Brain Computer Interface EEG Signal Processing, 1st Edition

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Contents
Preface................................................................................................................. vii
Authors................................................................................................................. ix

Chapter 1 Introduction..................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 Fundamentals of EEG Signals ..................................................... 23

Chapter 3 Signal Processing for EEGs......................................................... 39

Chapter 4 Software and Hardware for EEG for Capturing and Analysis... 59

Chapter 5 Protocol and Process of EEG Data Acquisition.......................... 81

Chapter 6 Methods to Detect Blink from the EEG Signal .......................... 97

Chapter 7 Saccade and Fix Detection from EOG Signals......................... 107

Chapter 8 Detection of P300 and Its Applications .................................... 115

Chapter 9 Brain Computer Interface Using P300 ...................................... 129

Chapter 10 Designing an EEG Acquisition System..................................... 143

Chapter 11 A Method to Localize the Pupil of the Eye for Point

of Gaze Estimation..................................................................... 161

Chapter 12 Detection of Epileptic Seizures from EEG Data ...................... 175

Appendix.......................................................................................................... 187

Index................................................................................................................. 211

v
Preface
Brain computer interface, popularly known as BCI, is an emerging field of
research, finding its use in many societal and medical applications. BCI
comprises of four distinct steps: (1) neuro-imaging for acquisition of the
digital data from the brain, (2) processing of the neuro-image data for
isolating various characteristic features of the brain, (3) classification and
mapping of the features to understand the intended motif and actions, and
(4) interfacing the action to the device or computer to perform the intended
actions. There is more than one method to perform each of these steps. Also,
there is directed research to innovate and optimize these methods to make these
steps efficient and autonomous in achieving BCI.
In this book, we choose electroencephalography (EEG) as the neuro-imaging
technique for performing the data acquisition for BCI. In the rest of the steps the
algorithms, computing techniques, visualization, and interpretation of features
extracted from EEG were discussed. Therefore, this is the name of the book Brain
Computer Interface: EEG Signal Processing. EEG has many spatio-temporal
variations and has different ways to acquire an EEG signal. Matching computing
techniques and interpretation methods are being researched upon so as to make use
of these spatio-temporal variations. The features extracted from EEG are exploited
in actuation of devices and computers so as to realize the BCI. Another aspect of
neuro-imaging signature of the brain is observed to be fairly similar when a subject
performs a similar task but differs in the level for different activities.
We believe that EEG signals, if processed using the right methodology, will
help in determining the cognitive behavior of a subject. One aspect of the
cognitive behavior is intelligence. As mentioned earlier, the EEG signals are the
signature of the brain activity of different regions of the subject.
This book gives a basic introduction to various neuro-imaging techniques,
with a special emphasis to EEG and its advantages. Further, the basic
classification criteria for different components present in EEG are discussed. It
gives varying perspectives as how to understand the scope of processing the EEG
signal and its association with popular applications.
The signal processing methods that are useful in processing and identifying
EEG artifacts to detect the blinks, saccadic movements, and fixes in the EEG
data are discussed. Classification of EEG signals for detection of target or non-
target objects was determined based on the presence of P300 signal while
acquiring the EEG while the subject is exposed to a corresponding scenario or
probe. The saccadic movement fixes and the blinks determine the focus and way
in which the subject scan through the scene or the scenario placed in his/her
view.
In a recent development, EEG has proven to bring out new insights related to
the activity of the brain in a non-invasive manner. It is used in different
applications to measure the intended effect of any activity that the subject

