HCI NOTES

UNIT 5
1.Write detailed note on cognitive models Goal and task
hierarchies.
Many models make use of a model of mental processing in which the user
achieves goals by solving subgoals in a divide-and-conquer fashion. We will
consider two models, GOMS and CCT, where this is a central feature. However,
we will see similar features in other models, such as TAG. Imagine we want to
produce a report on sales of introductory HCI textbooks. To achieve this goal we
divide it into several subgoals, say gathering the data together, producing the
tables and histograms, and writing the descriptive material. find the names of all
introductory HCI textbooks and then search the book sales database for these
books. Similarly, each of the other subgoals is divided up into further subgoals,
until some level of detail is found at which we decide to stop. We thus end up
with a hierarchy of goals and subgoals.
The example can be laid out to expose this structure:
produce report
gather data
. find book names
. . do keywords search of names database
<<further subgoals>>
. . sift through names and abstracts by hand
<<further subgoals>>
. search sales database
<<further subgoals>>
layout tables and histograms
<<further subgoals>>
write description
<<further subgoals>>
We can go on decomposing tasks until we get down to the individual hand and
eye movements of the user, or we can stop at a more abstract level. In a similar
way, we can start our analyses at different points in the hierarchy of goals.
Different design issue demand different levels of analysis. the most abstract task
is referred to as the unit task. The unit task does not require any problem-solving
skills on the part of the user.
2. Describe GOMS model for the hierarchical structuring of user’s
task and goal structures.
A GOMS description consists of these four elements:
Goals: These are the user’s goals, describing what the user wants to achieve. Further, in GOMS
the goals are taken to represent a ‘memory point’ for the user, from which he can evaluate what
should be done and to which he may return should any errors occur.
Operators: These are the lowest level of analysis. They are the basic actions that the user must
perform in order to use the system. There is still a degree of flexibility about the granularity of
operators.
Methods: As we have already noted, there are typically several ways in which a goal can be
split into subgoals. For instance, in a certain window manager a currently selected window can
be closed to an icon either by selecting the ‘CLOSE’ option from a pop-up menu, or by hitting
the ‘L7’ function key. In GOMS these two goal decomposition referred to as methods. so we
have the CLOSE-METHOD and the L7-METHOD:
GOAL: ICONIZE-WINDOW
. [select GOAL: USE-CLOSE-METHOD
. . MOVE-MOUSE-TO-WINDOW-HEADER
. . POP-UP-MENU
. . CLICK-OVER-CLOSE-OPTION
GOAL: USE-L7-METHOD
. . PRESS-L7-KEY]
The dots are used to indicate the hierarchical level of goals.
Selection: From the above snippet we see the use of the word select where the choice of
methods arises. GOMS does not leave this as a random choice, but attempts to predict which
methods will be used. GOMS captures this in a selection rule for Sam:
User Sam:
Rule 1: Use the CLOSE-METHOD unless another rule applies.
Rule 2: If the application is ‘blocks’ use the L7-METHOD.
A typical GOMS analysis would therefore consist of a single high-level goal, which is then
decomposed into a sequence of unit tasks, all of which can be further decomposed down to the
level of basic operators:
GOAL: EDIT-MANUSCRIPT
. GOAL: EDIT-UNIT-TASK
repeat until no more unit tasks.
In particular, the aim of hierarchical task analysis is to produce task decompositions, which
would be similar (but in a different notation). Analysis of the GOMS goal structure can yield
measures of performance. The original GOMS model has served as the basis for much of the
cognitive modeling research in HCI. It was good for describing how experts perform routine
tasks.

3. Can GOMS saves money? Explain

Some years ago the US telephone company NYNEX were intended to install a new computer
system to support their operators. Before installation a detailed GOMS analysis was performed
taking into account the cognitive and physical process involved in dealing with a call. A
particular technique was rather different from the original GOMS notation as described here.
Because an operator performs several activities in parallel a PERT-style GOMS description
was constructed. The PERT analysis was used to determine the critical path, and hence the time
to complete a typical task. It was discovered that rather than speeding up operations, the new
system would take longer to process each call. The new system was abandoned before
installation, leading to a saving of many millions of dollars.

