Embedded Systems

1. Introduction to Embedded Systems

1.1 What is Embedded System?

An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to perform a specific function and is a
combination of both hardware and firmware (Software)

E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners, Automotive Control Units,
Set Top Box, DVD Player etc…

Embedded Systems are:

 Unique in character and behavior

 With specialized hardware and software

1.2 Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems:

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System

A system which is a combination of generic A system which is a combination of special
hardware and General Purpose Operating purpose hardware and embedded OS for
System for executing a variety of applications executing a specific set of applications
Contain a General Purpose Operating System May or may not contain an operating system
(GPOS) for functioning
Applications are alterable (programmable) by The firmware of the embedded system is pre-
user (It is possible for the end user to re-install programmed and it is non-alterable by end-
the user
Operating System, and add or remove user
applications)
Performance is the key deciding factor on the Application specific requirements (like
selection of the system. Always „Faster is performance, power requirements, memory
Better‟ usage etc) are the key deciding factors
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced Highly tailored to take advantage of the power
operating power requirements, options for saving modes supported by hardware and
different levels of power management. Operating System
Response requirements are not time critical For certain category of embedded systems like
mission critical systems, the response time
requirement is highly critical
Need not be deterministic in execution Execution behavior is deterministic for certain
behavior type of embedded systems like „Hard Real
Time‟ systems

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1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF EBEDDED SYSTES

 Based on Generation
 Based on Complexity & Performance Requirements
 Based on deterministic behavior
 Based on Triggering

1.3.1 Embedded Systems - Classification based on Generation

a) First Generation: The early embedded systems built around 8-bit microprocessors like 8085 and
Z80 and 4-bit microcontrollers
Ex: stepper motor control units, Digital Telephone Keypads etc.

b) Second Generation: Embedded Systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8 or 16-bit
microcontrollers, following the first generation embedded systems
Ex: SCADA, Data Acquisition Systems etc.

c) Third Generation: Embedded Systems built around high performance 16/32 bit
Microprocessors/controllers, Application Specific Instruction set processors like Digital Signal
Processors (DSPs), and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs).The instruction set is
complex and powerful.
Ex: Robotics, industrial process control, networking etc.

d) Fourth Generation: Embedded Systems built around System on Chips (SoC’s), Re- configurable
processors and multicore processors. It brings high performance, tight integration and
miniaturization into the embedded device market
Ex: Smart phone devices, MIDs etc.

1.3.2 Embedded Systems - Classification based on Complexity & Performance

a) Small Scale: The embedded systems built around low performance and low cost 8 or 16 bit
microprocessors/ microcontrollers. It is suitable for simple applications and where performance is not time
critical. It may or may not contain OS.

b) Medium Scale: Embedded Systems built around medium performance, low cost 16 or 32 bit
microprocessors / microcontrollers or DSPs. These are slightly complex in hardware and firmware. It may
contain GPOS/RTOS.

c) Large Scale/Complex: Embedded Systems built around high performance 32 or 64 bit RISC
processors/controllers, RSoC or multi-core processors and PLD. It requires complex hardware and software.
These system may contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware accelerators for offloading
the processing requirements from the main processor. It contains RTOS for scheduling, prioritization and
management.
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1.4Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems:

 Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.

 Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven etc.
 Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder detection alarms,
Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
 Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder detection alarms,
Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
 Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition Systems,
Automatic Navigation Systems etc.
 Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications etc.
 Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
 Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc. 
 Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG Machines etc.
 Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers PLC
systems etc.
 Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters, Point of Sales (POS)
 Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc. 

1.5Purpose of Embedded Systems:

Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the following
tasks.

 Data Collection/Storage/Representation

 Data Communication

 Data (Signal) Processing

 Monitoring

 Control

 Application Specific User Interface

1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation:-
 Performs acquisition of data from the external world.

