No.24. What do you mean by Forward Biasing?
Q.No.25. What do you mean by Reverse Biasing?
Q.No.26. What do you understand by P-N Junction diode?
Q.No.27. Explain forward and reverse biasing in diode?
Q.No.28. What do you mean by breakdown phenomenon?
Q.No.29. What is the difference between Zener diode and P-N Junction diode?.
Q.No.30. What is the static resistance?

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 Semiconductor Energy Band Gap

Safety Instructions:

Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating Trainer kit to avoid any personal injury
or damage to the instrument.

Don’t operate the instrument if any damage is suspected.

Use provided mains cord only: Use the mains cord designed for this instrument. Ensure that the mains
cord is suitable for your country.

Ground the instrument: To avoid electric shock the grounding conductor must be conneted to the earth
ground. Before making connections to the input terminals, ensure that the instrument is properly
grounded.

Observe terminal ratings: To avoid fire or shock hazards, observe all rating and marks provided on the
instrument.

Proper fuse: Use the fuse type and rating specified for this instrument.

Atmospheric conditions:

➢ Don’t operate in wet/dump conditions.

➢ Don’t operate in an explosive atmosphere.
➢ Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.
Features:

➢ Design with all safety standards.

➢ Easy understanding circuit arrangement, with diagram interpretation.
➢ Adjustable voltage oven produces isothermal heat with regulation.
➢ Onboard voltage and current measurement.

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 Introduction

Semiconductor Energy Band-Gap Measurement Trainer introduces you to a very useful nonlinear
electronic device “Diode”. This trainer familiarizes the characteristic and the energy band gap of
semiconductor diode. Semiconductor diode is an important element of most electronic devices, and is
tremendously important and plays an essential role in modern technology because of their relevant
conductivity. This trainer provides the crucial framework, which needed to understand the concept of an
energy band gap and characteristic of a diode. Conductivity is directly related to energy bands and it is
necessary for any detailed description of semiconductor devices. The trainer is based upon reverse diode
characteristic, in which conductivity depends on temperature. This trainer comprises power supply,
oven and digital panal meter. Oven is mounted on trainer, which provides ambient temperature range.
This trainer not only measures conductivity on various temperatures but also helps to draw a reverse
characteristic of diode.

Diode is an important element of most electronic device, from a simple rectifier to integrated circuit.
Therefore, understanding of the diode is essential to the study of more complicated semiconductor
device and thus has attracted a considerable interest in the application of diode in all electronic devices.
The study of the band gap structure of semiconductors is also important because it is directly related to
its electrical properties.

A diode is a semiconductor, which in its simplest form convert’s ac in to dc and allows current to flow
only in one direction, with far greater ease than in other. The most common kind of diode in modern
circuit design is the semiconductor diode.

Semiconductors are tremendously important in modern technology. Semiconductor devices, electronic

components made-up of semiconductor materials, are essential in modern electrical devices, from
computers cellular phones to a digital audio player. Silicon diode is used to create most semiconductors
devices commercially, because of it’s greater ease of processing and more stable temperature
characteristics however, Germanium diodes have the advantage of an intrinsically low forward voltage
drop, typically 0.3 volts; this low forward voltage drop results in a low power loss and more efficient
diode, making it superior in many ways to the silicon diode. A silicon diode forward voltage drop, by
comparison, is typically 0.7 volts. This lower voltage drop for germanium becomes important in very low

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signal environments (signal detection from audio to FM frequencies) and in low level logic circuits. As a
result germanium diodes are finding increasing application in low level digital circuits.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 05

AIM: To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor P-N junction diode (measuring the current
flow at different temperatures.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Energy band gap trainer kit, patch cords, power supply cable etc.

FORMULA: As given below theory

THEORY: As above

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1) Switch off the power supply from trainer board.

2) Select the toggle switch of power supply towards off condition.
3) Set potentiometer of 01 volt power supply towards position.
4) Connect the mains cord to trainer.
5) Short terminals 2 to 3 and 6 to 7 by using patch cords.
6) Connect DC ammeter b/w terminals 8 and 9 (+) ve and (-)ve respectively.
7) Connect DC voltmeter across the terminals 1 and 10 (+)ve and (-)ve respectively.
8) Select potentiometer of +6 V across the diode to 0.5 volt.
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 9) Note and record corresponding reading of current in micro Ampere.
10) Increase potential across diode to 1 volt.
11) Note and record corresponding reading of current in DC ammeter and temperature in oC
(difference along with 05 degree Celsius via decrease temperature)
12) Increase potential upto 2 Volt in the steps of 0.5 Volts (small interval can be taken for better
result)
13) Take reading diode current along y - axis and Temperature along x- axis and draw a curve.
14) Graph between Log10(Is) and 103/T(Kelvin)

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No. Temp. oC T(K)=(273+ oC) 1000/T Current Is Log10(Is)

1 65
2 60
3 55
4 50
5 45
6 40
7 35
8 30
The graph will be straight line as shown in graph

CALCULATION:

RESULT:

PERCENTAGE ERRORS: if any applicable

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PRECAUTIONS:

VIVA VOCE

Q.No.01 What is band gap and energy band of an semiconductor?

Q.No.02 What is importance of band gap in semiconductors?

Q.No.03 What is the EBG of an insulator, silicon and germanium?

Q.No.04 Why electron doesn’t exist in band gap?

Q.No.05 What is a semiconductor? How n-type and p-type semiconductors are formed?

Q.No.06 What is energy gap, Valence band and Conduction band?

Q.No.07 What is conductor, insulators and semi conductors?

Q.No.08 What is doping and dopants?

Q.No. 09 What you meant by forward biasing and reverse biasing?

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 INDRODUCTION
Newton’s Ring Apparatus is one of the basic experiments at graduation level. With the help of this
apparatus, the wave nature of light is confirmed. It is based on the phenomenon of interference
of light waves obtained from single coherent light sources (of same frequency and constant or
zero phase difference).

Figure shows the apparatus for obtaining Newton’s Rings (light source not shown). It has three parts:
(1 ) Microscope with horizontal measurement (2) Newton’s Ring assembly and (3) Sodium vapour
lamp as the Monochromatic light source. Main purpose of the apparatus is to understand the
concept of interference with a simple experiment. It has got its name after Isaac Newton, who first
analyzed it though Robert Hooke first observed it.

The phenomenon of Newton's Ring is the result of interference between the partially reflected
and partially transmitted rays from both the lower curved surface of the lens as well as upper
surfaces of the plate. When a Plano-convex lens of large focal length is kept on a plane glass plate
such that the convex surface is in contact with the plate, a wedge-shaped air film is formed
between the lens and the plate. Due to the formation of wedge - shaped film, the path difference
between the reflected rays varies away from the point of contact. This gives rise to a ring pattern.
This ring pattern can be seen along the reflected part, top of the glass plate inclined at 45º through
microscope by following the procedure of experiment given in this manual.

When viewed with a monochromatic light, it appears as a series of concentric, alternating

bright and dark rings centered a t the point of contact between the two surfaces. The thickness
o f the film is radically symmetrical and increases outwards from the point of contact. The outer
rings are spaced more closely than the inner ones since the slope of the lens surface increases
outwards resulting in smaller separation of t he outer rings. Similarly, when viewed with white
light, it forms a concentric ring pattern of seven colours because the different wavelengths of
light interfere at different thicknesses of the air layer between the surfaces. On replacing the
sodium vapour lamp with mercury lamp, coloured rings can be obtained. By studying the ring
pattern, we can determine the wavelength of the monochromatic light and also the refractive i n d e x o f
a given transparent liquid medium present in the wedge - shaped film. These two experiments
have been described in this manual in detail.
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• Features:-

➢ Traveling microscope with x-y-z axes movement

➢ Horizontal measurement scale with fine and coarse movement knobs
➢ Cross wire in the field of view for ring’s diameter measurement
➢ Newton’s ring assembly consisting of Plano-convex lens mounted on an optically plane glass
plate
➢ Adjustable plain glass plate is provided to be inclined at 45º with respect to the vertical
plain
➢ Sodium vapour lamp as the monochromatic (an average of D1 & D2 lines = 5893
Ǻ) and broad light source
➢ Spherometer for radius of curvature measurement

• Safety Instructions:-

Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the instrument. To avoid any personal
injury or damage to the instrument or any product connected to the instrument.

Do not operate the instrument if suspect any damage to it.

The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.

For your safety:

Use proper Mains cord : Use only the mains cord designed for this instrument.

Ensure that the mains cord is suitable for your country.

Ground the Instrument : This instrument is grounded through the protective earth conductor of
the mains cord. To avoid electric shock, the grounding conductor
must be connected to the earth ground. Before making
connections to the input terminals, ensure that the instrument is
properly grounded.

Use in proper Atmosphere : Please refer to operating conditions given in the manual.

1. Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.

2. Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.

3. Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.

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Instruction for assembling Newton’s Ring Apparatus:-

Parts of Newton’s Ring Apparatus

1. Before assembling the Newton’s Ring Apparatus make sure that all the lenses are clean if not
clean all the lenses with the help of cotton cloth.

2. Now take the mounting unit, place Plane Glass Lens in the circular gap provided for holding lenses.
After that, carefully place Plano Convex Lens such that it convex side touches the plane glass lens.

3. Dark circular fringe is seen as soon as you place Plano Convex Lens.

4. Now fix lenses on the mounting unit with the help of lens cover. (Carefully rotate the lens cover till
its base just touches the lenses)

5. Now adjust position of the dark fringe such that it comes at the center, for that place all three
leveling screw in the holes on the lens cover and very carefully rotate them for changing the position
of dark fringe.

Precaution: Avoid over tightening of leveling screw as it can break the lens.

1. Now insert the glass plate in the hole provided on vertical rod of mounting unit, then place the
spring and fix it with the help of tightening screw.
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2. Now mount this mounting unit above the base unit and fit it with the help of mounting screws.
3. Adjust its position such that it makes the angle of 450 with respect to vertical plane.

The Newton’s Ring Apparatus will look as shown in the figure below

Theory
Light is defined as the electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between 380 and
750 nm which is visible to the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation, such as light, is generated by
changes in movement (vibration) of electrically charged particles, such as parts of ‘heated’
molecules, or electrons in atoms (both processes play a role in the glowing filament of
incandescent lamps, whereas the latter occurs in fluorescent lamps). Electro magnetic radiation
extends from γ rays and X-rays through to radio waves and to the long radio waves. T his is
often referred to as ‘the electromagnetic spectrum’.

Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field (shown as red arrows) couples with a
magnetic field (shown as blue arrows). The magnetic and electric fields of an electromagnetic wave
are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of the wave.

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Light is a form of energy, and to understand light we begin with the electromagnetic spectrum.
Which is basically a grouping of all electromagnetic radiation arranged according to the amount
of energy contained in the radiation. Visible light is a part of this electromagnetic spectrum that
creates the sensation of light when it falls on the human eye.

Wavelength:-
Wavelength is the distance between identical points in the adjacent cycles of a waveform
signal propagated in space or along a wire, as shown in the illustration. In wireless systems,
this length is usually specified in meters, centimeters, or millimeters. In the case of infrared,
visible light, ultraviolet, and gamma radiation, the
wavelength isomer often specified in nanometers (units o f 10 -9meter) or Angstrom units
(units of 10 -10 meter).

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It is denoted by the Greek letter λ (lambda). Because the wavelength is a measure of distance, it is
measured in units of length (meters). Since these wavelengths of visible light can be quite small,
they are measured in nanometers (nm) where 1 nm = 1 billionth of a meter (10 -9 meters).

The wavelength of visible light is between 400-700nm. Incidentally, these also happen to be the
majority of wavelengths of light that are relevant to photosynthesis. The combined effect of the
complete range of radiation between 400-700nm appears as white light to the human eye.
Radiation with a wavelength of 400 nm generates a response in the human eye that makes it
perceived as violet, while radiation with a wavelength of 700nm appears red. The different colors of
the rainbow (ROYGBV - red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet) are arranged in descending
order o f their wavelength. Roughly, we can break down the various colors into wavelength bands
as follows

Violet 400 to 440nm

Blue 440 to 490nm
Green 490 to 540nm
Yellow 540 to 590nm
Orange 600 to 650nm
Red 650 to 700nm
Radiation below 400 nm wavelength is called ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and is typically
divided into three segments: UV-A (400-315nm), UV-B (315-280nm) and UV-C (280-100nm). UV
radiation is not visible to the human eye, but it can have a damaging impact on humans (as well as
corals).
Infrared (IR) radiation has slightly longer wavelengths than visible light. The IR region of the
electromagnetic spectrum is also divided into three segments: IR -A (780-1400 nm), IR B (1400-
3000 nm) and IR-C (3000-10600 nm). Infrared radiation is thermal and is felt as heat.
Frequency:-
The number of cycles per unit of time is called the frequency; consequently frequency is a time based
unit. Frequency carries the units "per second," but we use a special term for the unit called - Hertz (Hz),
where 1 Hz corresponds to 1 wave/second, so 50 Hz would mean
50 waves/second.

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As seen in the figure above, the wavelength and frequency are related to each other. If we take any
two points on the wave form labeled "start" and "end," and count the number of waves in
between, we can easily see that we will have more waves if the wavelength is smaller. More
waves imply that the frequency will be higher. Thus wavelength and frequency are inversely
related: the shorter the wavelength of the wave, the higher the frequency of the wave.

Since all the waves travel at the same speed - the speed of light - the relationship between
wavelength and frequency is determined by the following formula:
Wavelength = speed of light / frequency
In the typical notation that you will see in most articles and books
λ = c/ν
Where
λ = wavelength
ν = frequency
c = speed of light
The speed of light is 299,792,458 meters per second (approximately 3.0 × 108
meters/second). To be precise, what we usually call the "speed of light" is really the speed of light in
a vacuum (the absence of matter). In reality, the speed of light
typically varies depending on the particular medium that it travels through. Light moves more slowly
in glass than in air, and in both cases the speed is less than in a vacuum.

Interference
The effect produced by the combination or superposition of two systems of waves, in which these
waves reinforce, neutralize, or in other ways interfere with each other. Interference is observed
in both sound waves and electromagnetic waves, especially those of visible light and radio.

Conditions for Interference

1. The two sources of light should emit continuous waves of same wavelength and same time period
i.e. the source should have phase coherence.

2. The two sources of light should be very close to each other.

3. The waves emitted by two sources should either have zero phase difference or no phase
difference.

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Coherent Sources:-
Those sources of light which emit light waves continuously of same wavelength, and time period,
frequency and amplitude and have zero phase difference or constant phase difference are coherent
sources.
Or
Two sources of light are said to be coherent if the waves emitted from them have the same
frequency and are 'phase-linked'; that is, they have a zero or constant phase difference.
C Coherent source (laser)

Incoherent source

For observing interference phenomenon coherence of light waves is a must. Light waves emitted by
two sources of light, to remain coherent the initial phase difference between waves should remain
constant in time. If the phase difference changes continuously or randomly with time then the sources
are incoherent.

The coherent sources can be obtained either by the source and obtaining its virtual image or by
obtaining two virtual images of the same source. This is because any change of phase in real source
will cause a simultaneous and equal change in its image.

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 Generally coherence in interference is obtained by two methods:-
(1) Division of wave front where wave front is divided into two parts by reflection, refraction or
diffraction and those two parts reunite at a small angle to produce interference as done in case
of Young's double slit experiment and Fresnel's Biprism experiment.

(2) Division of amplitude where amplitude of a section of wave front is divided into two parts and
reunited later to produce interference such as in case of thin films.
• Laser light is almost monochromatic light with little spreading and two independent sources of
laser light can produce observable interference pattern.

Interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superimpose to form a resultant wave of greater
or lower amplitude. Interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or
coherent with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have
the same or nearly the same frequency.

Types of Interference
There are two types of interference.
1. Constructive interference.
2. Destructive interference.

Constructive Interference
When two light waves superpose with each other in such a way that the crest of one wave falls on
the crest of the second wave, and trough of one wave falls on the trough o f the second wave, then
the resultant wave has large r amplitude and it is called constructive interference.

Conditions for constructive interference

For constructive interference, path difference between two waves is ml

i.e. path difference = ml
or path difference = 0, l, 2l, 3l, 4l, … ..
where m = order = 0, +_1, +_2, +_3,…..