vii
viii Preface

performs or any stimuli that is given to the subject. With the help of artificial
intelligence, analysis of EEG has reached a new level as it allows us to perform
intractable operations that were otherwise not possible using classical
techniques. In the area of neuro-marketing, it has given a deeper insight so as
to how consumers react to certain products. In the medical field, prior prediction
of seizures in epileptic patients is progressing rapidly. In military applications,
the EEG is used to measure the responsiveness of the candidate under
examinations. The most popular area of application of EEG is brain controlled
interface (BCI), where devices are being controlled with the help of the brain
signals.
In this book, we have discussed selected signal processing methods to extract
the blink, saccade, and fix artifacts from the EEG signal obtained from different
subjects.
Further, this book discusses and proposes a design to build a low-cost yet
robust EEG acquisition system that has all the elements from acquisition of the
EEG to its processing and visualization. The students will benefit immensely to
build and experiment with such a system ab-initio. Some of the interesting
applications derived by processing the EEG and electrooculography (EOG)
signal were discussed to make the reading more interesting.
Processing and analyzing the P300 signal using odd-ball experiments makes
this book more interesting. The basis of EEG being the key elements of BCI
(brain computer interface) is discussed. Further, how to detect and classify
abnormal EEG signals such as epileptic seizure is discussed for students perusing
research in the field of IoMT (Internet of medical things).
For a quick benefit to the students and research community, we append some
of the MATLAB® codes illustrating how to process, analyze, and visualize the
EEG signal and the artifacts present in EEG. A quick run of these MATLAB®
codes will help the reader to consolidate some of the key concepts explained in
this book.
Narayan Panigrahi and Saraju P. Mohanty

MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission.

The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this
book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products
does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a
particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.
Authors
Narayan Panigrahi received his MSc (computer science) from the J.K. Institute of
Applied Physics & Technology, University of Allahabad; M.Tech (computer
science and data processing), IIT, Kharagpur; and PhD from IIT, Bombay in the
years 1990, 1999, and 2012, respectively. He is the best graduate of Berhampur
University, Odisha, in the year 1987. He started as a research scientist at the
Institute for System Studies and Analysis (ISSA), New Delhi, in the year 1991. He
initiated research and development of modeling and visualization of topography,
bathymetry, and space. Currently, he is serving as a scientist at the Center for
Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR), a DRDO Laboratory in Bangalore,
India. He leads a team of scientists to design and develop a geographical
information system comprising of topography, bathymetry, and space navigation.
He has researched the algorithmic aspect of remote sensing, spatio-temporal
science, and GIS. He has initiated communication of science through authoring
various books in different languages. He has authored Geographic Information
Science (GISc) (CRC Press, 2009) and Computating in Geographic Information
Systems (CRC Press, 2014), which are being taught in different academic circles.
He has been awarded the “National Award for Geospatial Excellence 2019” from
the ISRS (Indian Society for Remote Sensing), Agni Award for Excellence in Self
Reliance -2019, DRDO Performance Excellence Award 2012, and Laboratory
Technology Award for 2010, 2014, 2017, and 2019, respectively. He has uthored
seven books, 72 international research papers, and six patents. Two of his research
papers were awarded best research award by INRIA, France and IEEE, Computer
Society. He has examined 5 PhD thesis, guided more than 40 graduate and
undergraduate engineering students. He is a plenary and invited speaker in many
international conferences and has chaired technical sessions.

Saraju P. Mohanty received B. Tech. (Honors) in electrical engineering from

the Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, in 1995;
master’s degree in systems science and automation from the Indian Institute of
Science, Bengaluru, in 1999; and PhD degree in computer science and
engineering from the University of South Florida, Tampa, in 2003. He is a
professor with the University of North Texas. His research is in smart electronic
systems, which has been funded by National Science Foundations (NSF),
Semiconductor Research Corporation (SRC), U.S. Air Force, IUSSTF, and
Mission Innovation. He has authored 350 research articles, four books, and
invented four granted and one pending patents. His Google Scholar h-index is 38
and i10-index is 147, with 6,600 citations. He is regarded as a visionary
researcher on smart cities technology in which his research deals with security
and energy awareness and AI/ML-integrated smart components. He introduced
the secure digital camera (SDC) in 2004 with built-in security features designed
using hardware-assisted security (HAS) or security by design (SbD) principle.

ix
x Authors

He is widely credited as the designer for the first digital watermarking chip in
2004 and first for the low-power digital watermarking chip in 2006. He is a
recipient of 12 best paper awards, Fulbright Specialist Award in 2020, IEEE
Consumer Technology Society Outstanding Service Award in 2020, the IEEE-
CS-TCVLSI Distinguished Leadership Award in 2018, and the PROSE Award
for Best Textbook in Physical Sciences and Mathematics category in 2016. He
has delivered ten keynotes and served on nine panels at various international
conferences. He has been serving on the editorial board of several peer-reviewed
international journals. He has mentored two post-doctoral researchers, and
supervised 12 PhD dissertations, 26 M.S. theses, and ten undergraduate projects.
 1 Introduction