 The collected data can be either analog or digital

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 Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and transmission

 The collected data may be stored directly in the system or may be transmitted to some other systems or it
may be processed by the system or it may be deleted instantly after giving a meaningful representation

Fig: A Digital camera for image capturing/storage/display

2. Data Communication:-

 Embedded Data communication systems are deployed in applications ranging from complex satellite
communication systems to simple home networking systems
 Embedded Data communication systems are dedicated for data communication
 The data communication can happen through a wired interface (like Ethernet, RS-
232C/USB/IEEE1394 etc) or wireless interface (like Wi-Fi, GSM,/GPRS, Bluetooth, ZigBee etc)
 Network hubs, Routers, switches, Modems etc are
 typical examples for dedicated data transmission embedded systems

Fig: A Wireless network for data communication

3. Data (Signal) Processing:-

 Embedded systems with Signal processing functionalities are employed in applications demanding
signal processing like Speech coding, synthesis, audio video codec, transmission applications etc

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 Computational intensive systems

 Employs Digital Signal Processors (DSPs)

Fig: A Digital hearing aid employing signal processing technique

4. Monitoring:-

 Embedded systems coming under this category are specifically designed for monitoring purpose
 They are used for determining the state of some variables using input sensors
 They cannot impose control over variables.
 Electro Cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring the heart beat of a patient is a typical example
for this
 The sensors used in ECG are the different Electrodes connected to the patient‟s body
 Measuring instruments like Digital CRO, Digital Multi meter, Logic Analyzer etc used in Control &
Instrumentation applications are also examples of embedded systems for monitoring purpose

Fig: A Patient monitoring system for monitoring heartbeat

5. Control:-

 Embedded systems with control functionalities are used for imposing control over some variables
according to the changes in input variables

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 Embedded system with control functionality contains both sensors and actuators
 Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in environmental variable or
measuring variable
 The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the changes in input variable
to put an impact on the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the specified range
 Air conditioner for controlling room temperature is a typical example for embedded system with
„Control‟ functionality
 Air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor) which may be a thermistor
and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired temperature
 The air compressor unit acts as the actuator. The compressor is controlled according to the current
room temperature and the desired temperature set by the end user.

Fig: An AC for controlling room temp.

6. Application Specific User Interface:-

 Embedded systems which are designed for a specific application
 Contains Application Specific User interface (rather than general standard UI ) like key board,
Display units etc
 Aimed at a specific target group of users
 Mobile handsets, Control units in industrial applications etc are examples

Fig: An embedded system with an application-specific user interface

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2. The Typical Embedded System

An embedded system is a combination of 3 things, Hardware Software Mechanical Components and
it is supposed to do one specific task only. A typical embedded system contains a single chip controller
which acts as the master brain of the system.

Diagrammatically an embedded system can be represented as follows:

Real World

Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable (such Microwave Oven) or to
manipulate the state of some devices by sending some signals to the actuators or devices connected to the
output port system (such as temperature in Air Conditioner), in response to the input signal provided by the
end users or sensors which are connected to the input ports. Hence the embedded systems can be viewed as
a reactive system.

The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the sensors and user interfaces and
controlling some actuators that regulate the physical variable.

Keyboards, push button, switches, etc. are Examples of common user interface input devices and LEDs,
LCDs, Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for common user interface output devices for a typical embedded
system.The requirement of type of user interface changes from application to application based on domain.

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Some embedded systems do not require any manual intervention for their operation. They automatically
sense the input parameters from real world through sensors which are connected at input port. The sensor
information is passed to the processor after signal conditioning and digitization. The core of the system
performs some predefined operations on input data with the help of embedded firmware in the system and
sends some actuating signals to the actuator connect connected to the output port of the system.

The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control algorithm and other important
configuration details). There are two types of memories are used in any embedded system. Fixed memory
(ROM) is used for storing code or program. The user cannot change the firmware in this type of memory.
The most common types of memories
Used in embedded systems for control algorithm storage are OTP,PROM,UVEPROM,EEPROM and
FLASH .