Effects
In constructive interference, two waves o f light reinforce each other. In constructive interference, a
bright fringe is obtained on the screen.
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Destructive Interference
When two light waves superpose with each other in such away that the crest of one wave coincides
the trough of the second wave , then the amplitude of resultant wave becomes zero and it is called
destructive interference.

Conditions for Destructive interference

If the path difference between two light waves is (m+1/2)l , then the interference between them will
be destructive.

Path difference = (m+1/2)l

i.e. path difference = 1/2l, 3/2l, 5/2l , … .
Where m = order = 0, +_1, +_2, +_3,… ..

Effects
In constructive interference, two waves o f light reinforce each other. In constructive interference, a
bright fringe is obtained on the screen.
The interference at a point where the intensity of light is maximum, is called constructive interference
(corresponds to bright fringe). For constructive
interference, the two waves should have either same phase or a constant phase difference of

Φ = 2nπ where n = 0, 1, 2,
or, a constant path difference o f Δ = nλ

While the interference at another point where the intensity of light is minimum, is called
destructive interference (corresponds to dark fringe). For destructive interference, the two
waves should have either same phase or a constant phase difference of

Φ = (2n+1) π where n = 0, 1, 2 , or a constant path difference o f Δ = (2n+1) λ/2

Interference fringes are obtained b y dividing the single coherent source into two sources. This
can be achieved either (1) by division of wave front, that is by taking (or considering) two

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secondary wavelets on the same wave front and superposing them or (2) by division of
amplitude, that is by separating the amplitude of single wave and reuniting them.

When light is incident on a thin film (thickness of the order of wave length of the incident light),
it suffers partial reflection and partial transmission at both upper as well as lower surfaces of
the thin film. The transmitted light ray again suffers reflection at the lower surface. Interference
occurs between the rays in the reflected and transmitted parts.

Similarly, in a wedge-shaped film, partial reflection as well as partial transmission also takes
place. Moreover, the path difference changes from point to point which results into an interference
fringes.

The phenomenon of interference may be grouped into two categories

Division of Wave front Under this category, the coherent sources are obtained by dividing the
wave front, originating from a common source, by employing mirrors, Biprism or lenses. This class
of interference requires essentially a point source or a narrow slit source. The instruments used to
obtain interference by division of wave front are the Fresnel biprism, Fresnel mirrors, Lloyd's mirror,
lasers, etc.

Division of Amplitude In this method, the amplitude of the incident beam is divided into two or more
parts either by partial reflection or refraction. Thus we have coherent beams produced by division of
amplitude. These beams travel different paths and are finally brought together to produce
interference. The effects resulting from the superposition of two beams are referred to as two beam
interference and those resulting from superposition of more than two beams are referred to as
multiple beam interference. The interference in thin films, Newton's rings, and Michelson's
interferometer are examples of two beam interference and Fabry-Perot's interferometer is an
example of multiple beam interference.

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As discussed earlier, the energy carried by electromagnetic radiation is contained in the photons that
travel as a wave. According to quantum theory, the energy in a photon varies with its frequency,
according to the equation:
Energy = Plank's constant × Frequency
E = hν = hc/λ
Where h = Plank's constant

As the frequency of the radiation increases (wavelength gets shorter), the amount of energy in
each photon increases.
Light refracts when it passes through glass, water, and our own eyes. Refraction causes the light to
bend, changing direction according to Fermat’s Principle. Fermat’s Principle states that light, when
entering a substance, chooses a path that takes the least time.

Newton's Rings, a pattern of light and dark circles visible when a convex lens is placed, curved side
down, on top of a flat piece of glass. The pattern was first observed by Sir Isaac Newton. The rings
are caused by interference of light waves.

When a beam of light is directed downward onto the two pieces of glass, two overlapping beams of
light are formed—one from light reflected by the lower surface of the curved glass and the other
from light reflected by the upper surface of the flat glass. The light reflected from the flat glass travels
farther than the light reflected from the curved glass. Depending on the distance between the two
surfaces, light waves in the two beams may be in phase, reinforcing each other, or they may be out of
phase, canceling each other out. Because the distances between the two reflecting surfaces increases
with distance from the point where the lens and flat glass make contact, the areas where the waves
are in phase and out of phase occur in concentric bands around the center of the lens.

If the beam of light directed at the two pieces of glass is monochromatic (of a single wavelength),
the rings are thin circles of a single color. If white light (which consists of light of many different
wavelengths) is used, the rings are fewer in number, but highly colored.

The formation of maximum intensities at some points and minimum intensities at the other
due to the superposition of two coherent light waves (of same frequencies and constant phase
difference) is called interference of light. The interference fringes are observed as an alternate
pattern of bright and dark fringes.

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Newton’s Ring is a interference pattern obtained by the division of amplitude from a single light
source. The bright rings are caused by constructive interference between the reflected light rays BE
and CF for a net path difference = nλ where, n = 0, 1, 2… and λ is the wavelength of the incident light.

While the dark rings are caused b y destructive interference between the same light rays
BE and CF for a net path difference = (2n + 1) λ/2 where, n = 0, 1, 2…

For wedge-shaped thin film, path difference between the rays BE and CF is given by
Δ = 2 μt cos r

Where, t is the thickness of the film at B (or at D) and r is the angle of refraction at B. Since the angle of
incidence is almost normal, so we can assume
cos r =1
Note that here we ignore the reflections from top of the Plano-convex lens and bottom of the plane
circular glass plate since these reflections just contribute to the overall glare. The reflections of
interest are only those involving the surfaces in contact.

Now by Stoke’s law, there is no phase change at the glass-air interface of the convex lens (because
the wave is going from a higher to a lower refractive index medium) whereas the reflection at
the air-glass interface o f the plane glass plate undergoes an additional path difference of
λ/2.Therefore, net path difference =

For bright fringe, net path difference = n where, n =0,1,2……..

2µt = (2n – 1 )

And for dark fringe, net path difference = (2n+1) Where ,n = 0,1,2……

2 µt = nλ

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At the centre, the two glass surfaces are in intimate contact and there is no reflection because it is
as if there were no surface that is, t = 0 or, 2μt = 0 which is the condition for dark fringe.
Hence the center of the pattern is always dark.

In practice, it is not possible to find the exact centre of bull’s eye in order to obtain rn, Rather, the
traveling microscope can measure an approximate diameter, Dn for the interference ring.

Therefore, substituting the value of t in 2μt = nλ , we obtain the diameters of the n th and
(n+p)th dark fringes respectively as

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For

By subtracting these equations, we can obtain the wavelength of incident light by

Since the human eye is more sensitive to small changes in low intensity, we will measure positions of
dark
Fringes through the experiment, this relation also holds true for bright rings

Precautions: Do not over tight the Leveling screw of Plano convex lens it can break the lens

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 08 (a)

AIM : To determine the Wavelength of sodium light by measuring the diameters of Newton’s
rings

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
1 Newton’s Ring Microscope
2 Sodium Vapour Lamp with Encloser
3 Circular slit plate

FORMULA:

THEORY:
The refractive index of a medium is a measure for how much the speed of light is reduced
inside the medium. It is the ratio of velocity of light in air or vacuum to that in the given medium. For
example, typical glass has a refractive index of 1.5, which means that light travels at 1 / 1.5 = 0.67 times
the speed in air or vacuum. Light rays change direction when they cross the interface from air to a
medium or vice versa due to change in the refractive index. Moreover, light rays are reflected
partially from surfaces that have a refractive index different from that of their surroundings.

Now, wavelength of light from sodium vapour lamp can be calculated by

Where, Dn and Dn+p are the diameters of nth and (n+p)th Newton’s ring,
μ is the refractive index of the medium of wedge-shaped film, R is the radius of curvature of plano-
convex lens and p ≥ 1.
From the above equation, we can obtain the following relations for air (μ = 1) and water films
formed in- between the plano-convex and glass plate combination

Dividing the above two equations, refractive index of the transparent liquid medium (water in our
case) can be calculated as

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Note that this relation also holds true for bright rings.

From the above relation, we can infer that the Newton’s rings formed in water or any other
transparent liquid medium, will contract as compared to that in air since refractive index of
water (μ=1.33) or any other liquid is always greater than that of air (μ=1).

PROCEDURE:
1. The Newton’s Ring microscope has two parts, Microscope with horizontal
measurement and a Newton’s Ring assembly. First detach the Newton’s Ring assembly and clean
the adjustable glass plate, Plano-convex lens and its adjoining glass plate with a clean cloth.
Note: Do not detach the Plano-Convex Lens from Glass Plate Frequently. It Will
Disturb the Measurements.
2. Replace the Plano-convex lens over the glass plate and tight them carefully with the help of
three leveling screws (if present). An interference ring pattern can be observed with the naked
eye as shown in Figure.
Precaution: Avoid o ver-tightening of the s crews. Tight the Screws to Bring the
Central Dark Fringe at the Centre Adjust Its Diameter to Be Equal to Nearly 3 mm.

2. Arrange the Newton’s Ring assembly as shown in Figure. Note that the glass plate P’
should be inclined at 45º with respect to the vertical plain.

4. First connect the sodium vapour lamp Power Supply with mains. Then connect it with the light
source box with the help of mains cord. Then switch ON the Power Supply.

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Precaution: Never Connect The Sodium Vapour Lamp Directly To The Main Power Supply.

4 Wait for 2-3 minutes till the lamp glow bright yellowish.

5 Insert circular slit plate into the slit-holder. Adjust to fully illuminate glass plate P’

inclined at 45º.

6 Calculate the least count of the traveling microscope

Pitch of the Number of divisions Least count of

micrometer screw, P (in on the circular scale, microscope, P/N (in cm)
cm) N

7 Take a view through the eye piece (E) of the tube as shown in Figure

8 There are two type of movements provided in the microscope, coarse and fine.
Align the microscope tube, with the help of coarse movement knob no. 2 and 4 as shown in
Figure, to bring it over t he glass plate P’.

9 Now move the microscope tube with the help of fine movement knob no. 3 close to the plate P’
to obtain clear image of surface. Slowly move towards upward direction. Newton’s rings pattern
is observed. Adjust b y moving the microscope to and fro, if necessary, to view the full pattern.
Adjust further for better contrast between bright and dark fringes as shown in Figure.

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10 Bring the cross-wire, using knob no.1 shown in figure, in the central dark fringe such that their
centre should coincide with each other.

11 Slide the cross-wire to the left till the vertical cross-wire line lies tangentially at the 20th
dark ring. Note the reading on the main and circular scale using the light emitting diode.

12 Now slowly slide the microscope to the right and note the reading when the vertical
cross-wire lies tangentially at the 20th, 16th, 12th, 8th and 4th dark rings respectively.

13 Keep sliding the microscope to the right and again note the readings when the vertical cross-
wire lies tangentially at the 4th, 8th, 12th, 16th and 20th dark rings respectively.
14 Take the mean Dn+p2 - Dn2

15 To calculate the radius of curvature of the Plano- Convex lens, use the following formula

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Least Count of circular scale = …… ….… …..cm/mm

Ring Microscope Reading Diame D2 D2n+p – Me

no. On the left of centre On the Right of Centre ter of (mm2) D2n for an
Main Circular Total Main Circular Total the p=4
scale scale reading scale scale reading ring (mm2)
reading reading (a) reading reading (b) D= b-a
(mm)
20
16
12
8
4

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Where, Dn and Dn+p are the diameters of nth and n+pth ring respectively, N is the nth ring and P is
the interval between the rings selected.

Where
f = focal length of the lens

n = refractive index of the material of the lens (i.e glass) = 1.5

R1 = Radius of curvature of one side R2 = Radius of curvature of other side For plano-convex lens
R2 = ∞

16 Substitute the values of mean (D n + p 2 -D n 2 ) and μ = 1 (for air) in the following formula to obtain
the
Wavelength of light from sodium vapour lamp

(Dn+ p 2 – Dn2 )µ = λ
4pR

RESULT: The wavelength of sodium light is _______________ A0

PERCENTAGE ERROR:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The lens and glass plate should be cleaned properly.

2. While taking readings one should move the telescope in one direction only. One should avoid
going back and forth to coincide the crosswire with the diameter.
3. Lens of a large focal length should be used.
4. The point of intersection of the cross wires should coincide tangentially with a particular ring.
5. The amount of light for the source should be adjusted for maximum visibility of the rings and
there should be good contrast between dark and bright rings.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 08 (b)

AIM:- To determine Refractive Index of a transparent liquid medium such as water using Newton’s
Ring Apparatus

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:-
1 Newton’s Ring Microscope
2 Sodium Vapour Lamp with encloser
3 Circular Slit Plate
4 Water

FORMULA: as above

THEORY: as above

PROCEDURE:-
1 The Newton’s Ring microscope has two parts, Microscope with horizontal measurement
and a Newton’s Ring assembly. First detach the Newton’s Ring assembly and clean the
adjustable glass plate, Plano-convex lens and its adjoining glass plate.
Note: Do not detach the Plano-Convex Lens from Glass Plate Frequently. It
Will Disturb the Measurements.
2 Replace the Plano-convex lens over the glass plate and tight them carefully with the help
of three leveling screws (if present). An interference ring pattern can be observed with the
naked eye as shown in Figure.
Precaution: Avoid Over-Tightening of The Screws. Tight the screws to Bring the Central Dark
Fringe At the Centre. Adjust Its Diameter to Be Equal to Nearly 3mm.

3 . Arrange the Newton’s Ring assembly as shown in Figure. Note that the glass plate P’ should
be inclined at 45º with respect to the vertical plain.

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4 . Connect the sodium vapour lamp Power Supply with mains. Then connect it with the light
source box with the help of mains cord. Then switch ON the Power Supply.

Precaution: Never Connect The Sodium Vapour Lamp Directly To The Main Power
Supply.

5. Wait for 30 minutes till the lamp glows bright yellowish.

6.Insert the circular slit plate in the slit-holder provided in the lamp source. Adjust to full y illuminate t
he glass plate inclined at 45º.

7. Calculate the least count of the traveling microscope.

Pitch of the micrometer Number o f divisions on Least count of

screw, P (in cm) the circular scale, N microscope,

8 Take a view through the eye piece (E) of the tube shown in Figure.

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9 There are two type of movements provided in the microscope, coarse and fine.
Align the microscope tube, with the help of coarse movement knob number 2 and
4 as shown in Figure 11 to bring it over the glass plate P’.

10 Now move the microscope tube with the help of fine movement knob no. 3 close to the plate
P’ to obtain clear image of surface. Slowly move towards upward direction. Newton’s Rings
pattern is observed. Adjust b y moving the microscope to and fro, if necessary, to view the full
pattern. Adjust further for better contrast between bright and dark fringes as shown in Figure.

11 Bring the cross-wire in the central dark fringe, using knob no.1 shown in figure 12, such
that their centre should coincide with each other.
12 Slide the cross-wire to the left till the vertical cross-wire line lies tangentially at the 20th
dark ring.
Note the reading on the main and circular scale using the light emitting diode.

13 Now slowly slide the microscope to the right and note the reading when the vertical cross-
wire lies tangentially at the 20 th , 16th, 12th, 8th and 4th dark rings respectively.

14 Keep sliding the microscope to the right and again note the readings when the vertical cross-
wire lies tangentially at the 4th, 8th, 12th, 16th and 20th dark rings respectively.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Least Count of circular scale = ……….……..cm

Ring Microscope Reading Diame D2 D2n+p – Me

ter of (mm )
2
no. On the left of centre On the Right of Centre D2n for an

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 Main Circular Total Main Circular Total the p=4
scale scale reading scale scale reading ring (mm2)
reading reading (a) reading reading (b) D= b-a
(mm)
20
16
12
8
4
Where, Dn and Dn+p are the diameters of nth and n+p th rings resp ectivel y, n is the nth ring and p is
the interval between the rings selected.

15 Take the mean fo r air film.

16. To calculate the radius of curvature of the Plano-convex lens, use the following
formula

Where

f = focal length of the lens

n = refractive index of the material of the lens (i.e glass) = 1.5

R1 = Radius of curvature of one side R2 = Radius of curvature of other side For Plano-convex lens R2 =
∞

17. Now , open and take out the plano-convex lens and put few drops of water on the plane glass
plate and again carefully mount back the lens over the plate.