OVERVIEW
Electroencephalography, or EEG, is one of the best and oldest non-invasive
neuro-scanning methods. The EEG is also the most preferred one of the foremost
choices for doctors and surgeons for diagnosis of neuro- or brain-related ail-
ments. With the advent of modern computing algorithms, the traditional EEG is
under metamorphosis. Many novel systems are being devised using EEG and
computing methods innovating different systems. Some of the prominent ap-
plications of EEG are brain computer interface (BCI), neuro-marketing, gaming,
and pre-detection and diagnosis of seizures are widely used. This chapter in-
troduces the EEG to the first-time reader of this book with a general definition of
EEG. It analyzes the systemic and functional perspective of a human brain.
Further, it gives a survey of prominent neuro-scanning systems comparing and
contrasting these systems with EEG. The normal characteristic of the EEG signal
acquired from the human brain is discussed and analyzed. Based on the signal
characteristic, the physical interpretation of the state of the subject is classified.
To motivate the first-time reader of this book, some popular medical and com-
mercial applications are also discussed in this chapter. Some of the basic
questions regarding EEG are answered in this introductory chapter, including
“What is an EEG?” and “Why is an EEG performed?”

1.1 THE HUMAN BRAIN

Since this book deals with characterization of the human brain through the EEG
signal acquired from the brain for the purpose of BCI (brain computer interface),
therefore, it is pertinent to understand the anatomy, structure, and functioning of
the human brain.
The brain is the vital organ that controls all functions of the body, it interprets
information from the outside world, and embodies the essence of the mind and
soul. Intelligence, creativity, emotion, and memory are a few of the many
functions governed by the brain. Protected within the skull, the brain is com-
posed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem.
The brain receives information through our five senses: sight, smell, touch,
taste, and hearing – often simultaneously. It collates and stores this information
in our memory the messages in a way that has a lasting meaning for us. The brain
controls our thoughts, memory, and speech; movement of the arms and legs; and
the function of many organs within our body. It performs some directed or
voluntary functions and some involuntary functions of the body.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003241386-1 1
2 Brain Computer Interface

The brain consists of trillions (approx ~218 for a healthy adult) of cells, half
of which are neurons and the other half of which help and facilitate conducting
the signal among neurons and the rest are controlling the activity of neurons. The
neurons are densely interconnected via synapses, which act as gateways of in-
hibitory or excitatory activities of the brain.

1.2 ANATOMY OF HUMAN BRAIN

The human brain is one of the most complex and specialized parts of the human
body. It has many parts and each of these parts is associated with different
functions performed by human. Therefore, to characterize the brain and analyze
its structural, functional, and control behavior, it is necessary to study its
anatomy. An anatomically human brain is organized into four parts: (1) fore-
brain, (2) midbrain, (3) hindbrain, and (4) the skull, which is also known as
the cranium or the brain box.
Systematically the brain can be categorized into three subparts. Each subpart
has different sub-subparts and performs specific functions, as depicted in
Figure 1.1. Further, the lateral view (Figure 1.2(a)) and the systemic view
(Figure 1.2(b)) give an overview of the anatomy of the human brain.
The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of spinal nerves that branch
from the spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain. The three
main parts of the central nervous system are the (1) cerebrum, (2) cerebellum,
and (3) brain stem.

1. Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and
left hemispheres. It performs all cognitive functions like interpreting
touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions,
learning, and fine control of movement. Also it retains the experiences
in the form of memory.

Human Brain

Fore Brain Middle Brain Hind Brain

Hypo- Pons Medulla

Cerebrum Thalamus Cerebellum
Thalamus Varali Oblongata

FIGURE 1.1 Hierarchical view of the functional parts and sub-parts of the brain.
Introduction 3

FIGURE 1.2 (a) The cerebrum is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and
temporal (b) The cortex contains neurons (grey matter), which are interconnected to other
brain areas by axons (white matter). The cortex has a folded appearance. A fold is called a
gyrus and the valley between is a sulcus.