An embedded system without code (i.e. the control algorithm) implemented memory has all the
peripherals but is not capable of making decisions depending on the situational as well as real world
changes. Memory for implementing the code may be present on the processor or may be implemented as a
separate chip interfacing the processor In a controller based embedded system, the controller may contain
internal memory for storing code such controllers are called Micro-controllers with on-chip ROM, eg.
Atmel AT89C51.

2.1 CORE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following categories.

 General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

o Microprocessors
o Microcontrollers
o Digital Signal Processors
 Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

 Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

 Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

1. GENERAL PURPOSE AND DOMAIN SPECIFIC PROCESSOR:

 Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based.
 The processor may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal processor,
depending on the domain and application.

Microprocessor:

 A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable of performing
arithmetic as well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set of Instructions, which
is specific to the manufacturer
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 In general the CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit and
Working registers
 Microprocessor is a dependent unit and it requires the combination of other hardware like
Memory, Timer Unit, and Interrupt Controller etc for proper functioning.
 Intel claims the credit for developing the first Microprocessor unit Intel 4004, a 4 bit
processor which was released in Nov 1971
 Developers of microprocessors.

 Intel – Intel 4004 – November 1971(4-bit)

 Intel – Intel 4040.
 Intel – Intel 8008 – April 1972.
 Intel – Intel 8080 – April 1974(8-bit).
 Motorola – Motorola 6800.
 Intel – Intel 8085 – 1976.
 Zilog - Z80 – July 1976

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Microcontroller:
 A highly integrated silicon chip containing a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
General purpose Register Arrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for program
storage, Timer and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
 Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of Microprocessors
 Microcontroller can be general purpose (like Intel 8051, designed for generic
applications and domains) or application specific (Like Automotive AVR from Atmel
Corporation. Designed specifically for automotive applications)
 Since a microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent
working, they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of
microprocessors
 Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market

Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller:

Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that
(CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
well as logical operations according to a pre-defined General purpose Register Arrays, On Chip
set
of Instructions ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, Timer
and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
It is a dependent unit. It requires the combination of It is a self contained unit and it doesn’t require
other chips like Timers, Program and data memory external Interrupt Controller, Timer, UART etc for
chips, Interrupt controllers etc for functioning its functioning
Most of the time general purpose in design and Mostly application oriented or domain specific
operation
Doesn‟t contain a built in I/O port. The I/O Port Most of the processors contain multiple built-in I/O
functionality needs to be implemented with the help ports which can be operated as a single 8 or 16 or 32
of
external Programmable Peripheral Interface Chips bit Port or as individual port pins
like
8255
Targeted for high end market where performance is Targeted for embedded market where performance is
important not so critical (At present this demarcation is invalid)
Limited power saving options compared to Includes lot of power saving features
microcontrollers

Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):

 Powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessors designed specifically to meet
the computational demands and power constraints of today's embedded audio, video,
and communications applications
 Digital Signal Processors are 2 to 3 times faster than the general purpose
microprocessors in signal processing applications

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 DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas

general purpose processors implement the algorithm in firmware and the speed of
execution depends primarily on the clock for the processors
 DSP can be viewed as a microchip designed for performing high speed computational
operations for „addition‟, „subtraction‟, „multiplication‟ and „division‟

RISC V/s CISC Processors/Controllers:

RISC CISC
Lesser no. of instructions Greater no. of Instructions
Instruction Pipelining and increased execution Generally no instruction pipelining feature
speed
Orthogonal Instruction Set (Allows each Non Orthogonal Instruction Set (All instructions
instruction to operate on any register and use are not allowed to operate on any register and
any addressing mode) use any addressing mode. It is instruction
specific)
Operations are performed on registers only, the Operations are performed on registers or
only memory operations are load and store memory depending on the instruction
Large number of registers are available Limited no. of general purpose registers
Programmer needs to write more code to . A programmer can achieve the desired
execute a task since the instructions are simpler functionality with a single instruction which in
ones turn provides the effect of using more simpler
single instructions in RISC
Single, Fixed length Instructions Variable length Instructions
Less Silicon usage and pin count More silicon usage since more additional
decoder logic is required to implement the
decoder logic is required to implement the
With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann Architecture