18. Again repeat the steps from 2nd to 15 th of procedure of this experiment for the water film
formed between the convex and plane surfaces.
19. Substitute the corresponding values of (Dn+p2 – Dn2) for air and water films in following formula to
determine the value of

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 (D2n+p −D2n )(in air)
Refractive Index of Water μ = (D2 2
n+p −Dn )(in water)

RESULT: The wavelength of sodium light is _______________ A0

PERCENTAGE ERRORS:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The lens and glass plate should be cleaned properly.

2. While taking readings one should move the telescope in one direction only. One should
avoid going back and forth to coincide the crosswire with the diameter.
3. Lens of a large focal length should be used.
4. The point of intersection of the cross wires should coincide tangentially with a particular
ring.
5. The amount of light for the source should be adjusted for maximum visibility of the rings
and there should be good contrast between dark and bright rings.

VIVA-VOCE

Q.No.01. How are Newton’s ring obtained?

Q.No.02. Why are Newton’s ring circular?

Q.No.03. What should be the central spot, brighter or dark?

Q.No.04. On what factors does the diameter of the rings depend?

Q.No.05. Where are the fringes formed?

Q.No.06. Why do you use a convex lens in front of the sodium lamp?

Q.No.07. Why should a lens of large radius of curvature be used?

Q.No.08. Are rings equispaced?

Q.No.09. How do the rings appear when viewed in transmitted light?

Q.No.10. What will happen if the lens is placed on a plane mirror instead of a glass plate?

Q.No.11. Define interference and what are the type of interference?

Q.No.12. Which type of light is used in experiment?

Q.No.13. What are the uses of this experiment?

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Q.No.14. What happened when experiment would be performed by white light?

Q.No.15. What is meant by radius of curvature?

Q.No.16. What is the principle behind the formation of Newton’s rings?

Q.No.17. What is meant by phase shift?

Q.No.18. What is the relation between phase difference and path difference?

Q.No.19. What happens if the lower glass plate is replaced by another convex lens?

Q.No.20. What is meant by reflection and refraction?

Q.No.22. What is the nature of central fringe?

Q.No.23. Under what conditions the central fringe will be bright or dark?

Q.No.24. What is the purpose of inclined glass plate?

Q.No.25. What is meant by back lash error?

Q.No.26. What is coherence?

Q.No.27. What is constructive interference and destructive interference?

Q.No.28. What is the purpose of glass plate incline at 450 in this experiment?

Q.No.29. What will happen if we useWhite light in this experiment?

Q.No.30. If u replace yellow light with green light, is there any difference in the formation of
rings?
Q.No.31. Where have the fringes formed?

Q.No.32. What is the difference between Biprism fringes and Newton’s ring fringes?

Q.No.33. On which factors does the diameter of a ring depend?

Q.No.34. Is it possible to have interference with a lens of short focal length?

Q.No.35. What will happen if the lens is concave?

Q.No.36. What will happen if the glass plate is replaced by a mirror?

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 Introduction
Malus Law Apparatus is useful for students to understand the wave nature of light. LED is used as a
source of unpolarized light. With the help of this apparatus the basic law of polarization, Brewster’s
law and Malus law can be verified. Polarization can be studied by direct vision as well as by reading
the variation of intensity through a digital ammeter connected across a photo detector.

The verification of Malus law particularly can be done in two different ways using two coxial polarized
and a combination of glass plate and Polaroid. All the above experiments can also be performed using
unpolarized laser as the source of light.

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 Safety Instructions

Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the instrument. To avoid
any personal injury or damage to the instrument or any product connected to the instrument.

Do not operate the instrument if suspect any damage to it.

The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.

For your safety:

Use proper Mains cord: Use only the mains cord designed for this instrument. Ensure that the
mains cord is suitable for your country.

Ground the Instrument: This instrument is grounded through the protective earth
conductor of the mains cord. To avoid electric shock, the grounding
conductor must be connected to the earth ground. Before making
connections to the input terminals, ensure that the instrument is
properly grounded..

Use in proper Atmosphere: Please refer to operating conditions given in the manual.

1. Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.

2. Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.

3. Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.

Theory
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Light is simply a name for a range of electromagnetic radiations that can be detected by the human eye.
What is electromagnetic radiation, then?
Electromagnetic radiation has a dual nature i.e. of both particles and waves. One way to look at it is as
changing electric and magnetic fields which propagate through space, forming an electromagnetic
wave. This wave has amplitude, which is the brightness of the light, wavelength, which is the color of
the light, and an angle at which it is vibrating, called polarization.

Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave. The electric field and magnetic field component vectors
are mutually perpendicular to each other as well as perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Figure shows electromagnetic wave propagation. Generally polarization is defined in terms of electric
field vector only.

Unpolarized light refers to a wave collection which has an equal distribution of electric field
orientations for all directions. While each individual wave train may be linearly polarized, there’s no
preferred direction of polarization when all the waves are averaged together.

Unpolarized light

Randomly polarized light is exactly what it says; the light is plane polarized, but the direction is
unknown, and may vary with time. Random polarization causes problems in optical systems since
some components are polarization sensitive. If the polarization state changes with time, then the
components’ transmission, reflection, and/or absorption characteristics will also vary with time.

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Polarization is the phenomenon of restricting the plane of vibration of light only in a single plane.
Plane of vibration is the plane of electric field vector. The plane normal to the plane of vibration and
direction of propagation is the plane of polarization. Light from common sources, such as incandescent
bulb, is unpolarized, that is, the plane of vibration of the electric field vector changes its orientation very
rapidly and in a completely random fashion.

However, when light interacts with matter, the plane of vibration of electric field may become fixed in
a particular direction (linear polarization) or the plane of vibration may rotate or otherwise vary
uniformly (circular or elliptical polarization). To obtain a polarized light, a Polaroid can be used.
Polaroid is a type of synthetic plastic sheet which selectively passes waves with electric field
components in a particular plane only. This particular plane passes through the optic axis of the
Polaroid. Optic axis is the direction which transmits only perpendicular electric field vectors. An
unpolarized light which is passed through a Polaroid is linearly polarized.
Plane polarized light can be obtained from an unpolarized light by either of the ways: (1) reflection,

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 (2) refraction, (3) double refraction, (4) scattering, and (5) dichroism. When natural light enters into
anisotropic uniaxial mineral like calcite, it splits into two rays which are plane polarized and
their
vibration planes are perpendicular to each other. This is double refraction. Polarization also occurs
when light is scattered while traveling through a medium. When light scatters from a particle, some
light is re- emitted in all directions, but light re-emitted in the plane perpendicular to the incident ray
is polarized parallel to this plane. This process of scattering contributes to the blueness of our skies.
Dichroism is the selective absorption of light with normal vibration with respect to the plane passing
through the optic axis, though transmitting that with parallel vibration. Polaroids are based on
dichroism.
Polarization by reflection
Unpolarized light can also undergo polarization by reflection through shiny surfaces. The extent to
which polarization occurs is dependent upon the angle at which the light approaches the surface and
upon the material that the surface is made of.

Polarization by Refraction
Polarization can also occur by the refraction of light. Refraction occurs when a beam of light passes
from one material into another material. At the surface of the two materials, the beam changes its
direction. The refracted beam acquires some degree of polarization.

Polarization by Double Refraction

When ordinary light is incident on a calcite or quartz crystal, it splits in two refracted rays and this
phenomenon is known as double refraction.

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Polarization by Scattering
Polarization also occurs when light is scattered while traveling through a medium. When light strikes
the atoms of a material, it will often set the electrons of those atoms into vibration. The vibrating
electrons then produce their own electromagnetic wave that is radiated outward in all directions. This
newly generated wave strikes neighboring atoms, forcing their electrons into vibrations at the same
original frequency. These vibrating electrons produce another electromagnetic wave that is once more
radiated outward in all directions. This absorption and re-emission of light waves causes the light to
be scattered about the medium. This scattered light is partially polarized.
Polarization by Dichroism

Dichroism refers to a material in which light in different polarization states travelling through it
experience a varying absorption. Polaroid is a trade name. It is actually a sandwich of sheets of
nitrocellulose which have the property of aligning their axes in one particular direction. This property
(dichroism) screens out all light except that with the same orientation.

In Brewster’s law, we will study polarization by reflection. When an unpolarized light is reflected
from a transparent reflecting surface such as glass, the reflected light is partially polarized. That means,
light contains more component of vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence (that is, in the
plane of paper) and less component of vibrations parallel to the plane of incidence. The intensity of
polarized light having vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence, in the reflected light depends
on the angle of incidence. On gradually changing the angle of incidence, at a particular angle of
incidence the reflected light becomes perfectly plane polarized. That means light with all the vibrations
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restricted perpendicular to the plane of incidence

This angle of incidence for maximum polarization of the light is called polarizing angle or the
Brewster’s angle denoted by ip. Brewster discovered a simple mathematical relationship between the
polarizing angle and the refractive index of the transparent medium.
Brewster’s Law can be expressed as:
μ = Tan ip.
When the angle of incidence is equal to the polarizing angle, firstly the reflection coefficient for
polarization in the plane of incidence equals to zero. In other words, the reflected light is cent percent
linearly polarized, containing electric field vector normal to the plane of incidence. Secondly, the
reflected ray and refracted ray are mutually perpendicular to each other. Thirdly, the value of
polarizing angle can be calculated by refractive index of the medium of reflecting surface. For air-glass
medium, the value of polarizing angle ip is nearly 57º and for air-water medium, its value is nearly
53º. Note that the refractive index of glass with respect to air and refractive index of glass with respect
to water are 1.5 and
1.33 respectively.

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 Now if the angle of incidence is varied, the subsequent intensity of vibrations can be measured both
along and normal to the plane of incidence. If at an angle of incidence, Imax and Imin are the
intensities of vibration perpendicular and parallel to the plane of incidence (i.e., in the plane of paper)
respectively. Then the degree of polarization at that angle of incidence is given by
P= Imax – Imin
Imax +Imin

Thus on plotting a graph between the degree of polarization (p) and angle of incidence (i), a curve is
obtained whose peak position will correspond to the Brewster’s angle (ip). In other words, at i = ip,
Imin = 0 or, p = 1(maximum).
Applications of Polarization
Polarization has a wealth of other applications besides their use in glare-reducing sunglasses. In
industry, Polaroid filters are used to perform stress analysis tests on transparent plastics. As light
passes through a plastic, each color of visible light is polarized with its own orientation. If such a
plastic is placed between two polarizing plates, a colorful pattern is revealed. As the top plate is
turned, the color pattern changes as new colors become blocked and the formerly blocked colors are
transmitted. A common Physics demonstration involves placing a plastic protractor between two
Polaroid plates and placing them on top of an overhead projector. It is known that structural stress in
plastic is signified at locations where there is a large concentration of colored bands. This location of
stress is usually the location where structural failure will most likely occur.

Polarization is also used in the entertainment industry to produce and show 3-D movies. Three-
dimensional movies are actually two movies being shown at the same time through two projectors.
The two movies are filmed from two slightly different camera locations. Each individual movie is then
projected from different sides of the audience onto a metal screen. The movies are projected through a
polarizing filter. The polarizing filter used for the projector on the left may have its polarization axis
aligned horizontally while the polarizing filter used for the projector on the right would have its
polarization axis aligned vertically. Consequently, there are two slightly different movies being
projected onto a screen. Each movie is cast by light that is polarized with an orientation perpendicular
to the other movie. The audience then wears glasses that have two Polaroid filters. Each filter has a
different polarization axis - one is horizontal and the other is vertical. The result of this arrangement
of projectors and filters is that the left eye sees the movie that is projected from the right projector
while the right eye sees the movie that is projected from the left projector. This gives the viewer a
perception of depth.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 9(a)
AIM: Study of polarization of light by reflection and thus verify Brewster’s law.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Apparatus comprising of LED as light source, Analyzer, Photo detector, Plain
glass plate, Circular Plate, Glass plate holder, Mains Cord Patch Cords
FORMULA: as above
THEORY: as above
DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Take a Glass Plate and Glass Plate Holder from the accessories and assemble them on the Central
Circular Plate of Malus Law Apparatus.
2. Assemble the Light Source, Central Glass Plate, Analyzer and Photo Detector as shown in the
block diagram of figure.

3. There are two arms in the apparatus :

• Fixed Arm, to hold the light source.
• Movable Arm, to hold the analyzing instrument (Analyzer, Central Glass Plate and Photo
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 Detector). Position readers R1 and R2 are provided on fixed as well as movable arm
respectively.
4. Ensure that the centre of Light Source, Glass Plate, Analyzer and Photo Detector all lay collinearly
by suitable height adjustment.
5. Adjust the central circular plate’s zero to coincide with the marking on position reader, R1.

Figure A
6. Connect the light source to Light Source terminals and photo detector to Photo Detector
terminals with appropriate polarity by using patch chord.
7. Initially set the Gain Adjust knob at anti clockwise direction.
8. Connect mains cord to the apparatus & switch ‘on’ the supply.
9. Now rotate the central glass plate by an angle of 10º with reference to the position reader R1 and
read the position as the angle of incidence ‘i’ with respect to the normal is obtained by (900-R1)

Figure B
10. After that move the movable arm by 20º with respect to position reader R2 from its current
position.
Note: Assume that movable arm initially set at zero with respect to the position reader R2, should be
moved twice that of ‘i’.

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 Figure C
11. After aligning the movable arm as shown in above diagram.
12. Fix the movable arm using locking screw provided at the centre.
13. Adjust the gain of photo detector with provided Gain Adjust knob (recommended above middle
position).
Note: For avoiding the over range on display, adjust the Gain Adjust knob.

14. Now rotate the analyzer in its own plane (circular scale) till the intensity becomes maximum and
note the value Imax.
15. Now Turn the analyzer by 90º and obtain minimum current. Again note this current as Imin.
16. Gradually move the glass plate with 5º increment and read the corresponding maximum &
minimum currents respectively.

S. Angle of Readings of micro ammeter Degree of

No incidence ‘i’ (in μA) polarization
(in degrees) When When P
(900-R1) vibrations vibrations
are are parallel to
perpendicular the
to the plane of plane of
incidence, Imax incidence, Imin

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 From the above observations, angle of polarization, ip = …………....….º When P = 1(nearly) (or Imin
= 0 approximately). Plot a graph between Imax and Imin versus angle of incidence ‘i’ as shown in
Figure.

17. From the plot, the angle of incidence at which Imin is zero gives the Brewster’s angle, ip of glass
with respect to air.
18. Plot a graph between the degree of polarization P and incident angle i as shown in figure.