4. Explain in detail about hierarchical models and linguistic models

Linguistic models:
The models here, although similar in form to dialog design notations, have been proposed with
the intention of understanding the user’s behavior and analyzing the cognitive difficulty of the
interface.
1.2BNF:
Representative of the linguistic approach is Reisner’s use of Backus–Naur Form (BNF) rules
to describe the dialog grammar. This views the dialog at a purely syntactic level, ignoring the
semantics of the language. BNF has been used widely to specify the syntax of computer
programming languages, and many system dialogs can be described easily using BNF rules.
For example, imagine a graphics system that has a line-drawing function. To select the function
the user must select the ‘line’ menu option. The line-drawing function allows the user to draw
a polyline, that is a sequence of line arcs between points. The user selects the points by clicking
the mouse button in the drawing area. The user double clicks to indicate the last point of the
polyline draw-line ::= select-line + choose-points + last-point
select-line ::= position-mouse + CLICK-MOUSE
choose-points ::= choose-one
choose-one + choose-points
choose-one ::= position-mouse + CLICK-MOUSE
last-point ::= position-mouse + DOUBLE-CLICK-MOUSE
position-mouse ::= empty | MOVE-MOUSE + position-mouse.
The names in the description are of two types: non-terminals, shown in lower case, and
terminals, shown in upper case. Terminals represent the lowest level of user behavior, such as
pressing a key. The non-terminals are defined in terms of other non-terminals and terminals by
a definition of the form
name ::= expression
The ‘::=’ symbol is read as ‘is defined as’. Only non-terminals may appear on the left of a
definition.
2.Task–action grammar:
Measures based upon BNF have been criticized as not ‘cognitive’ enough. They ignore the
advantages of consistency both in the language’s structure and in its use of command names
and letters. Task–action grammar (TAG) [284] attempts to deal with some of these problems
by including elements such as parametrized grammar rules to emphasize consistency and
encoding the user’s world knowledge (for example, up is the opposite of down). the complexity
of the language based on the TAG description would be better at predicting actual learning and
performance than a simple BNF one. As well as handling consistency well, TAG has features
for talking about ‘world knowledge’.
Hierarchical models in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) refer to frameworks that describe
the interaction between users and computer systems in a structured manner. These models help
designers and researchers understand how users perceive, process, and interact with interfaces
at different levels of abstraction. Here are some commonly discussed hierarchical models in
HCI:
Hierarchial models :
1.GOMS Model (Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection Rules):
Goals: Identifies the user's objectives or tasks to be accomplished.
Operators: Describes the basic cognitive and motor operations required to execute tasks.
Methods: Specifies sequences of operators to achieve specific goals.
Selection Rules: Determines the conditions under which different methods are selected.
2.Keystroke-Level Model (KLM):
Breaks down tasks into individual actions and estimates the time required for each action (e.g.,
keystrokes, mouse clicks).
Useful for predicting task completion times and evaluating interface efficiency.
3.Model Human Processor (MHP):
Based on the concept of the human cognitive system as an information processing system.
Includes components such as sensory memory, short-term memory, motor system, and
cognitive processor.
Helps analyze how users perceive information, make decisions, and execute actions in
interactive systems.
4.Information Processing Models:
These models focus on how users acquire, process, store, and retrieve information during
interaction.
5.Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA):
Breaks down complex tasks into hierarchical sub-tasks, representing the task structure and
dependencies.
Useful for designing interfaces, identifying usability issues, and improving task efficiency.
6.Cognitive Dimensions of Notations (CDs):
Describes different dimensions (e.g., viscosity, visibility, error-proneness) that influence the
usability and cognitive load of interactive systems.
Helps designers make informed decisions about system design and representation choices.
7.Activity Theory:
Focuses on understanding human activities within social and cultural contexts.
Emphasizes the interplay between individuals, tools, and the environment in shaping actions
and goals.

5.write about attribute display devices and their features.

In Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), display devices play a crucial role in facilitating
communication between users and computers. Here are some commonly used display devices
and their features:
1.2Monitors:
Resolution: Monitors come in various resolutions such as HD (1920x1080), 4K (3840x2160),
and beyond, impacting image clarity and detail.
Refresh Rate: Higher refresh rates (e.g., 60Hz, 120Hz, 240Hz) lead to smoother motion on
screen, crucial for gaming and multimedia.
Panel Type: Common panel types include TN (Twisted Nematic), IPS (In-Plane Switching),
and VA (Vertical Alignment), each with its pros and cons in terms of color accuracy, viewing
angles, and response times.
HDR Support: High Dynamic Range (HDR) support enhances color and contrast for a more
lifelike viewing experience.
2.Touchscreens:
Touch Technology: Capacitive touchscreens are common, allowing for multi-touch gestures like
pinch-to-zoom and swiping.
Pressure Sensitvity: Some touchscreens support varying levels of pressure sensitivity, useful
for tasks like drawing and digital art.
Glove and Stylus Support: Certain touchscreens are designed to work with gloves or styluses,
expanding their usability in different environments.
3.Projectors:
Brightness: Measured in lumens, higher brightness is essential for clear projections, especially
in well-lit environments.
Resolution: Projectors offer varying resolutions, with higher resolutions providing sharper
images.
Throw Ratio: Determines the size of the projected image based on the distance from the screen,
crucial for adjusting the display size in different spaces.
Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) Headsets:
Field of View (FOV): A wider FOV enhances immersion by expanding the visible area in
AR/VR environments.
Resolution and Refresh Rate: High-resolution displays coupled with high refresh rates reduce
motion sickness and improve visual fidelity.
Tracking Technology: Advanced headsets use inside-out or outside-in tracking for accurate
motion tracking, enhancing user interaction in virtual environments.
4.E-ink Displays:
Low Power Consumption: E-ink displays consume very little power, making them suitable for
devices like e-readers with long battery life.
Sunlight Readability: E-ink displays are easily readable in direct sunlight, mimicking the
appearance of ink on paper.
Slow Refresh Rate: While great for static content like e-books, e-ink displays have a slower
refresh rate compared to traditional screens, limiting their use for dynamic content.
These features collectively contribute to the usability, functionality, and user experience of
display devices in HCI contexts.

6.Write a short note on cognitive architectures: the problem space

model and ICS.
Cognitive architectures provide frameworks for understanding how humans process
information and perform tasks. Two prominent models in this field are the problem space
model and Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS).
Problem space model
The problem space model, inspired by Newell and Simon's work, views problem-solving as
navigating through a set of states and operations to achieve a goal. It represents rational
behavior by defining desired states and selecting operations to move towards them. This
model emphasizes goal formulation, operation selection, application, and completion,
highlighting the recursive nature of problem-solving. While not directly implementable, it
serves as the foundation for executable architectures like Soar, which aids in predicting and
analyzing user behavior.
Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS)
In contrast, ICS, proposed by Barnard, offers a holistic view of users as information
processors. It integrates psychological traditions and comprises nine subsystems, including
peripheral and central ones. These subsystems handle both external and internal processing,
with each specialized for specific tasks. ICS explains how users proceduralize actions,
distinguishing between novice and expert users. Experts perform tasks effortlessly due to
proceduralized responses, reducing error likelihood. Thus, ICS serves as a design tool, aiding
in interface development by suggesting tasks aligned with users' proceduralized responses.

7. What is virtual reality? What are the applications of virtual

reality? Give examples.
A.
Virtual reality (VR) refers to systems that immerse users in a three-dimensional virtual
environment, enabling them to navigate and interact within that space. These systems often
employ special devices to facilitate movement and interaction with virtual objects, as well as
to enhance the visual experience.
One key aspect of VR is positioning in three-dimensional space, which involves not only
moving to specific locations but also choosing orientations. This transition often involves a
shift from two degrees of freedom to six degrees of freedom, allowing users greater control
and immersion.
Applications of virtual reality vary widely, including:
Simulation and Training: VR is extensively used in simulating real-world environments for
training purposes. For example, aircraft pilots can practice flying in virtual cockpits, allowing
them to familiarize themselves with controls and procedures in a safe and controlled
environment.
Gaming: Many PC games utilize VR technology to create immersive gaming experiences.
Users can interact with virtual environments and objects using specialized controllers or input
devices, such as 3D mice or datagloves.
Medical Training and Therapy: VR is increasingly used in medical training to simulate
surgical procedures and medical scenarios. It is also employed in therapy for treating phobias,
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and other mental health conditions through exposure
therapy in virtual environments.
Architecture and Design: Architects and designers use VR to visualize and explore three-
dimensional models of buildings and other structures. VR allows stakeholders to experience
and evaluate designs before construction begins, facilitating better decision-making and
collaboration.
Education and Virtual Tours: VR offers immersive educational experiences, allowing students
to explore historical sites, scientific concepts, and other subjects in virtual environments.
Virtual tours provide an interactive way to explore museums, landmarks, and cultural heritage
sites from anywhere in the world.

8. Explain in detail the Applications of augmented reality

Information and data visualization.
A.
Augmented reality (AR) offers numerous applications in various fields, particularly in
scenarios involving complex equipment maintenance, assembly, and visualization of
information and data.