2. Cerebellum is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate

muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance (Apps & Garwicz 2005).
3. Brain stem acts as a relay center as well as the manager of the brain. It
connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs
many automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, body tem-
perature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vo-
miting, and swallowing.

Further, the cerebrum is divided into two halves: the left cerebrum and right
cerebrum are often loosely referred as the right brain and left brain or the right
and left hemispheres (Figure 1.2(b)). They are joined by a bundle of fibers called
the corpus callosum that transmits messages from one side to the other. Each
hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. If a stroke occurs on the right
side of the brain, the left arm or leg may be weak or will be paralyzed.
Not all functions of the hemispheres are shared. In general, the left hemi-
sphere controls speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and writing. The right
hemisphere controls creativity, spatial ability, artistic, and musical skills.
Generally, the left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and the right hemisphere
controls use language in about 92% of people.

1.3 DIFFERENT BRAIN LOBES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Further the brain is subdivided into various clusters known as lobes housing
various glands and ventricles. The cerebral hemispheres have distinct fissures,
which divide the brain into lobes. Each hemisphere has four lobes: frontal, tem-
poral, parietal, and occipital (Figure 1.2(a)). Each lobe may be further divided, into
4 Brain Computer Interface

areas that serve very specific functions. It’s important to understand that each lobe
of the brain does not function alone. There are very complex relationships between
the lobes of the brain and between the right and left hemispheres.

a. Frontal Lobe
• Personality, behavior, emotions
• Judgment, planning, problem solving
• Speech: speaking and writing (Broca’s area)
• Body movement (motor strip)
• Intelligence, concentration, self awareness
b. Parietal Lobe
• Interprets language, words
• Sense of touch, pain, temperature (sensory strip)
• Interprets signals from vision, hearing, motor, sensory, and memory
• Spatial and visual perception
c. Occipital Lobe
• Interprets vision (color, light, movement)
d. Temporal Lobe
• Understanding language (Wernicke’s area)
• Memory
• Hearing
• Sequencing and organization

Therefore, while designing an EEG acquisition system, it is important to pro-

vision a proportionate number of electrodes to probe each of the functional lobes
of the brain and designate the signals acquired. The corresponding signals can be
processed to diagnose the ailments and functioning of that part of the brain. Also,
it helps in segregating different signal characteristics for different commands
intended from the brain. Therefore, a study of the EEG signals as per different
brain lobes helps in designing an efficient brain-computer interface.

1.4 FUNCTIONAL OVERVIEW OF BRAIN

1.4.1 LANGUAGE AND MEMORY FUNCTIONS
How the special functions and involuntary and voluntary functions are governed
by the brain are well researched. Language, memory, and speech are some of the
special functions that are governed by different parts of the brain. If these areas
malfunction, then they result in aberrations such as aphasia and other speech-
related difficulties. The left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for language
and speech and is called the “dominant” hemisphere. The right hemisphere plays
a large part in interpreting visual information and spatial processing. In about
one-third of people who are left-handed, speech function may be located on the
right side of the brain. Left-handed people may need special testing to determine
if their speech center is on the left or right side prior to any surgery in that area.
Introduction 5

Aphasia is a disturbance of language affecting speech production, compre-

hension, reading or writing, due to brain injury – most commonly from stroke or
trauma. The type of aphasia depends on the brain area damaged.

• Broca’s area: lies in the left frontal lobe (Figure 1.2(a)). If this area is
damaged, one may have difficulty moving the tongue or facial muscles to
produce the sounds of speech. The person can still read and understand
spoken language, but has difficulty in speaking and writing (i.e., forming
letters and words, doesn’t write within lines) – called Broca’s aphasia.
• Wernicke’s area: lies in the left temporal lobe (Figure 1.2(a)). Damage
to this area causes Wernicke’s aphasia. The individual may speak in long
sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary words, and even create
new words. They can make speech sounds; however, they have difficulty
understanding speech and are therefore unaware of their mistakes.
• Cortex: is the surface of the cerebrum. It has a folded appearance with
hills and valleys. The cortex contains 16 billion neurons (the cerebellum
has 70 billion = 86 billion total) that are arranged in specific layers. The
nerve cell bodies color the cortex grey-brown, giving it its name – gray
matter (Figure 1.2(b)). Beneath the cortex are long nerve fibers (axons)
that connect brain areas to each other, called white matter.
The folding of the cortex increases the brain’s surface area, allowing
more neurons to fit inside the skull and enabling higher functions. Each
fold is called a gyrus, and each groove between the folds is called a
sulcus (Figure 1.2(b)). There are names for the folds and grooves that
help define specific brain regions.