19. From the plot, the angle of incidence at which degree of polarization is maxima is the angle of
polarization or Brewster’s angle.
20. Find the tangent of angle of polarization ip and compare it with the refractive index μ of glass
with respect to air (μ = 1.5).
21. Hence from the observation table as well as figure and figure find the value ip and hence
Brewster’s law
µ = Tan ip
RESULT:

PERCENTAGE ERRORS: if any applicable

PRECAUTIONS:

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 Theory
Light is an electromagnetic wave with transverse nature. It has two components, electric vector and
magnetic vector both mutually perpendicular to each other as well as to the direction of propagation
of wave. Study of light and its phenomenon is called optics. In optics, electric field vector is considered
responsible for light phenomenon, so it is called light vector.
Light vector of natural light vibrates perpendicular to the direction of propagation, along all directions.
If light is forced to vibrate along certain direction than the light is said to be polarized, and the
phenomenon is called polarization. Generally direction of polarization is defined in terms of electric
field vector. Light from common sources such as electric bulb is unpolarized, that is the plane of
vibration of the electric field vector changes its orientation very rapidly and in a completely random
fashion. However, when light interacts with matter, the plane of vibration of electric field may
become fixed in a particular direction (linear polarization) or the plane of vibration may rotate or
otherwise vary uniformly (circular or elliptical polarization). The simplest polarization is produced
when light is forced to vibrate in a single plane containing the direction of propagation. This is called
plane polarization, or linear polarization. This occurs using a Polaroid.
When two plane polarized lights vibrating along their plane of polarizations meet along the same
direction of propagation, where the planes of vibrations are perpendicular to each other two different
kinds of polarized light is obtained, depending on the phase differences between them. If the phase
difference is equal to λ/4, circular polarized light is obtained. If the phase difference is not equal to
λ/4, or not an even multiple of λ/2,λ then elliptically polarized light is obtained. Both circularly-and
elliptically- polarized light can move clock-wise or anti clock-wise direction.
There are three important methods of producing plane polarized light :
1 By reflection and refraction: When natural light strikes the interface between two media, it is
split into partially polarized reflected and refracted rays. The direction of vibration of reflected ray
is perpendicular to the plane that is defined by the normal to the interface and incident ray.
Whereas the direction of vibration of refracted ray is also plane polarized but vibrates along the
same plane containing the normal and incident ray. Complete polarization is obtained when
reflected and refracted rays are normal to each other, which is called the Brewster Law.
2 By absorbtion: Certain dichroic anisotropic minerals absorb light strongly in one direction, and let
it pass with minimum absorbtion in a direction perpendicular to this direction. Hence plane
polarized light is obtained. Tourmaline crystals display this property the best. Synthetic substances
like herapatite (quinine iodo sulphate) also show this property.
3 By double refraction: When natural light enters into anisotropic uniaxial mineral like Calcite, it
splits into two rays which are plane polarized and their vibration planes are perpendicular to each
other. The ray with perpendicular vibrations is called ordinary ray and the ray with parallel
vibrations is called extraordinary ray. A calcite crystal suitably cut and glued together with canada
balsam results in nicol prism which is used to separate the extraordinary ray from ordinary ray
completely.
In this experiment, we will study polarization by reflection as well as by dichroism. Polaroid is based
on dichroism. Polaroid is a type of synthetic plastic sheet which is used to polarize light. It consists of
many microscopic needle-like crystals of quinine iodo sulphate embedded in a transparent polymer
film of nitrocellulose. The crystals are aligned during manufacture of the film either by stretching the
film or by applying electric or magnetic field.
Polaroid is based on dichroism. When an unpolarized light passes through a Polaroid, it splits up into
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 two polarized refracted rays. The ray which is polarized parallel to the direction of the crystal
alignment, are absorbed but the rays which are perpendicularly polarized are transmitted. The reason
is that any varying electric field in the direction parallel to the line of the crystals in the Polaroid sheet
will cause a current to flow along the line. The free electrons of the iodo quinine sulphate crystals will
move and collide with other particles to re-emit the light rays back and forth. Thus the incident rays
will get cancelled causing
little or no transmission through the sheet. On the other hand, the rays with normal electric field
components with respect to the line of crystal can cause only small movements of free electrons side
by side. Thus the incident rays will get transmitted. In other words, the ray with plane of vibration
parallel to the optic axis of Polaroid is completely absorbed by the Polaroid. And the other ray with
plane of vibration perpendicular to the optic axis of Polaroid is transmitted through the Polaroid.
Optic axis is the direction which transmits only perpendicular electric field vectors. This phenomenon
of selective absorption is known as dichroism. Polaroid is generally used in liquid crystal display,
optical microscope and sunglasses.
It is not possible to distinguish between a polarized and unpolarized light with naked eye. To do so, we
use a pair of Polaroids or tourmaline crystals or just a nicol prism to analyze the incident light.

Malus Law

When two pieces of Polaroid are placed in succession along the path of a light wave, the intensity of
light received behind the two Polaroids is described by Malus’ Law. The law expresses light intensity,
, as a function of the angle which is the angle between the directions of polarization of the two filters.
The law can be expressed as follows:
I= Imaxcos2θ

where Imax is the light intensity between the two sheets of Polaroid.

In 1808 Malus from his experiment found that if polarized light, obtained by reflection from a plain
glass surface, falls on another reflecting surface at polarizing angle, intensity of reflected light from the
latter surface is directly proportional to the cosine of angle between the two reflecting surfaces (say
λ). When the two surfaces are parallel, the intensity is maximum (say I0). Similarly when the surfaces
are normal to each other, the intensity is a minimum. Malus found that the output is directly
proportional to the irradiance (that is, intensity) of incident light that is Malus Law express as
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I = I0 cos2θ.
Where, I is the intensity obtained after transmission through analyzer, I0 is the intensity of polarized
light obtained through polarizer and θ is the angle between the optic axes of polarizer and analyzer.
Figure demonstrates Malus law using two polaroids for any orientation θ between polarizer and
analyzer axes. Figure demonstrates the minimum or zero transmission case for θ = 90º. Similarly
transmission will be maximum for θ = 0º. Through direct vision, these positions of maximum and
minimum intensity are most readily detectable. The orientation of polarized light can be read using a

photo detector.

Figure shows polarization of natural light propagating along the x-direction. The analyzer and the
polarizer are identical Polaroids, differing only in their orientation. If the electric field vector passing
through the polarizer has maximum amplitude E0, then E0cosθ is simply the component of electric
field that transmits through the analyzer. It means that electric field vector of light passed by the
polarizer is oscillates in a plane that makes an angle θ relative to the optic axis of polarizer.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 09 (b)
AIM: Study and verify Malus Law using a plain glass plate and a polaroid

EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Apparatus comprising of LED as light source, Analyzer, Photo detector, Plain
glass plate, Circular Plate, Glass plate holder, Mains Cord Patch Cords
FORMULA: as above

THOERY : as above

DIGRAM:

Procedure:
1. Take a Glass Plate and Glass Plate Holder from the accessories and assemble them on the Central
Circular Plate of Malus Law Apparatus.
2. Assemble the Light Source, Central Glass Plate, Analyzer and Photo Detector as shown in the
block diagram of figure.

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 3. There are two arms in the apparatus:
• Fixed Arm, to hold the light source.
• Movable Arm, to hold the analyzing instrument (Analyzer, Central Glass Plate and Photo
Detector). Position readers R1 and R2 are provided on fixed as well as movable arm
respectively.
4. Ensure that the centre of Light Source, Glass Plate, Analyzer and Photo Detector all lay
collinearly by suitable height adjustment.
5. Adjust the central circular plate’s zero to coincide with the marking on position reader, R1

Figure D
6. Connect the light source to Light Source terminals and photo detector to Photo Detector
terminals with appropriate polarity using of patch chord.
7. Initially set the Gain Adjust knob at anti clockwise direction.
8. Connect mains cord to the apparatus & switch ‘on’ the supply.
9. Now rotate the central glass plate by an angle of 10º with reference to the position reader R1 and
read the position as the angle of incidence ‘i’ with respect to the normal is obtained by (900-R1)
Figure E

10. After that move the movable arm by 20º with respect to position reader R2 from its current
position.

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 Note: Assume that movable arm initially set at zero with respect to the position reader R2, should
be moved twice that of ‘i’.

Figure F

11. After aligning the movable arm as shown in figure F, Fix the movable arm using locking screw
provided at the centre.
12. Adjust the gain of photo detector with provided Gain Adjust knob (recommended above middle
position).
Note: For avoiding the over range on display, adjust the Gain Adjust knob.

13. Now rotate the analyzer in its own plane (circular scale) till the intensity becomes maximum and
note the value Imax.
14. Now Turn the analyzer by 90º and obtain minimum current. Again note this current as Imin.
15. Gradually move the glass plate with 5º increment and read the corresponding maximum and
minimum currents respectively.

S. Angle of Readings of micro ammeter Degree of

No incidence ‘i’ (in μA) polarization
(in degrees) When When P
(900-R1) vibrations vibrations
are are parallel to
perpendicular the
to the plane of plane of
incidence, Imax incidence, Imin

16. From the above observations, angle of polarization, ip = …………....….º

When P = 1(nearly) (or Imin = 0 approximately).
17. Plot a graph between Imax and Imin versus angle of incidence ‘i’ as shown in Figure:
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18. From the plot, the angle of incidence at which Imin is zero gives the Brewster’s angle, ip of glass
with respect to air.
19. Plot a graph between the degree of polarization P and incident angle i as shown in figure.

20. From the plot, the angle of incidence at which degree of polarization is maxima, is the angle of
polarization or Brewster’s angle.
22. Now to verify Malus law, set the glass plate at polarizing angle (Brewster’s angle), Ip.
23. Rotate the analyzer in its own plane (circular scale) till the current in the photodetector shows
its maximum value. Read the current as Imax i.e. Io. Also read this position on analyzer’s circular
scale.
24. Gradually rotate the analyzer with 10mm increments and read the ammeter readings as well as
analyzer’s position in its circular scale at each increment.
25. Stop rotating the analyzer, at the position of minimum intensity.
Note: At the minimum current positions of analyzer, planes of vibration of polarized light obtained
after reflection from central glass plate and that after passing through the analyzer become
mutually perpendicular to each other.
26. Calculate the relative intensities, I/ Imax for the various angles.

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 S. No. Angular Relative angle, Reading of micro P =I/Imax
position of |𝜃 = 𝛼 − 𝛼0 | Ammeter
analyzer, I (in μA) Cos2θ
(in degrees)
𝛼 (in degrees)

1 … 0 Imax 1 1
2 … 10 … … …
3 … 20 … … …
4 … 30 … ... …
.. … … … … …
.. … … … … …
.. … 90 Imin … 0 (nearly)

22. From the above observations, I / Imax = Cos2θ is established.

23. Plot a graph between the relative intensity I / Imax and relative angle θ between the plane of
vibration of polarized light, obtained by reflection form glass plate and that after passing through
the analyzer as shown in.

24. From the above plot, it is evident that relative intensity, I/ Imax is the square of cosine function of
relative angle, θ.
25. Hence from both observation table as well as figure put the value in Malus Law expression
I=I0cos2 θ
or I=Imaxcos2 θ
or I/Imax = cos2 θ

RESULT:

PERCENTAGE ERRORS: if any applicable

PRECAUTIONS:

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 09 (C)
AIM: Study and verify Malus Law using two polaroids

EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Apparatus comprising of LED as light source, Analyzer, Photo detector, Polarizer,
Mains Cord, Patch Cords
FORMULA: as above

THEORY: as above

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Take polarizer from the accessories and mount it at the centre of Malus Law Apparatus after
replacing the central circular plate with it.
2. Assemble the Light Source, Polarizer, Analyzer and Photo detector as shown in the block diagram
of figure.

3. There are two arms in the apparatus:

• Fixed Arm, to hold the light source.
• Movable Arm, to hold the analyzing instrument (Polaroids and Photo detector). Position
readers R1 and R2 are provided on fixed as well as movable arm respectively.
4. Ensure that the centre of LED Light Source, Polarizer, Analyzer and Photo detector all lay
collinearly by suitable height adjustment as shown in above diagram . Fix the movable arm using
locking screw provided at the centre.
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5. Initially set the Gain Adjust knob at anti clockwise direction.
6. Connect the light source to Light Source terminals and photo detector to Photo Detector
terminals with appropriate polarity by using patch cords.
7. Connect the mains cord to the apparatus & switch ‘on’ the supply.
8. Adjust the gain of photo detector with provided Gain Adjust knob (recommended above middle
position).
Note: For avoiding the over range on display, adjust the Gain Adjust knob.

9. Rotate the analyzer in its own plane (circular scale) till the current in the photo detector shows
its maximum value. Read the current as Imax. Also read this position on analyzer’s circular scale.
10. Gradually rotate the analyzer in its own plane with 10º increments. Simultaneously read the
analyzer’s position on its circular scale and current at each increment.
11. Stop rotating the analyzer at the position of minimum intensity. At the maximum and minimum
current positions of analyzer, the optic axes of both the Polaroids become mutually
perpendicular to each other.
12. Calculate the relative intensities, I/ Imax for the various angles.

Angular Relative angle Reading of

S. No. position of |𝜃 = 𝛼 − 𝛼0 | Micro Ammeter,
P = I/Imax Cos θ
2
analyzer, (in degrees) I
(in degrees) (in μA)
1 … 0 Imax 1 1
2 … 10 … … …
3 … 20 … … …
4 … 30 … ... …
.. … … … … …
.. … … … … …
.. … 90 Imin … 0
(nearly)

13. From the above observations, I / Imax = Cos2θ is established.

14. Plot a graph between the relative intensity, I / Imax and relative angle θ between the optic axes
of both the polaroids. It’ll be same as shown in figure .

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 15. From the above plot, it is evident that relative intensity, I/ Imax is the square of cosine function of
relative angle, θ between the optic axes of both the polaroids.

16. Hence observation table as well as Figure put the value in Malus Law expression
I=I0cos2 θ
or I=Imaxcos2 θ
or I/Imax = cos2 θ

RESULT:

PERCENTAGE ERRORS: if any applicable

PRECATIONS:

VIVA VOCE

Q1. State Malus’s law

Q2. What is meant by ‘Plane Polarization’?

Q3. What types of waves may be polarized?
Q4. Other than using a polarizing filter, give one way in which visible light may be polarized? Q5. What
do you mean by polarization?

Q6. What information does it provide about light waves?

Q7. How will you distinguish between unpolarized and plane polarized light?
Q8. For what kind of light does this law hold?

Q9. Define plane of vibration and plane of polarization.

Q10. How does polarized light differ from ordinary light?
Q11. What does polarization of light tell about the nature of light?

Q12. What do you mean by polarization?

Q13. What is Brewster’s law of polarization?

Q14. What do you mean by double refraction?

Q15. What is nicol prism?

Q16. What do you mean by Snell’s law?

Q17. What is mean by plane polarized and unpolarized light?

Q18. What are the ordinary and extra ordinary lights?

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 Introduction
Spectrometer Set-Up is useful for understanding the behavior of light and it concerns the phenomena of
reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference of light. Optical spectrums are important for any
detailed description of light source and wavelength determination for each color of light. Spectrometer is
basically an instrument for observing spectrums and measuring angle of deviation of light in a particular
medium, for mathematical calculations. Set-up of spectrometer comprises prisms, grating and light
source, which are necessary for all the basic experiments of spectrometer.

Optics is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of
light with matter. In our day-to-day life, we rarely concern ourselves with light, except perhaps when
there is too much or not enough of it. We interact with light that has interacted with objects to determine
such things as the color, shape, and position of the objects. In studying optics we still gain our
information by interacting with light that has interacted with objects. But in studying optics we want to
know what our observations tell us, not about the objects, but about light itself.

The ability of man and various animals groups, to visually perceive their surroundings is realized by the
eye and coupled nerve endings in the brain. To describe this ability, the Greeks used the word “optikos”,
which can be interpreted as seeing, vision or visual faculty.

Spectromer is a compact apparatus for obtaining pure spectrum. It is used for study of spectra and for
finding various parameters like refractive index, wavelength etc.

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 Safety Instructions

Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the instrument. To avoid any personal
injury or damage to the instrument or any product connected to the instrument.

Do not operate the instrument if suspect any damage to it.

The instrument should be serviced by qualified personnel only.

For your safety:

Use proper Mains cord: Use only the mains cord designed for this instrument. Ensure that the

mains cord is suitable for your country.

Ground the Instrument: This instrument is grounded through the protective earth conductor
of the

mains cord. To avoid electric shock, the grounding conductor must be

connected to the earth ground. Before making connections to the

input

terminals, ensure that the instrument is properly grounded.

Use in proper Atmosphere: Please refer to operating conditions given in the manual.

1. Do not operate in wet / damp conditions.

2. Do not operate in an explosive atmosphere.
3. Keep the product dust free, clean and dry.

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 Theory

Spectrometer:
Spectrometer is basically an instrument for measuring the angular deviation of light ray. A prism
produces this angular deviation of light ray or grating, which is wavelength dependent. The emergent
light from these component is dispersed into a spectrum in which wavelength is a function of angle.
Spectrometer consists of mainly three parts:
1. Collimator
2. Prism table
3. Telescope

1. Collimator :
This part of spectrometer is used to obtain a narrow and parallel beam of light from a light source.
Collimator set-up comprises slit, screw, lens, rack & pinion arrangement.