1. Maintenance and Assembly Guidance: AR technology can provide real-time

guidance and instructions overlaid onto physical equipment, making tasks such as
maintenance and assembly more efficient and accurate. For example, in the
maintenance of photocopiers, engineers can have instructions displayed in their field
of view, including labels for all parts, simplifying the process of identifying and
repairing components. Similarly, in aircraft electronics, AR can overlay schematic
wiring diagrams onto the physical wiring, aiding engineers in correctly identifying
and routing wires.
2. Accurate Registration of Real and Electronic Data: In AR applications for
maintenance and assembly, accurate registration between real-world objects and
electronic data is crucial. For instance, in the case of photocopier maintenance, the AR
system needs to determine the location and orientation of the copier to overlay
instructions correctly. While the level of image analysis required may vary, current
image-processing capabilities can handle tasks such as identifying specific equipment
models and their orientations.
3. Visualization of Scientific and Technical Data: AR can also be used to visualize
complex scientific and technical data, enhancing understanding and analysis. Three-
dimensional representations of data can provide insights into spatial relationships and
patterns, fostering engagement and discovery. For example, in scientific research, AR
can create virtual environments such as a virtual wind tunnel, where engineers can
visualize airflow patterns around simulated objects. This visualization allows for the
exploration of phenomena like turbulence and airflow characteristics, aiding in design
optimization and analysis.
4. Interactive Data Exploration: AR systems can enable interactive exploration of
data, allowing users to manipulate and interact with visualizations in real time. This
 interactivity enhances user engagement and facilitates the discovery of patterns and
insights within the data. By integrating animation techniques and user controls, AR
applications can provide a dynamic and immersive experience, encouraging deeper
exploration and understanding of complex information.

9. Give about different “design focuses”.

A.
Different design focuses in data visualization can significantly impact how information is
perceived and understood. Here are some key considerations:

1. Size Perception: When designing visualizations, it's crucial to consider how the size
of visual elements influences perception. For example, in a 2D histogram, the area of
a bar is perceived as its size, not just its height. Therefore, accurately representing
data proportions requires adjusting the width and height of bars accordingly. In the
given example of family groups at a fun fair, displaying the height of the column
proportional to the percentage of families accurately reflects the distribution of family
sizes.
2. Proportional Representation: Visualizations should accurately represent proportions
of data to avoid misinterpretation. In scenarios where data ranges are large, using non-
linear scales such as logarithmic scales may be necessary to maintain proportionality.
For instance, when visualizing population data on a map with 3D columns,
representing the heights of the columns proportional to population density ensures
that larger areas or volumes represent larger data, preventing distortion or
exaggeration.
3. Avoiding Misleading Visual Cues: Design choices should avoid misleading visual
cues that distort the perception of data. For example, in the context of representing
population data, using the height of 3D columns to represent population size directly
may lead to a single enormous block for countries with large populations like China.
Instead, using population density to determine column heights ensures that the
visualization accurately reflects population distribution without overwhelming visual
elements.

10. Write a short note data visualization.

Data visualization, especially when augmented by virtual reality (VR) and 3D displays,
offers powerful tools for understanding complex information and scientific data. By
representing data in visually engaging formats, such as interactive animations, users can
immerse themselves in the data, encouraging exploration and discovery of patterns.

In scientific and technical fields, three-dimensional representations of data can provide

valuable insights into spatial relationships and phenomena. For example, the use of VR
technology in virtual wind tunnels allows engineers to simulate airflow patterns around
aircraft models, aiding in the investigation of aerodynamic properties and identifying
areas of interest, such as turbulence zones. The virtual environment also enables
engineers to closely examine details without disrupting airflow, unlike in physical wind
tunnels.
Data visualization techniques vary depending on the focus and dimensionality of the data.
From representing hierarchical structures and networks in two or three dimensions to
visualizing temporal data using timelines and interactive animations, diverse approaches
are employed to convey information effectively. For instance, Gantt charts are commonly
used to visualize project timelines and task dependencies, while interactive interfaces
allow users to explore data dynamically, facilitating deeper understanding and analysis.

The passage of time itself can be utilized as a visualization tool, with temporal changes in
data replayed or mapped onto spatial dimensions. For instance, animations showing
successive cross-sections of 3D objects over time provide insights into internal structures,
such as in the Visible Human Project.

Interactivity plays a crucial role in enhancing data visualization experiences, allowing

users to manipulate visualizations, explore different perspectives, and control parameters
in real time. Interactive interfaces enable users to engage with data dynamically,
facilitating exploration and analysis.