1.4.2 DEEP STRUCTURES IN THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Pathways called white matter tracts connect areas of the cortex to each other.
Messages can travel from one gyrus to another, from one lobe to another, from one
side of the brain to the other, and to structures deep in the brain (Figure 1.2(b)).

• Thalamus: Ref Figure 1.3(a), serves as a relay station for almost all
information that comes and goes to the cortex. It plays a role in pain
sensation, attention, alertness, and memory.
• Pituitary gland: Ref Figure 1.3(a), lies in a small pocket of bone at the
skull base called the sella turcica. The pituitary gland is connected to the
hypothalamus of the brain by the pituitary stalk. Known as the “master
gland,” it controls other endocrine glands in the body. It secretes hor-
mones that control sexual development, promote bone and muscle
growth, and respond to stress.
• Hypothalamus: Ref Figure 1.3(a), is located in the floor of the third
ventricle and is the master control of the autonomic system. It plays a
role in controlling behaviors such as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sexual
6 Brain Computer Interface

FIGURE 1.3 (a) Coronal cross-section showing the basal ganglia. (b) CSF is produced
inside the ventricles deep within the brain. CSF fluid circulates inside the brain and spinal
cord and then outside to the subarachnoid space.

response. It also regulates body temperature, blood pressure, emotions,

and secretion of hormones.
• Pineal gland: is located behind the third ventricle. It helps regulate the
body’s internal clock and circadian rhythms by secreting melatonin. It
has some role in sexual development.
• Basal ganglia: includes the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus.
These nuclei work with the cerebellum to coordinate fine motions, such
as fingertip movements.
• Limbic system: is the center of our emotions, learning, and memory.
Included in this system are the cingulate gyri, hypothalamus, amygdala
(emotional reactions), and hippocampus (memory).

1.4.3 MEMORY
Memory is a complex process that includes three phases viz. encoding (deciding
what information is important), storing, and recalling. Different areas of the brain
are involved in different types of memory functions. Your brain has to pay at-
tention and rehearse in order to port and move an event from short-term memory
to long-term memory, which is called encoding.

• Short-term memory, also called working memory, occurs in the pre-

frontal cortex. It stores information for about one minute and its ca-
pacity is limited to about seven items. For example, it enables you to
dial a phone number someone just told you. It also intervenes during
Introduction 7

reading, to memorize the sentence you have just read, so that the next
one makes sense.
• Long-term memory is processed in the hippocampus of the temporal
lobe and is activated when you want to memorize something for a
longer time. This memory has unlimited content and duration capacity.
It contains personal memories as well as facts and figures.
• Skill memory is processed in the cerebellum, which relays information
to the basal ganglia. It stores automatic learned memories like tying a
shoe, playing an instrument, or riding a bike.

1.4.4 VENTRICLES AND CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

The brain has hollow fluid-filled cavities called ventricles (Figure 1.3(b)). Inside
the ventricles is a ribbon-like structure called the choroid plexus that makes clear
colorless cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF flows within and around the brain and
spinal cord to help cushion it from injury. This circulating fluid is constantly
being absorbed and replenished.
There are two ventricles deep within the cerebral hemispheres called the
lateral ventricles. They both connect with the third ventricle through a separate
opening called the foramen of Monro. The third ventricle connects with the
fourth ventricle through a long, narrow tube called the aqueduct of Sylvius. From
the fourth ventricle, CSF flows into the subarachnoid space where it bathes and
cushions the brain. CSF is recycled (or absorbed) by special structures in the
superior sagittal sinus called arachnoid villi.
A balance is maintained between the amount of CSF that is absorbed and the
amount that is produced. A disruption or blockage in the system can cause a
buildup of CSF, which can cause enlargement of the ventricles (hydrocephalus)
or cause a collection of fluid in the spinal cord (syringomyelia).