Tube:
A and B are two cylindrical hollow metallic tubes, which provide highly reflection and insulation from
outer part. Both tubes are connected each other with rack & pinion arrangement and can slide over each
other by using S1 screw.
Slit S:
It is vertical space, which is attached at one end of tube “A” that can open and close. Slit is kept in front of
light source so that sharp light beam can pass through it.
Screw:
Two screws S1 and S2 are attached with collimator, provides easy way for altering the width and position
of slit. Screw S2 is used to make slit wide or narrow and screw S1 is used to change the position of slit by
moving it further and backward to the light source, which allows us to alter the distance between slit and
lens.
Lens L1:
It is an achromatic lens L1, which is attached at one end (right) of tube B that makes all emerging beam
parallel to each other and removes any chance of dispersion (distortion in colors) of beam.
Collimator is mounted on a fixed stand and this stand is rigidly attached to the base of spectrometer.
Collimator rests on two-screw C1 and C2 by which it can be made horizontal.

2. Prism-table :

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It is a metallic circular disc on which the optical component is kept. It consists of an upper plate A and a
lower plate B. Upper plate has straight parallel equidistance lines and also the co-centric circle drawn on
its surface (figure) and lower plate is colored with black paint. Lower plate is not shown in figure

Whole set-up of prism table is achieved by various components, which are leveling screws P, Q, R, one
metallic rod, one tangential screw and circular and venire scale.

Leveling screw P Q and R:

These screw separates upper plate A and lower plate B by three spring which passes through P, Q, and R,
which helps to make prism table horizontal.
Metallic thin rod:
This rod is vertically attached with prism table. The height of prism table can be adjusted with adjusting
rod & can be fixed by clamping screw a1. Prism table can rotate about a vertical axis & may be fixed in any
desired position by using screw a2. When fixed by screw a2 it can be turned very slowly by a tangent
screw a3 placed at base of the spectrometer (a1 a2 and a3 is not shown in figure)
Circular and verniers scale:
On the base of the prism table there are two circular vernier scale opposite to each other (i.e., at 1800
angular separation). Position of telescope can be read with the help of circular main scale and vernier
scales. Circular main scale is rigidly attached at the base of spectrometer and the vernier scales are
attached with the stand of telescope.

3. Telescope :
Telescope focuses emerging beam which is used to obtain a pure spectrum and for observation. Same as
collimator telescope also consists of two hollow cylindrical tubes, achromatic lens, screw, rack, pinion
arrangement, eye piece and cross wire.

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Tubes:
A and B are two cylindrical hollow metallic tubes provide highly reflection and insulation from outer
part. Both are connected each other with rack & pinion arrangement and can be slide over each other by
using S3 screw.

Lens L2:
It is an achromatic lens, which is called objective lens. It is attached at one end (left) of tube A1 that
focuses all emerging beam to obtain spectrum.

Eyepiece and cross wire: It is a combination of two or more than two lenses and cross wire within it.
Eyepiece is attached on outer part of eyepiece tube. By hand eyepiece can be taken out or inserted in
eyepiece tube, so that cross wires lie at the focus of the eyepiece and are distinctly seen.

Screw: Screw S3 is used to change the position of eyepiece. By moving the eyepiece tube, the cross wires
can be brought in the focal plane of objective lens. Telescope rests on screws t 3 and t4 (not shown in
figure) by which it can be slightly tilted up or down for adjustment of its axis. A rack & pinion
arrangement is provided on the side of the telescope for focusing. Telescope is attached to a vertical
stand, which can be rotated about a vertical axis passing through the center of gravity of prism table.
Position of telescope can be read with the help of circular main scale and vernier scales.

Uses of spectrometer: spectrometer is used for several types of measurements. It is used to produce
pure spectrum, determine refractive index of the material of prism, find resolving power and to study the
phenomenon of diffraction.

Light and its properties, concept of wave front and speed of light:

• Properties of light :
a) Light is an electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength in the range from about 4,000 A0
(violet) to about 7,000 A0 (red) and may be perceived by the normal human eye.

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b) White light is made up of all the seven colors- red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
Different colors correspond to different wavelengths. Human eyes are sensitive to light with
wavelength in the range 400nm to 700 nm.
c) Frequency range of light varies from 1014 Hz to 1016 Hz.
d) Light propagates in a linear way through any medium or without medium.
e) It is the part of visible spectrum in electromagnetic spectrum.
f) Like sound, light is a wave. Sound is a longitudinal wave (stretches and compression) and light is a
transverse wave (like a water wave).
g) Sound needs a medium to travel. Sound can travel in air and water, but it cannot travel in space.
h) No medium is needed through which light can travel. Light however, can travel in a vacuum (in
absence of medium). We know this because we can see light in space, and space is a vacuum.
i) Many phenomena occur in our daily life, which confirms wave nature of light by which they spread
out; they propagate through the medium in every direction from a disturbance.
j) When light strikes a surface it is absorbed, reflected or transmitted.
k) Light shows thermal effect and after incident on surface it exerts pressure. This shows that light wave
contains momentum and energy.
l) Light travels in straight lines, playing with mirrors we found light reflects off a reflective surface.
m) Objects are seen because light is reflected from them to our eyes. Light travels through medium in
rays, geometry describing that part of a straight line that extends in one direction only.
n) From small opening they diffract: means they interfere with each other and move outwards in a
circular pattern from the opening.
o) Entering of light in some denser medium, such as glass or water, the ray experiences refraction or
bending.
p) Prism could be used for the diffusion of light rays—in particular, to produce an array of colors from a
beam of white light. The distribution of colors across the spectrum is as follows: red-orange-yellow-
green-blue-violet, seventh indigo between blue and violet. Indigo itself is not really a distinct color—
just a deep, purplish blue.
q) Interference and diffraction are the most striking manifestations of the wave character of light.
r) Propagation of light occurs by two ways:
1. Particles of medium there self carry energy from one place to another.
2. Particles of medium do not carry energy from one place to another although every particle
transfers energy to next particle, which is further transferred atom to atom by producing
disturbance in medium.
s) According to wave theory of light, A source of light sends out disturbance in all direction in the form
of Wave front.

• Wave front :
A wave front is defined as the locus of points having the same phase of oscillation. Depending
upon the shape of light, wave front can be of the following type:

a) Spherical wave front :

A spherical wave front is produced by a point source of light. It is because, the locus of all such
points, which are equidistance from the point source, is sphere.
b) Cylindrical wave front :
When the source of light is linear in shape, for example a slit type, than cylindrical wave front
is produced. It is because, all the points, which are equidistant from the linear source, lie on
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 the surface of a cylinder.

c) Plane wave front :

A small part of a spherical or a cylindrical wave front originated from a distant source will
appear plane and hence it is called a plane wave front.

• Characteristic property of wave front :

a) Phase difference between various particles on wave front is zero because in this state all
particles vibrate in same phase.
b) In homogeneous medium these wave front propagates in all direction having velocity equal to
light velocity.
c) In homogeneous medium, point source always produces spherical wave front.
d) In inhomogeneous medium these wave front propagates in different-different directions having
different- different speed.
e) In inhomogeneous medium, point source always produces large circular wave front.
f) Wave front propagates parallel in medium.

• Ray of light :
a) An arrow drawn to a normal to the wave front and pointing in the direction of propagation
of disturbance is called a ray of light.
b) A ray of light is the path along which light travels.
c) Since the ray of light is normal to the wave front, it is sometimes called as the wave normal.
d) The wave front representing a parallel beam is a plane wave front, while the wave front
representing a converging or a diverging beam of light is spherical in shape.
e) A ray of light is always normal to the wave front.

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 f) Light has a wave nature, even though due to shorter wavelength it seems to propagate in
a straight line.
• Speed of light :
a) In vacuum velocity of light is approximate 3x108 m/sec. Speed of light is a constant and it is the
maximum speed, which can be achieved.
b) All electromagnetic radiation from radio waves to x-rays travel at the speed of light.
c) Constant speed of light refers to the speed of light in a particular medium, such as vacuum.
Within such a medium, the speed is constant, but light changes its speed when it moves from one
medium to another medium. This change of speed at the boundary between two different media
is the principal that causes a lens and eyeglasses to work.
d) Speed of light does not depend upon frequency, amplitude and nature of source. It remains
constant before and after reflection.
e) The speed of light depends on the material that light moves through. Thus, for example, light
moves slower in glass than in air and in both cases the speed of light is less than in vacuum.

f) Light travels at a large distance but in a finite speed, so it takes time to cover large distances.
Thus, when we see the light of very distant objects in the universe, we are actually seeing light
emitted from them a long time before. (We see them literally as they were in the distant past).
g) For example, the sun is only about 8 light-minutes away. So the light we see from the sun
represents what the sun looked like 8 minutes before, and we must wait another 8 minutes to see
what it looks like now.
h) The most distant things that we can see are about 18,000,000,000 light years away. Thus, the light
that we presently see from these objects began its journey to us about 18 billion years ago. Since
that is close to the estimated age of the universe. Thus the observation of very distant objects is in
a very real sense equivalent to looking backwards in time.
i) We can even predict the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave if we know the time period T of
the wave. By multiplying the period with the speed of light (c), we can determine the wavelength
of any wave.

• Wavelength : It is the distance between two peaks or the distance between two troughs. In other
word it can be defined as “the distance that wave travels to complete one cycle.” Wavelength is
given by the symbol λ and it measured in meters. Small unit of wavelength is A0, which is equal to
the 10-10 meter.
• Amplitude : The amplitude of the wave is measured from the peak to the mid point and it can be
defined as “the maximum displacement from the average position”.
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 • Frequency : It is defined as “the number of complete cycle in one second.” Hertz is the unit of
frequency and it is denoted by the symbol Hz.
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

• Period : Period of wave is defined as “The time taken for completing one cycle is called time
period”.
Period = 1/ frequency or Frequency = 1/ period
The speed of wave (C) is wavelength (λ) times the frequency (f). f is the number of completed periods
in one second.

C=λxf

Concept of reflection and its type :

• Reflection of light :
a) Reflection is the change in direction of a wave front at an interface between two different
medium so that the wave front returns into the same medium from which it is originated.
b) When a light beam incident on any surface, it partially goes back and partially absorbed by
surface and rest part is transmitted through surface.
c) Transparent glass reflects 5% of light, which falls on it. Highly polished metal surface reflect
90% of incident light.
d) For efficient reflection, mirrors are used which is made by polishing back surface with fine
layer of silver. A flat shiny surface, like plane mirror, is a good reflector.
e) A plane mirror is one, which is straight and not curved. Any type of wave can be reflected, it
occurs the best from flat and hard surfaces.
f) A reflected wave has the same speed, frequency and wavelength; it is only the change in
direction of the wave.

Incident ray :

The light ray, which hits the surface of mirror, is called the incident ray.

• Reflected ray :
a) The light ray, which bounces off the mirror, is called the reflected ray.

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 b) A line perpendicular to the surface is imagined at the point of reflection. This line is called a
normal. In this context the word normal means perpendicular.
c) The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of incidence, or the
incident angle.
d) The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is called the angle of reflection, or the
reflected angle.
e) The angle of incident equals the angle of reflection (i = r). This means that whatever angles
the light ray hit the surface of mirror; it will be reflected at the same angle.
f) If the surface of mirror is not smooth but rough then light will be reflected at many different
angles.
• Laws of reflection :
a) Incident ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in one plane.
b) Angle of incidence and reflection are equal.
• Types of reflection :

1. Regular reflection

2. Diffuse reflection
1. Regular reflection :
Reflection of that light in which all reflected rays go back in a particular direction parallel to each
other is called regular deflection or in other words parallel rays strike a smooth surface and
reflected rays bounce off the surface parallel to each other.
2. Diffuse reflection :
When light ray strikes a rough or granular surface, it bounces off in all directions due to the
microscopic irregularities of the interface. This type of reflection of light ray is called diffuse
reflection.

Concept of critical angle, total internal reflection and its consequences:

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• Critical angle :
a) Particular value of incident angle for which angle of refraction is 90 0 is called critical angle
and it is denoted by ic.
b) For this, light ray should travel from denser medium to rarer medium i.e., n1> n2.
c) Value of critical angle in the form of refractive index: Sin
ic = n2 / n1
ic = sin-1 n2 / n1

Total internal reflection :

a) In this phenomenon a light ray does not enter in rare medium, although returns in a same
medium from where it originates (denser medium).
b) In this phenomena reflection rules (i = r) are followed.
c) In this phenomenon, there is no change in phase difference even after refracting and
reflecting of ray.

d) Condition to achieve total internal reflection.

1. Light ray should travel from denser medium to rare medium.
2. Incident angle should be greater than critical angle (i >ic).

e) Consider a surface XY separating the rare medium and denser medium as shown in figure.
Let an object O in a denser medium of refractive index µ2.A ray of light OA from the object O
in denser medium incident normally on the surface of separation and gets refracted into the
rarer medium such along AM.
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 f) Another ray of light incident along the path ON1 and it is refracted away from the normal.
Another ray ON2 incident and refracts away from the normal but greater than ON1.
g) Hence as the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases and finally
for a certain value of incident, angle of refraction becomes 90o. This value of incident angle
for which angle of refraction become 90o is called critical angle, which is denoted by C and it
can be seen in figure .

h)If the angle of incidence is further increased, there will be no refracted ray. A ray ON 4
incident at an angle greater than the critical angle than it gets reflected in same medium
according to the law of reflection. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
• Consequence of total internal reflection :
a) Mirage of water in a desert.
b) Shining of diamond.
c) Formation of optical fiber.
d) Hanging of ship in the air near at sea.
Difference between reflection and total internal reflection:

S. No. Reflection Total internal reflection

This phenomenon occurs in both This phenomenon occurs only when

1. cases light
when light ray moves from denser ray moves from denser to rare
to medium.
rare medium or rare to denser
medium.

This is possible for any incident It is possible only for that incident
2. angle angle,

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 of light ray. which is greater than critical angle.

In this case, maximum part of light

gets In this case total part of light gets

3
reflected and partial part is
refracted. reflected.

• Total internal reflection by a prism :

When the angle of refraction is 900, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle for that
medium. Crown glass has a refractive index nearly 1.51 for yellow light. So, the critical angle from
glass to air is given by

Sin ic = 1/ 1.51 = 0.662 or ic = sin-1 (0.662) = 41.50

Thus if the incident angle in glass is greater than 41.50 than total internal reflection occurs. The 450
prism makes use of this principal to deflect a light ray totally in 900 or 1800 direction.

When a prism is used as a reflector of light, it is called a totally reflecting prism. Figure shows the
simplest type of reflecting prism. Its angles are 450-450-900. Light incidents normally on one surface
of prism and strike the inclined plane making angle of incidence 450. Since this is greater than the
critical angle therefore light is totally internal reflected and emerges from the second surface after
undergoing the deviation of 900.

In figure, it is depicted same taking object AB, whose image is obtained by totally internal reflection.

Figure shows the use of a right-angled prism in bending a ray of light through 1800. In figure taking the
object AB depicts the same situation.

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Total internal reflection in the prism inverts the image. This type of prism may be used in binoculars.

Refraction of light and its consequences:

• Refraction of light :
a) In a homogeneous medium, light ray travels in a straight line. Whenever a ray of light passes
from optically one medium to another medium, it deviates from its original path. The
phenomenon of change in path of light is called refraction.
b) Light travels at a different speed through different medium, which causes the bending of ray.
When it just enters from one medium to another medium, due to change in speed, its path is
altered or bent towards normal or away from the normal depending upon the density of
medium.
c) When the ray of light passes from rare to denser medium, it bends toward the normal and
when denser to rare medium, it bends away from the normal.
d) After refraction, the wave has same frequency but a different speed, wavelength and
direction.
• Rarer medium :
This type of medium has comparatively low density and low refractive index. Second medium is
called rare medium with respect to first medium as shown in figure. Air medium is rare than
glass and glass is rare than diamond.

For rare medium Sin i< Sin r

• Denser medium : This type of medium has comparatively high density and greater refractive
index. Second medium is called dense with respect to first medium as shown in figure. Glass is
denser than water and water is denser than air.
For denser medium Sin i > Sin r.

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 Simple refraction, through a flat boundary is shown in figure.

Here a single ray of light strikes a boundary between two mediums from air to glass and is refracted.

• Incident ray: Ray of light, which travels through the first medium and strikes the boundary, is
called the incident ray.
• Refracted ray: Ray of light, which travels into the second medium and leaves the boundary
surface, is called refracted rays.
• Normal: A line perpendicular to surface is called normal.
• Angle of incident: Angle between incident ray and the normal is called angle of incident and it is
denoted by i.
• Angle of refraction :
a) Angle between refracted ray and normal is called angle of refraction and it is denoted by r.
b) Ray of light follows some rule under the refraction phenomena.
c) Incident ray, normal and refracted ray- all lie in the same plane.
d) Ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant for
two media always.

• Consequences of refraction of light :

a) Twinkling of stars.
b) Star seems higher than their actual position.
c) Sun is visible before the actual sunrise and also after sunset.
d) Straight rod appears bent in water.
e) Deep water appears shallow.

Scattering of light and its consequences:

• Scattering of light :
a) When a light passes through any medium in which particle size is very small, then these
particles scatter light in all direction. This phenomenon is called scattering of light.
b) When light falls on particle of large size such as dust or water droplets, it does not get
scattered.
c) When light travels through atmosphere, it gets scattered from the air molecules.
d) Amount of scattering of light for different wavelength is different.
e) Intensity of scattered light depends greatly on wavelength.
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 f) Intensity of light corresponds to a wavelength in the scattered light varies inversely as the
forth power of wavelength.
g) Amount of scattering I α 1/λ4

Consequence of scattering:

a) Blue color of sky.

b) Red sign of danger signal.
c) Reddish color of sun at sunrise and sunset.
d) In absence of atmosphere universe looks black.
e) White color of cloud.

Prism and its refractive index:

• Prism
a) Prism is a transparent refracting optical element with flat and bounded by two plane
surfaces meeting each other along a straight edge, which is used for separating white light
into a spectrum of colours.
b) Two plane surfaces are called faces & line along which two faces meet is called the
refracting edge of the prism (figure) and Angle between two refracting faces is called the
angle of the prism and usually denoted by A.

Prism separates colors, bending them by different degrees, much like droplets of water vapors refract
sunlight into a rainbow. Its cross section is usually triangular.

c) The light becomes separated because different wavelengths are refracted (bent) by
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 different amounts of angle as they enter the prism obliquely and again as they leave it.
d) The shorter wavelengths are refracted by the greatest amount; the longer wavelengths are
refracted the least.

Prism always deviates a ray of light towards its base; the ray of light is deviated away from the base
when it is kept inside a denser medium

a) Refractive index: All materials refract light (alter its angle). The amount by which light is
refracted is an important feature of optics. The measure of a medium's refractivity is known as
its refractive index.
b) It is a dimensionless number and it measures, how much strongly the medium bends light. The
greater refractive index is, the more the light bent.

c) The refractive index of air is 1. For glass it varies from 1.3 to 1.8 depending upon the type of
glass and on the wavelength of light. In other words, the refractive index of a medium is a
measure for how much the speed of light is reduced inside the medium.
d) For example, typical glass has a refractive index of 1.5, which means that light travels at 1/1.5 =
0.67 times the speed in air or vacuum. Glass and other transparent materials are directly
related to their refractive index. First, light rays change direction when they cross the interface
from air to the medium. Second, light reflects partially from surfaces that have a refractive
index different from that of their surroundings. Refractive index is a constant for a given pair of
materials.
e) It can be defined as
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
1𝜇2 =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
This is usually written 1µ2 and is the refractive index of medium 2 relative to medium 1. The
incident light is in medium 1 and the refracted light is in medium2
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚
𝜇 absolute =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

e) If the incident light is in a vacuum, this value is called the absolute refractive index of
material. This is the value given in data table. By definition the refractive index of a vacuum
is 1.
f) In practice, air makes little difference to the refraction of light with an absolute refractive
index of 1.0008, so the value of the absolute refractive index can be used assuming the
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 incident light is in air.

Material Refractive Index

Air 1.008

Water 1.330

Glass 1.510

Diamond 2.417

• Mathematical view of refractive index :

The ratio of the angle of incident to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, which is
called the refractive index of second medium
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖
1𝜇 2 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟

When the beam of light is transmitted from air to glass the ray is bent and refractive index is
given as
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃(𝑎𝑖𝑟)
1𝜇 2 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃(𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠)

Where the angles are measured from the surface normal (the line perpendicular to the surface)
and µ is the refractive index of the glass.

Refractive index of medium depends upon:

a) Medium from which the light ray is incident.

b) Color or wavelength of light.
c) Temperature.

Concept of deviation, angle of deviation, angle of emergence:

• Deviation by a prism: Deviation by a prism means the incident ray and the emerging ray of
the prism are not in same line because refraction of light ray at the first face of the prism is
from air to glass, so it bends towards the normal. On the other face of prism, refraction of the
ray is now from glass to air. So it bends away from the normal, it bends further towards the
base of the prism. Since the two refracting faces are not parallel, the emergent ray is not
parallel to the incident ray.
• Angle of deviation: The angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray is called the
angle of deviation. The angle of deviation decreases with increase in wavelength. (δr < δv).

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 • Factors affecting angle of deviation:
The angle of deviation depends on the following factor:

a) Angle of incident: Angle of deviation depends on incident angle of light ray. Initially as
the angle of incidence increases, angle of deviation decreases. At a particular angle of
incidence, the angle of deviation becomes minimum. On further increasing the angle of
incidence, the angle of deviation also increases. Look Graph (1),

Graph 1

When prism is kept in the position of minimum deviation then there is only one angle of incidence for
which the angle of deviation is minimum.
b) Refractive index of medium: Angle of deviation depends on the refractive index of material. For
large refractive index the deviation is much and for low refractive index the deviation is less.
c) Wavelength of light : Angle of deviation also depends upon the wavelength of light; deviation is
much for the violet color and it is least for the red color.
d) Refracting angle of prism : Angle of deviation also depends upon refracting angle of a prism. In
case of small angle, the deviation produced is small.
Refractive angle of prism is given as:

µ = Sin i / Sin r

For small angle of incidence i1 = 100 or less

Angle i is small so r will also be small so Sin i1 = Sin r1

µ = i1 / r1

i1 = µ r1

For prism of small angle

A+δ=i+e

δ = (i + e) – A

For prism which is kept in minimum deviation position

δ = A (µ - 1)
This equation gives the deviation produced by a prism of small angle. In this case the deviation
suffered by the ray is independent of the angle of incidence. For example a thin prism of 50 angles
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 give a deviation 3.20 than refractive index will be determined by this equation:

δ = A (µ - 1) = µ = 1 + δ /A 1 + 3.2/5 = 1.6

• Angle of emergence :
a) The angle between emergent ray and the second surface normal of prism is called angle of
emergence.
b) Initially increase in angle of incidence, angle of emergence decreases. In the position of
minimum deviation, angle of emergence is equal to the angle of incidence. In this position, if
the prism is equilateral than light ray is parallel to the base of the prism.
c) Ahead increasing in angle of incidence, angle of emergence also increases.
Dispersion, cause of dispersion and dispersive power

• Dispersion: Dispersion is the basis for the prism and its ability to separate light according to
wavelength. When a light ray passes through a prism it splits up in to its constituent colors
producing spectrum of seven colors namely violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. This
phenomenon of splitting up of light in two constituent colors is called dispersion.
Dispersion is the basis for the prism and its ability to spatially separate light according to
wavelength, as illustrated in the following animation.

• Cause of dispersion :

a) Different color of light is due to different wavelengths.

b) Wavelength of violet is smaller than that of red light.
c) Refractive index of material in terms of wavelength is given by
µ = a + b/λ2 + c/ λ4

Where a, b and c are constant for material.

d) Since wavelength of violet light is smaller than red light; from this formula it follows that the
refractive index for violet light is more than for red light.
µv > µr

Thus different color of light emerge from the prism in different direction due to their wavelength
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 e) Refractive index for yellow light is practically equals to mean of refractive index for violet and
red light.
µ = (µv + µr) / 2, for this reason yellow is called mean light.

• Dispersive power of a prism :

a) General meaning of dispersive power means the spread of the colors in the spectrum formed by
the prism.
b) Dispersion is different from the deviation for a prism. Large dispersion means a large angle
between original path of light ray (in absence of prism) and emerging ray after passing through
prism.
c) Large deviation means a large angle between lights of different wavelengths after passing
through the prism.
d) Dispersive power of the prism is the ratio of the dispersion to the deviation. In other words, it is
the ratio of the difference in angle of deviation of any two colors to the angle of deviation of its
mean color.
𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑅 𝜇𝑉 − 𝜇𝑅
𝜔= =
𝛿𝑌 𝜇𝑌 − 1
e) As the wavelength difference between colors of light is incident on a prism decreases, the ability
of the prism to resolve them begin to weak.
f) Dispersive power of prism is more means the spread of colors in the spectrum formed by the
prism will be large.
g) Dispersive power has no unit and it is strongly depends upon the material of the prism. For
example dispersive power of flint glass prism is more as compared to crown glass prism.
Pure and Impure spectrum and its experimental arrangement

• Impure and pure spectrum :

Spectrum obtained by a prism, in which two rays of white light coming from source are shown
in figure, one ray splits into R1 and V1 while another ray split into R2 and V2 after emerging from
prism.

As it is clear from the figure, the spectrum due to one ray is overlapping the spectrum due to
another ray. This type of spectrum is called impure spectrum.

• Pure spectrum :
A pure spectrum is that spectrum in which the different color is distinctly seen without any
overlapping, or in other words spectrum in which no overlapping between its constituent colors and
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 each color is separated having sharp boundaries and are distinctly visible is called the pure spectrum.

To find pure spectrum some criteria must be satisfied:

a) Slit must be as narrow as possible. A wide slit is equivalent to a large number of narrow slits place
side by side. Each narrow slit will give its own spectrum so the overlapping will be of different
spectra.
b) The ray of light in the incident beam must be parallel to each other. This is achieved by using a
convex lens. A convex lens should be so placed that the slit at its focus. If the incident beam is
parallel, then in the refracted beam, all the rays of same color will be parallel and will be focused
separately.
c) Prism must be placed in the minimum deviation position. When the prism is placed in the position
of minimum deviation, all the rays are deviated by equal amounts. This ensures freedom from
overlapping.
• Experimental arrangement for obtaining pure spectrum :
a) A narrow slit S is illuminated by a source of white light.
b) Light coming from slit is made incident on an achromatic lens L1.
c) Slit is kept at the focus of L1 so that light coming out of L1 is a parallel beam and it falls on a
prism surface AB.
d) Prism is kept in minimum deviation position.
e) After refraction through the prism the rays split into various constituent colors.
f) After emerging from the prism, the rays of different colors are incident to each other. But
rays of the same color are parallel to each other.
g) Another Achromatic lens L2 is placed between the prism and the screen so that different
colors are focused at different points on the screen as shown in figure.

Mathematical calculation for refractive index of prism and various graphs:

• For refractive index of prism:

Let AB, BC and AC are three surfaces of prism and a light ray PQ is incident at point O of AB
surface. Medium changes from air to glass, so light ray refracts and follows the path OO’ (bending
towards normal NOM). Refracted rays OO’ again moves from glass to air through AC surface. So
once again refraction occurs which results light ray to follows RS path (bending away from the
normal N’O’M’).

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 Angle of incident i = ∠QON
Angle of refraction r = ∠MOO’ Angle
of emergence e = ∠SO’N’ Angle of
deviation µ = ∠SLK
Now if we increase gradually the angle of incident i, the angle of deviation first decreases, then
at a particular angle of incidence, angle of deviation becomes minimum. Further increase in
angle of incidence, angle of deviation increases. Minimum value of angle of deviation is called
angle of minimum deviation δm.
If ∠BAC = A, is the refracting angle of prism than refractive index of prism is given as

[(𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚 )]
𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝜇= 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴/2

Now if light ray is incident on prism, the angle of minimum deviation corresponding to different
constituent colors is different. Hence spectrum is obtained.
Now if refractive index of material of prism for the violet, yellow and red light respectively is:

Refractive index for violet color

[(𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚𝑣 )]
𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝜇𝑉 = 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴/2
Refractive index for yellow color

[(𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚𝑦 )]
𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝜇𝑦 = 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴/2
Refractive index for red color

[(𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚𝑟 )]
𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝜇𝑟 = 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴/2
The dispersive power of the material of prism then

𝜇𝑉 − 𝜇𝑟
𝜔=
𝜇𝑌 − 1

• Relation between the angle of minimum deviation δm and wavelength λ:

When a graph is plotted between the wavelength λ and the angle of minimum deviation δm than we
find a curve as shown in Graph (2)

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 Wavelength λ (in Ǻ) Graph (2)

This shows that the angle of minimum deviation decreases with increase in wavelength. When we
take two points P and Q on the curve and draw tangent at theses points then we find slope, which
gives angular dispersion (∆δ/∆λ). Angular dispersion is more in the upper part of the curve (for small
wavelength region), while it is less in the lower part of the curve (for long wavelength region).
This means that the prism spreads the smaller wavelength part more than the longer wavelength
part.

• Graph between refractive index and wavelength :

Taking the wavelength on X-axis and the refractive index on Y- axis, plot a graph, which is a
curve as shown in Graph (3).

Graph (3)
According to the curve, refractive index of the material of prism decreases with the increase in
wavelength.
Now from the Cauchy’s formula,
𝐵
𝜇 = 𝐴 + 𝜆2

𝐵 𝐵
𝜇1 = 𝐴 + 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇2 = 𝐴 + 2
𝜆1 𝜆2

𝜇1 −𝜇2 𝐵 𝐵
Hence 𝐵 = 1 1 and 𝐴 = 𝜇1 − 𝜆2 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = 𝜇2 − 𝜆2
[ 2− 2] 2 1
𝜆1 𝜆2

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Verification of Cauchy’s formula can be done by taking two points P and Q on the curve. Take
corresponding values of wavelength λ1, λ2and refracting index µ1, µ2 and calculate the values of constant
A and B from above relations.
Now calculate the refractive index µ corresponding to wavelength 6000 Å using Cauchy relation and
compare this value with obtained value from graph.
Prisms Used to Deviate a Light Path by Reflection
Right angle prism
Figure shows a prism used to deviate a light path by reflection. In this type of prism, one or more of the
plane surfaces acts as a mirror(s). Reflection from these surfaces can be achieved in either of two ways:

Prism used to deviate light by reflection

· Coating the reflecting surface of the prism with a highly reflective, metallic film.
· Designing and using the prism (without reflective coatings) in such a way that the light
beam incident upon the reflecting surface exceeds the critical angle.
Porro prism

The Porro prism is a right -angle prism in which the light enters through the face opposite the right angle.
The light then is reflected twice by total internal reflection from the opposite faces. Then it exits from the
same face through which it entered. It’s used often as a rotating reflector, Q-switch in lasers.

A Porro prism reverses an image in the plane in which the reflection takes place. When two Porro prisms
are placed at right angles to each other and in such a way that the light exiting the first prism will enter
the second, the image is rotated and reversed as you can see in Figure

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This particular combination of Porro prisms is used commonly in binoculars. The image formed by the
objective lens is reversed. But after the light passes through the Porro prisms, it will be reverted and will
have the same orientation as the original object seen by the observer.

Dove prism
Dove prism, as shown in Figure, is a special case of a 45° – 90° – 45° prism with the triangle truncated.
The Dove prism interchanges the two rays. If the prism is rotated about the direction of the light, the rays
rotate around each other at twice the angular velocity of the prism. This is shown in Figure. This rotation
feature makes a Dove prism usable in the viewfinder of a camera. Any slight change in the camera’s
horizontal position will be exaggerated by the prism and allow the operator to correct for it.

Amici prism or roof prism

The Amici prism is a right-angle prism that usually has a 90° roof on the face opposite the right angle.
Figure shows such a prism. The fact that these prisms often have inverting roofs results in their being
called roof prisms. However, many other prisms can be fitted with roofs. The purpose of the roof is to
invert the image left to right. If the two reflecting surfaces of the roof don’t intersect within a few seconds
of 90° the beams reflected from them will not match and a double image will be formed.

Amici prisms often are used in simple direct-vision spectrographs and in sighting equipment for the
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military.
Cube corner reflector
The cube corner reflector uses three mutually orthogonal, reflective surfaces. It redirects a beam through
180° regardless of incident angle to the prism. The cube corner reflector is used as a passive cooperative
target for laser radars, range measurement, and angle-tracking systems.