1.5 BRAIN CELLS AND THEIR COMMUNICATION MECHANISM

The brain is made up of two types of cells: nerve cells (neurons) and glia cells.
These cells are the basic mechanism of communication within the brain.
Together with synapse they form a network that is known as a neural network. A
neural network has been modeled mathematically and implemented as com-
puting algorithms in many different ways and form a major research area in
computing science.

1.5.1 NERVE CELLS

There are many sizes and shapes of neurons, but all consist of a cell body,
dendrites, and an axon. The neuron conveys information through electrical and
chemical signals. Try to picture electrical wiring in your home. An electrical
circuit is made up of numerous wires connected in such a way that when a light
8 Brain Computer Interface

switch is turned on, a lightbulb will beam. A neuron that is excited will transmit
its energy to neurons within its vicinity.
Neurons transmit their energy, or “talk,” to each other across a tiny gap called
a synapse (Figure 1.4). A neuron has many arms called dendrites, which act like
antennae picking up messages from other nerve cells. These messages are passed
to the cell body, which determines if the message should be passed along.
Important messages are passed to the end of the axon where sacs containing
neurotransmitters open into the synapse. The neurotransmitter molecules cross
the synapse and fit into special receptors on the receiving nerve cell, which
stimulate that cell to pass on the message.

• Glia cells: Glia (Greek word meaning “glue”) are the cells of the brain
that provide neurons with nourishment, protection, and structural sup-
port. There are about 10 to 50 times more glia than nerve cells and are
the most common type of cells involved in brain tumors.

FIGURE 1.4 Nerve cells consist of a cell body, dendrites, and axon. Neurons com-
municate with each other by exchanging neurotransmitters across a tiny gap called a
synapse.
Introduction 9

• Astroglia or astrocytes are the caretakers – they regulate the blood

brain barrier, allowing nutrients and molecules to interact with
neurons. They control homeostasis, neuronal defense and repair, scar
formation, and also affect electrical impulses.
• Oligodendroglia cells create a fatty substance called myelin that
insulates axons – allowing electrical messages to travel faster.
• Ependymal cells line the ventricles and secrete cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF).

Microglia are the brain’s immune cells, protecting it from invaders and
cleaning up debris. They also prune synapses.

1.6 NEUROIMAGING TECHNIQUES

Brain imaging techniques or neuroimaging techniques allow doctors and re-
searchers to view activity or problems within the human brain, without invasive
neurosurgery. There are a number of accepted, safe imaging techniques in use
today in research facilities and hospitals throughout the world. Prominent brain
imaging techniques that are available to cognitive neuroscientists, including
positron emission tomography (PET), near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), mag-
netoencephalogram (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), and functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We discuss most of the available neuroi-
maging techniques in this section but focus on EEG and fMRI because they are
the most widely used techniques.

1.6.1 ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG)

First discovered about a century ago, an EEG measures electrical activities of the
brain from electrodes placed on the scalp. Usually, an EEG is collected from a
number of electrodes positioned on different locations on the scalp. Most EEG
systems used in cognitive neuroscience research today employ 64 to 256 elec-
trodes. A scalp EEG represents the aggregates of post-synaptic currents of
millions of neurons. The recorded EEG signals usually reflect two types of brain
activities: spontaneous and event-related activities. A spontaneous EEG reflects
neuronal responses that occur unprovoked, i.e., in the absence of any identifiable
stimulus, with or without behavioral manifestations. A spontaneous EEG has
long been used in clinical settings to evaluate seizure disorders, and now has
been used often in cognitive neuroscience research.

1.6.2 FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (FMRI)

fMRI is one of the most recently developed forms of neuroimaging techniques.
Since the early 1990s, fMRI has become the dominant method in cognitive
neuroscience because of its low invasiveness, lack of radiation exposure, and
relatively wide availability. In the brain, neural activities often lead to