Penta prism
A Penta prism, as shown in Figure, has five sides with one angle equal to 90°.
This prism deviates the beams exactly 90° in the principal plane even if the beam doesn’t strike the end
faces exactly normal. Both reflecting surfaces must be silvered because the angle of incidence is not
large enough to permit total internal reflection.

High-precision rangefinders use Penta prisms. The angles measured by these rangefinders are so small
that, if such prisms were not used, the normal bending of the tube of the instrument would produce large
errors. Penta prisms minimize the bending effect.

Rhomboidal prism
When you merely want to displace the axis of a beam without introducing deviation and without
reverting or inverting the image, you can use a rhomboidal prism. (See Figure.) They often are applied in
eyepieces where we need to provide a way to adjust to various observers.

Prisms Used to Separate Polarization Components of a

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Light Beam
A beam of ordinary (unpolarized) light is composed of random, transverse vibrations of the electric field.
Each vibration is caused by one of many different atoms in the light source.
The amplitudes of each of the many random transverse vibrations can be divided into components along
two orthogonal axes, each perpendicular to the direction of propagation. This is called "dividing" the
light into two polarized components.
It’s enough for this module for you to know that certain prisms can be used to separate the two
perpendicular polarization components of a light beam. These prisms are made of an optical material
that has a characteristic called "birefringence" or "double refraction." Birefringence in an optical material
means that the material behaves as if it has a different index of refraction for one polarized component of
a light beam than for the other polarized component. If the material is made into a prism, it will refract or
bend one polarized component of a light beam more than the other polarized component, since the angle
of refraction, in Snell’s law, depends on the indices of refraction. As a result of this, a single, ordinary
beam will enter a polarizing prism and two polarized beams will emerge, either displaced and traveling
parallel or traveling in slightly different directions.
The two rays that emerge are called the "O-ray" or ordinary ray, and the "E-ray" or extraordinary ray.
Only the ordinary ray follows the path predicted by using Snell’s law.
The optical materials in which the phenomenon of double refraction is observed are crystalline quartz
and calcite. Calcite is used more frequently because the separation of the two polarization components is
greater. Calcite (calcium carbonate) has a crystal structure that causes it to form easily or cleave easily
into a rhombohedral shape (as shown in Figure). Each face of the crystal is a parallelogram whose angles
are 71° and 109° Figure shows the double refraction of light in a calcite prism. Both the E- and O-rays are
shown, with the E-ray emerging above the O-ray.

A Nicol prism, also made of calcite. In the Nicol prism, the calcite rhombohedron is precisely cut into two
halves. Then it’s polished and cemented back together with Canada balsam. Because of its geometry, and
the relative indices of refraction of calcite and Canada balsam, the Nicol prism will remove one of the two
refracted rays by total reflection. The Nicol prism is therefore used as a polarizer or analyzer.

We often want to split a light beam into two linearly polarized components that leave the prism in
different directions. This is accomplished in a Wollaston prism, made from two pieces of crystalline
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quartz. The two pieces are cut from different crystal orientations and cemented together with glycerine
or castor oil. See Figure. A Wollaston prism also can be used to combine two light beams of different
polarization. The arrangement would be the same as that shown in Figure, but the arrows on the light
rays now would be reversed.

Grating and its elements :

• Grating :
a) Grating is somewhat like the double slit arrangement but has much greater number of slit. It
is an arrangement consisting of several parallel and equidistant slits, each of equal width.
b) It is constructed by drawing several equidistant parallel lines on an optically plane glass
plate with a pointed diamond. The width of these lines is opaque; while the space between
the two consecutive lines is transparent and behaves like a slit, through which light is
transmitted, that is why it is also called plane transmission grating.
c) Gratings are widely used to determine the wavelength that is emitted by source of light.
d) Because of their ability of splitting light into different wavelengths, gratings are commonly
used in monochromators and spectrometers, wavelength division multiplexing devices,
optical pulse compressing devices, and in many other optical instruments.
e) This diffraction angle depends on the wavelength of the light. However, for practical applications,
most gratings have grooves or rulings on their surface rather than dark lines. Such gratings can be
either transparent or reflective.

f) Ordinary CD and DVD media are every-day examples of diffraction gratings and can be used
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 to demonstrate the diffraction effect by reflecting sunlight off them onto a white wall.
Surface of a CD has many small pits in the plastic, arranged within concentric rings; that
surface has a thin layer of metal applied to make the pits more visible.
g) Gratings are usually designed by their groove density, the number of grooves per unit length,
usually expressed in grooves per millimeter (g/mm). The groove period must be on the
order of the wavelength the spectral range covered by a grating is depends on groove
spacing and is the same for ruled and holographic gratings.

h) The maximum wavelength that a grating can diffract is equal to twice the grating period.
i) A fundamental property of gratings is that the angle of deviation of the diffracted beam
depends on the wavelength of the incident light. Therefore, a grating separates an incident
light beam into its constituent wavelength components. Each wavelength of incident beam
spectrum is sent into a different direction, producing a spectrum of colors under white
light source. This is similar to the operation of a prism, although the mechanism is very
different.

• Grating element :
a) Distance between the centers of two consecutive slits is called grating element.
b) Nearly 15000 numbers of lines are ruled on the grating per inches or 300 numbers of lines
ruled on grating per mm. These lines ruled on a grating must be exactly parallel uniform
equidistant and have equal width for pure spectrum.
c) Generally the value of grating element for the visible light is the order of 10-6 m.
d) If there are N lines ruled per inch on a grating, the grating element e
= 2.54/N cm.
Superposition and interference of light wave:
• Principal of superposition of light waves:
When two or more than light wave propagate in same medium and at any point they meet or
superpose then particle of medium at that point displaced (y) is equal to the different-different
displacement, which two separately light wave result i.e.,
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 Y = Y1 ± Y2
When displacement of both waves in same direction then resultant displacement will be,
Y = Y1 + Y2

Graph (4)

When displacement of both wave is in opposite direction (in opposite phase difference) then
resultant displacement will be
Y = Y1 - Y2

If Y1 is greater than Y2 then resultant Y will be in Y1 direction.

Graph (5)
If Y2 > Y1 then resultant Y will be
Y = Y2 - Y1 and direction will be in Y2 direction.

Graph (6)
• Interference of light :
a) Joining of two or more waves at a given point in space is called interference and as a result, the
wave produces a single wave whose properties are determined by the properties of the individual

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 waves.
b) If two waves of the same wavelength occupy the same space in such a way that their crests and
troughs align then the wave they produce will have amplitude greater than that possessed by
either wave initially. This is known as constructive interference. The more closely the waves are
in phase that is, perfectly aligned, the more constructive the interference.
c) When two or more waves come together such that the trough of one meets the crest of the other,
In this case, destructive interference is happens, and the resulting amplitude is the difference
between the values for the individual waves.
d) If the waves are perfectly unaligned, in other words, if the trough of one exactly meets the crest of
the other then their amplitudes cancel out, and the result is no wave at all.

e) The principle of superposition of waves states that the resultant displacement at a point is
equal to the sum of the displacements of different waves at that point.
f) If a crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave at the same point then the crests interfere
constructively and the resultant wave amplitude greater.
g) If a crest of a wave meets a trough of another wave then they interfere destructively, and the
overall amplitude is decreased.
h) This form of interference can occur whenever a wave can propagate from a source to a
destination by two or more paths of different length.
i) Two or more sources can only be used to produce interference when there is a fixed phase
relation between them, but in this case the interference generated is the same as with a
single source.

Diffraction and its pattern of various slits:

• Diffraction :
a) The phenomenon of bending of light beam round the sharp corners and spreading into the
region of the geometrical shadow is called diffraction.
b) In other words, when a light wave encounters on an opaque barrier or an edge with a size
comparable to the wavelength of waves, those waves spread out or bends as they travel and,
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 as a result, undergo interference. This is called diffraction.
c) Diffraction occurs for wave of all type, not just light waves.
d) After diffraction a wave will have the same speed, frequency and wavelength. For example
radio wave can diffract around hills, mountain or even the whole planet because of larger
wavelength.
e) Sound waves can diffract when it passes through doorway.
f) Light waves can diffract through tiny slits, X-rays can diffract around atoms and water waves
can diffract when passing through a gap.
g) When a monochromatic light from a distant source passes through a narrow slit and is then
intercepted by a viewing screen, the light produce on the screen a diffraction pattern. This
pattern consists of a broad and intense (very bright) central maximum and a no. of less
intense maxima to both sides.

h) Diffraction of light is not limited to situation of light passing through a narrow opening (such as
slit or pin hole). It also occurs when light passes an edge, such as the edge of razor blade, whose
diffraction pattern is shown in figure.
• Diffraction pattern when aperture is small and large :

• Single slit diffraction :

Diffraction pattern due to a single slit of small width, from where light wave passes and interfere is
called single slit diffraction pattern. This pattern includes central maxima and other maxima
separated by minima located at angle θ to the central axis.

• Double slit diffraction :

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 Diffraction pattern due to two slits, each of same width and their center is apart from some distance
is called double slit diffraction pattern.

• Young-double diffraction pattern:

• Three slit diffraction:

• Multiple slit diffraction:

Diffraction by grating and its order of spectrum:

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 • Diffraction pattern obtained by grating:
When light beam falls on a grating, each point of each slit originates secondary wavelets in all
direction. The wavelets in a particular one direction superpose each other and give the
minimum or maximum intensity depending upon their path difference.
When at an angle θ, the path difference e Sinθ = nλ between the wavelets diffracted from two
consecutive slits is an integer multiple of wavelength, we get maximum intensity (or maxima).
Substituting n = 0, 1, 2, 3… in e Sinθ = nλ
We get the values of θ for which intensity is maximum.
They are called respectively the zero order, first order, and second order … n order principal
maxima.
· Obtained spectrum :
From the relation e Sinθ = nλ
It is clear that if the incident light is white, then in each order, the principal maxima
corresponding to different wavelengths are obtained in different direction. Hence the spectrum
is obtained. Thus knowing the grating element e and the angle of diffraction θ in a particular
order n, wavelength λ of light can be calculated
λ = (e sin θ) / n

Difference between grating and prism spectrum and wavelength determination

• Difference between grating spectrum and prism spectrum:
a) In a prism we get only a single spectrum, while in grating we get several spectrums in
different orders on either side of the central maxima. Hence a prism spectrum is more
intense than the grating spectra.
b) The prism spectra depend upon the material of prism, while the grating spectra do not
depend on the material of grating.
c) In the prism spectra, violet color is deviated most and the red color is deviated least, while in
grating spectra the diffraction angle for the violet color is minimum and for the red color is
maximum.

• Grating spectrum and wavelength determination:

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 a) When a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength of is incident normally on a
grating of grating element e, each slit emit secondary wavelength in all direction, which
interfere and get focused in the focal plane of the convex lens of telescope.
b) Path difference between the diffracted waves at an angle θ from the corresponding points
of two consecutive slits is e sin θ. When this path difference is equal to the integer multiple
of wavelength, the waves produce constructive interference. Hence for reinforcement or
for principal maxima,
e sin θ = nλ
Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3………
e = 1/300 mm
here; n is called the order of spectra. For n = 0 we get zero order (or central) maxima and for
n = ±1, ± 2 … we get first order, second order …maxima respectively on either side of zero
order.

c) Thus knowing the grating element e and the angle of diffraction in a particular order n, the
wavelength of light can be calculated.
d) To determine the angle of diffraction θ; spectrometer is used.
e) It may be mentioned here that generally on grating the no. of ruled line per inch is labeled.
f) Now if white light is made incident on a grating, in each order the value of θ will be different
corresponding to different wavelengths present in the incident white light.
g) Thus we get spectrum in each order figure.

The first order at (n = 1) principal maxima of wavelength in the incident light form the first
order spectrum. Similarly the second order (n = 2) a principal maximum of wavelength in
the incident light is form the second order spectrum.

h) Since the angle of diffraction θ = 0

For the principal maxima of all wavelength corresponding to n = 0, therefore the zero order
maxima is white in the direction of incident light. (On either side of which there are first
order and second order spectrum).
i) Thus wavelength λ of spectrum of spectral line is determined by
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 e sin θ = nλ
where e = Grating element = distance between two adjacent lines in grating = (1/number of
lines per mm),
θ = Angle of diffraction
n = Order of spectrum
For first order (n =1) of spectrum:

Wavelength of red color λr = e sin θ =…cm =….Ǻ

Wavelength of yellow color λy = e sin θ =…cm =….Ǻ
Wavelength of green color λg = e sin θ =…cm =….Ǻ
Wavelength of violet color λv = e sin θ =…cm =….Ǻ
j) For second order (n = 2) spectrum:
Wavelength of red color λr = (e sin θ) /2 =…cm =….Ǻ
Wavelength of yellow color λy = (e sin θ )/2 =…cm =….Ǻ
Wavelength of green color λg = (e sin θ )/2 =…cm =….Ǻ
Wavelength of violet color λv = (e sin θ )/2 =…cm =….Ǻ

Adjustment of Spectrometer
Adjustment of various part of spectrometer before starting the Experiment:
Before starting the experiment, spectrometer should be adjusted properly so that chances of any
error should be removed. Spectrometer is so adjusted that the axis of collimator and telescope
intersect each other on the vertical axis of telescope. The prism table is horizontal, and telescope
and collimator are focused for the parallel rays.
• To test whether the axis of collimator and telescope intersect each other on the
vertical axis of telescope or not
a) Fix a vertical pin at the center of prism table.
b) Increase width of slit.
c) Take eyepiece out of the telescope.
d) See the pin through the telescope by moving it in various angular positions.
e) If in each position, the pin is seen in the middle of objective, the adjustment is correct,
otherwise with the help of screws provided below the telescope and collimator, raise or
lower down so that pin is seen in middle of objective of telescope.
• To make prism table horizontal :
a) Place prism on prism table such that its refracting edge is at the center of prism table and
the refracting face AC is perpendicular to the line joining the two leveling screw P and Q as
shown in figure.
b)

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 c) Rotate Prism table and adjust in such a position that the parallel rays incident from
collimator and get reflected equally from both the refracting faces AB and AC of prism, as
shown in figure.

d) Clamp the prism table and move telescope to the left side so as to see through telescopes the
face AC of the prism.
e) Adjust screw P and Q such that the image of slit is obtained exactly in the center of field
view.
f) Turn telescope on the other side to see the image of slit, through the telescope, formed by the
rays reflected from the face AB of the prism and adjust screw R to find image of slit in the
center of field of view.
g) Repeat this process several times till the image of slit is seen exactly in the center of field
view in the telescope. (Now the prism table is said to be the optically plane).
• Adjustment of telescope and collimator for Parallel rays by Schuster method
a) Place the prism on prism table such that its one refracting face AB is towards the collimator
and other refracting face AC is towards the telescope.
b) Turn telescope to bring the spectrum in the field of view of telescope.
c) Now turn prism table towards collimator (Spectrum also begins to move in the same
direction).
d) Move telescope keeping the spectrum in the field of view.
(On turning the prism table towards the collimator, A stage is reached when the spectrum
begin to moves in opposite direction. (i.e, away from collimator). This position of prism is
called the position of minimum deviation).
e) Clamp the prism table.
f) Slightly turn the refracting edge of the prism towards the telescope and telescope is adjusted
with the help of its rack & pinion arrangement such that again the spectrum is distinctly
seen.
g) Repeat this process several times till there is no effect on the focus of spectrum when the
prism is slightly turned on either side.
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(At this stage, parallel rays fall on the prism from the collimator and the parallel rays emerging out of the
prism are focused on the cross wire of telescope).

Precautions: Handle prism and grating with care as it can break.

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 10 (a)
AIM: Determination of the wavelength of main spectral line of mercury light source using plane
transmission grating and spectrometer

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

1. Spectrometer
2. Plane transmission grating
3. Mercury light source

FORMULA: d Sinθ = nλ ( d is diffraction grating element, n is number of order)

THEORY: as above

DIAGRAM: as above

PROCEDURE:
1. Illuminate the mercury lamp.
2. Place mercury lamp near the collimator of spectrometer.
Note: Remove the slit from the light source if intensity of slit image at telescope is very low.
3. Make slit narrow and vertical.
4. Set spectrometer for experimental procedure (take reference of adjustment of spectrometer at page
41, before starting the experiment).
5. Focus eyepiece of telescope for intense slit image.
6. Adjust telescope and collimator for parallel rays using Schuster method. (as explained in
adjustment of spectrometer).
7. Arrange the slit of collimator for intense light beam.
8. Setting the grating normal to the incident light: Bring telescope in line of collimator. Focus the
image of slit at middle of cross wire (use tangential screw). Note the position of telescope. Clamp it
in this position.
9. Mount grating on prism table (keep ruled surface at the center of prism table). Gradually rotate
prism table till the plane face of the grating is facing both the collimator and the telescope. Look
through the telescope and turn the table very slowly till the centre of the slit falls exactly on the
vertical cross wire. (as shown in fig.)

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 In this position the plane of the grating is inclined at the angle of 45˚ to the incident light (optical
leveling of prism table). The image of slit is formed by the reflected light from grating surface.
10. Focus the image of slit at the middle of cross wire.
11. Level screw P and Q such that image of slit lies equally above and below the point of crosswire.
12. Now turn grating by 450or 1350 from this position so that the plane of the grating is normal to the
incident light with its ruled surface towards telescope. (as shown in fig.)

13. Clamp the grating table in this position and unclamp the telescope.
14. Rotate telescope and see the first order spectrum on either side.
15. Coincide cross wire at particular spectral line.
16. Use leveling screw R of prism table to coincide particular spectral line.
17. Rotate slit in its own plane till the spectrum become intense.
18. Clamp the telescope at the red end of spectrum.
19. Gradually rotate telescope with tangential screw.
20. Coincide cross wire at one spectral line (red).
21. Note down the reading of both vernier scale.
22. Now coincide cross wire at yellow spectral line (use tangential screw).
23. Note down the reading of both vernier scale.
24. Coincide cross wire at green spectral line (use tangential screw).
25. Note down reading of both vernier scale.
26. Coincide cross wire at violet cross wire (use tangential screw).
27. Note down readings of both vernier scale.
28. Move telescope in same direction to bring second order spectrum.
29. Coincide cross wire at all spectral line one by one.
30. Note down all corresponding readings of both vernier scales.
31. Turn telescope in opposite direction for direct image of slit.
32. Coincide cross wire at middle of slit image.

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 OBSERVATION TABLE :
Least count of Spectrometer (L.C) = ------------

For First order and Second order spectrum :

Color of Vernier Position on right of Position on left of slit 2 θ θ Sin θ λ=

Spectra Reading slit image image (e.sin θ)
line MS VS TOTAL MS VS TOTAL
Red V1
V2
Yellow V1
V2
Green V1
V2
Violet V1
V2

Where,

M.S. = Main scale reading

V.S. = Vernier scale reading

e = Grating element = distance between two adjacent lines in grating = (1/number of
lines per mm)
θ = Angle of diffraction
n = Order of spectrum
Thus wave length of each line can be found.

Similarly record observations for another 2nd order spectrum.

CALCULATION: (2nd Method for calculation)

2 θ1 = [360 – V2 (left)] + V2 (right)]

2 θ2 = V1 (right) – V1 (left)

2𝜃1 + 2𝜃2
2𝜃 =
2
PERCENTAGE OR ERROR:

PRECAUTIONS:
a). The ruled surface of the grating must face the telescope.
b). The slit should be made very fine and bright.
c). The grating surface should not be touched.
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d). While setting the grating, two images are seen, the telescope should be focused on the brighter one.
e). When observations are to be made the prism table should be clamped.

VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS:

Q.No.01 What is a diffraction Grating?

Q.No.02. What are the requisites of a good grating?
Q.No.03. What is grating element?
Q.No.04. How many orders do you get here? Why?
Q.No.05. What is main difference between a prism spectrum and a grating spectrum?
Q.No.06. What is the effect of increasing the number of lines per cm of the grating on the diffraction
pattern?
Q.No.07. What type of grating is used in this experiment?
Q.No.08. What will happen if the slit is illuminated with white light?
Q.No.09. What are the uses of a diffraction grating?
Q.No.10. What is meant by reflection and refraction?
Q.No.11. Define Interference?
Q.No.12. What are the types of interference?
Q.No.13. What is prism?
Q.No.14. Which colour in the spectrum is having maximum and minimum refractive index?
Q.No.15. What is Refractive index?
Q.No.16. What is the function of Collimator?
Q.No.17. What do you mean by Angle of Prism?
Q.No.18. What is Dispersion of Light?
Q.No.19. What is the units of Dispersive power?
Q.No.20. What is coherence ?
Q.No.21. What do you mean by double refraction?
Q.No.22. What is nicol prism?
Q.No.23. What is the main optical action of the prism?
Q.No.24. What type of light do you use in this experiment?
Q.No.25. What is diffraction? Define refractive index?
Q.No.26. Define refractive index in terms of velocity of light?
Q.No.27. What is a sodium lamp?
Q.No.28. What is monochromatic light?
Q.No.29. Is sodium lamp a monochromatic source?
Q.No.30. Why red coloured light is seen first when we switch on sodium lamp and then turns into yellow?
Q.No.31. Define angle of deviation ?
Q.No.32. What is angle of minimum deviation?
Q.No.33. How does deviation angle depend upon the angle of prism?
Q.No.34. Does deviation depend upon refractive index of material?
Q.No.35. Which colour in the spectrum deviates more and why?

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 10 (b)
AIM: Determination of the refracting angle (A) of prism using spectrometer

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
• Spectrometer
• Prism
• Mercury light source

FORMULA: if any applicable

THEORY: as above

DIAGRAM: as above

PROCEDURE:
1. Illuminate the mercury lamp.
2. Place mercury lamp near the collimator of spectrometer.
Note: Remove the slit from the light source if intensity of slit image at telescope is very low.
3. Set spectrometer for experimental procedure (take reference of adjustment of various part of
spectrometer at previous page, before starting the experiment).
4. Arrange the slit of collimator for intense light beam.
5. Rotate telescope for direct vision of slit.
6. Set eyepiece of telescope for intense image of slit.
7. Set cross wire at the middle of slit image.
8. Place prism on prism table (Image of slit disappears).
9. Set a vertex (A) of prism at the center of prism table and keep base normal to the incident light
beam.

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10. Turn telescope towards face AB of prism.
11. Find the reflective image of slit at telescope.
12. Clamped the telescope with the help of screw.
13. Slowly moves the tangential screw to obtain slit image.
14. Set cross wire at the middle of slit image.
15. Note the reading of both vernier scales V1 and V2.
16. Now unlock the telescope to move it freely.
17. Now rotate telescope toward AC surface of prism.
18. Again find the reflective image of slit.
19. Clamped the telescope with the help of locking screw.
20. Move tangential screw of telescope slowly to obtain slit image.
21. Set cross wire at the middle of slit image.
22. Note the reading of both vernier scales V1 and V2 again.
23. Tabulate all readings in below Table 2 and evaluate the refracting angle of prism.

OBSERVATION TABLE :
Least count of Spectrometer (L.C) = ------------

Vernier V1 Vernier V2
Differen
Difference A= θ/2 ce A= θ/2
S. No. Telescope Reading Telescope Reading
θ in ˚ in θ in ˚ in

Face AB Face AC Face AB Face AC

AC - AB AC ' - AB
MS+VSxLC MS+VSxLC MS+VSxLC MS+VSxLC
1
2
3

Where,
M.S. - Main scale reading
V.S. - Vernier scale reading
A- Refracting angle of prism

Average Value of A (Angle of Prism) = …….. o

RESULT:

PERCENTAGE ERROR: if any applicable

PRECAUTIONS:
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 EXPERIMENT NO. 10 (c)
AIM: Determination of the refractive index and dispersive power of prism using spectrometer.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
• Spectrometer
• Prism
• Mercury light source

FORMULA: as above

THEORY: as above

DIAGRAM: as above

PROCEDURE:
1. Illuminate the mercury lamp.
2. Place mercury lamp near the collimator of spectrometer.
Note: Remove the slit from the light source if intensity of slit image at telescope is very low.
3. Set spectrometer for experimental procedure (take reference of adjustment of various part of
spectrometer at previous page, before starting the experiment).
4. Arrange the slit of collimator for intense light beam.
5. Rotate telescope for direct vision of slit.
6. Set eyepiece of telescope for intense image of slit.
7. Set cross wire middle to the slit image.
8. Place prism at the center of prism table.
9. Adjust AB face of prism towards incident light by moving prism table.
10. Rotate telescope towards AC face of prism and obtain spectrum.
11. Turn prism table toward collimator (spectrum shifts in same direction).
12. Keep turning until spectrum shifts in opposite direction.
13. Repeat it again for minimum deviation for which angle of deviation increases and angle of deviation
decreases.

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14. Obtain pure spectrum with no shift in same direction.
15. Set cross wire at yellow color.
16. Note down the both reading of vernier scale V1 and V2.
17. Rotate tangential screw to set cross wire at red color.
18. Note both reading of vernier scale.
19. Again rotate tangential screw to set cross wire at violet color.
20. Note both reading of vernier scale.
21. Now remove prism and turn telescope for direct vision of slit image in telescope.
22. Set cross wire at the middle of slit image.
23. Note both reading of vernier scale.
24. Tabulate all data in below Table 3 and calculate the refractive index of prism.

OBSERVATION TABLE :
Least count of Spectrometer = …………………………
Angle of Prism A = ……………………………………….

For the angle of minimum deviation δm:

S. Color After refraction from In line with the axis of Difference in reading of
No. of prism colimator two vernier δm
light
V1 V2 V1 V2 A-A’ B-B’ Mean
A = (M.S+ B = M.S + A’ = M.S + B’ = M.S+ m
V.S. x L.C) V.S. x L.C V.S x L.C V.S.x L.C
1 Yellow
2 Violet
3 Red

Where
MS = Main scale reading
VS= Vernier scale reading
LC= Least count
Angle of minimum deviation for yellow color, y = ..........................degree
Angle of minimum deviation for violet color, v = ..........................degree
Angle of minimum deviation for red color, r = ..........................degree

Refractive index of material of prism

[(𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚 )]
𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝜇= 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴/2

Refractive index for violet color

[(𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚𝑣 )]
𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝜇𝑉 = 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴/2
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 Refractive index for yellow color

[(𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚𝑦 )]
𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝜇𝑦 = 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴/2
Refractive index for red color

[(𝐴 + 𝛿𝑚𝑟 )]
𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝜇𝑟 = 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴/2

The dispersive power of the material of prism then

𝜇𝑉 − 𝜇𝑟
𝜔=
𝜇𝑌 − 1

RESULT:

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR:

PRECAUTIONS:

a). Proper leveling of the various parts should be done with spirit level.

b).The slit should be adjusted so that a narrow and fine image is obtained in the telescope.

c). The centre of the prism table, centre of the collimator and centre of the

telescope should be adjusted in the same line.

d). Tangents screw provided at the base of the spectrometer should be used for fine adjustment.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

a). Prism may not be placed in the exact minimum deviation position.
b). There may be some error in taking the readings of the cross wires if the telescope is not adjusted in
vertical position.

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VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS:

Q.No.01. Define refractive index?

Q.No.02. Define refractive index in terms of velocity of light?

Q.No.03. What is a sodium lamp?

Q.No.04. What is monochromatic light?

Q.No.05. Is sodium lamp a monochromatic source?

Q.No.06. Why red coloured light is seen first when we switch on sodium lamp and then turns into
yellow?

Q.No.07. Define angle of deviation ?

Q.No.08. What is angle of minimum deviation?

Q.No.09. How does deviation angle depend upon the angle of prism?

Q.No.10. Does deviation depend upon refractive index of material?

Q.No.11. Which colour in the spectrum deviates more and why?

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 Engineering Physics lab
Virtual lab link

1. Virtual lab > Physical Sciences > Optics Virtual Lab> Diffraction Grating (Spectrometer ) >
https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=281&sim=334&cnt=1
2. Virtual lab > Physical Sciences > Laser Optics Virtual Lab > Newton’s Rings – Wavelength of light >
https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=189&sim=335&cnt=1
3. Virtual lab > Physical Sciences > Basic of Physics (New) > List of Experiments > Polarization of light using He-Ne
Laser(Malus Law) > https://bop-iitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp/he-ne-laser-polarization/
4. Virtual lab > Physical Sciences > Basic of Physics (New) > List of Experiments > Energy Band Gap of
Semiconductor > https://bop-iitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp/energy-band-gap/
5. Virtual lab > Physical Sciences > Modern Physics Lab > Determination of Plank’s constant >
https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=195&sim=547&cnt=1
6. Virtual lab > Electronics & Communications > Basic Electronics Lab > List of Experiments> VI Characteristics
of a Diode (PN Junction Diode) > http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp5/index.html

7. Virtual lab > Electronics & Communications > Basic Electronics Lab > List of Experiments> Zener Diode > Zener
diode Characteristics > http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp10/zenercharac.html OR
http://www.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=6&sim=24&cnt=4

Note: First, you have to go on NIT Delhi Website, after that click on virtual lab tab and follow above link for your suitable
experiments

Lab Incharge

Engineering Physics lab

National Institute of Technology Delhi

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Safety Considerations for Physics Lab

Light

. Mirrors that are sharp should be taped. Jagged-edged mirrors should be discarded.

. The use of lenses and prisms in direct sunlight should be supervised.

. Caution should be exercised in the use of ultraviolet light sources, such as mercury-quartz lamps or
carbon arc lamps that can cause severe sunburn or damage to the retina. Proper instructions, labels, and
protective gear should be provided.

. Wave motion, when studied with light, generally includes the use of large coil springs or rubber hoses.
Care should be given not to exceed the elastic limit of the coils or to release the hose unexpectedly.

. Ripple tanks should be set up to assure the stability of the high intensity light, the motor, and the
electrical source.

. When simulating Young's experiment, caution should be given to handling the delicate slides and the
single edge razor blades.

. Spectroscope high voltage supplies should be checked prior to classroom use. Students should be
cautioned never to touch the ends of the spectrum tube while the voltage supply is connected.

. Some students may have physiological or psychological reactions to the effects of a strobe light. (e.g.,
epilepsy)

Lasers

. Never permit eye exposure to either direct or reflected laser light.

. Target must be made of non-reflecting material.

. Beams should not be set at eye level.

. Students should not move about the room during the activity.

. The teacher should operate the laser at the lowest possible power and maintain the room's illumination
bright enough so that the pupils of the eye remain small.

. Prisms should be set up before class to avoid unexpected reflections.

. Appropriate beam stops should be used to terminate the laser beam where needed.

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Safety Considerations for Physics Lab (Electricity)

. Locate the master electrical cut-off switch.

. Students are expected to operate equipment in a safe manner.

. Use low voltage DC for studying simple circuits.

. The teacher should check all student circuits before the power is connected.

. Never touch electrical circuit components with the power on. Only insulated tools should be used to
make checks.

. The last act in assembling a wired electrical circuit is to insert the plug. The first act in disassembling a
wired electrical circuit is to remove the plug.

. When using an electrical current, you should use only one hand at a time to avoid bringing both hands in
contact with live sections of the circuit.

. Electrical batteries should be checked for leakage and not be left in electrical appliances for extended
periods of time.

. If electrical current is used near a metal object, the object should be permanently insulated to prevent
contact. Care should be taken to assure that live wires do not contact grounded metal objects.

. Keep away from the fine spray that develops when charging a storage battery.

. Carefully handle a storage battery. In spite of its low voltage, a high current can be drawn from it on a
short circuit.

. Switches should be labeled for "on" and "off" positions.

. Proper grounding of equipment should be checked by the teacher before using.

. Any equipment with frayed cords or any other visible defects should not be used.

. Installation and repair to electrical equipment should not be done by an amateur. Check with your
administrator for the appropriate procedures for equipment repair.

. Plugs should always be plugged in and pulled out using the plug, not the wire.

. Use properly grounded (3 prong - one constant ground) service outlets.

.. All potentiometers should be checked by the teacher before use in circuits by students.

. If fire does occur with a "live" electrical apparatus, pull the plug then use an appropriate fire
extinguisher (Class C), dry chemical - carbon dioxide.

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