Harvard V/s Von-Neumann Processor/Controller Architecture:

Harvard Architecture Von-Neumann Architecture
Separate buses for Instruction and Data Single shared bus for Instruction and Data
fetching fetching
Easier to Pipeline, so high performance can Low performance Compared to Harvard
be achieved Architecture
Comparatively high cost Cheaper
No memory alignment problems Allows self modifying codes
Since data memory and program memory Since data memory and program memory
are are stored physically in same chip, chances
stored physically in different locations, no for accidental corruption of program
chances for accidental corruption of memory
program
memory

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Big-endian V/s Little-endian processors:

Endianness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the memory by processor
operations in a multi byte system (Processors whose word size is greater than one byte).
Suppose the word length is two byte then data can be stored in memory in two different ways
Higher order of data byte at the higher memory and lower order of data byte at
location just below the higher memory
Lower order of data byte at the higher memory and higher order of data byte at
location just below the higher memory

Little-endian means the lower-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest
address, and the higher-order byte at the highest address. (The little end comes first)

Big-endian means the higher-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest address,
and the lower-order byte at the highest address. (The big end comes first.)

2. Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC):

 A microchip designed to perform a specific or unique application. It is used as

replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips.
 ASIC integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the system
development cost
 Most of the ASICs are proprietary products. As a single chip, ASIC consumes very

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small area in the total system and thereby helps in the design of smaller systems with
high capabilities/functionalities.
 ASICs can be pre-fabricated for a special application or it can be custom fabricated by
using the components from a re-usable „building block‟ library of components for a
particular customer application
 Fabrication of ASICs requires a non-refundable initial investment (Non Recurring
Engineering (NRE) charges) for the process technology and configuration expenses
 If the Non-Recurring Engineering Charges (NRE) is born by a third party and the
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is made openly available in the
market, the ASIC is referred as Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP)
 The ASSP is marketed to multiple customers just as a general-purpose product , but to
a smaller number of customers since it is for a specific application.
 Some ASICs are proprietary products; the developers are not interested in revealing
the internal details.

3. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs):

 Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data

communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and
almost every other function a system must perform.
 Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories - Fixed and Programmable.
The circuits in a fixed logic device are permanent, they perform one function or set of
functions - once manufactured, they cannot be changed.
 Programmable logic devices (PLDs) offer customers a wide range of logic capacity,
features, speed, and voltage characteristics - and these devices can be re-configured to
perform any number of functions at any time.
 Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test
their logic designs in PLD based design. The design can be quickly programmed into
a device, and immediately tested in a live circuit.
 PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is reprogrammed to
change the design.

4. Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS):

 A Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) product is one which is used „as-is‟

 COTS products are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and

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interoperability with existing system components

 Typical examples for the COTS hardware unit are Remote Controlled Toy Car control
unit including the RF Circuitry part, High performance, high frequency microwave
electronics (2 to 200 GHz), High bandwidth analog-to-digital converters, Devices and
components for operation at very high temperatures, Electro-optic IR imaging arrays,
UV/IR Detectors etc
 A COTS component in turn contains a General Purpose Processor (GPP) or
Application Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP) or Application Specific
Integrated Chip (ASIC)/Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP) or
Programmable Logic Device (PLD)
 The major advantage of using COTS is that they are readily available in the market,
cheap and a developer can cut down his/her development time to a great extend.
 There is no need to design the module yourself and write the firmware .
 Everything will be readily supplied by the COTs manufacturer.
 The major problem faced by the end-user is that there are no operational and
manufacturing standards.
 The major drawback of using COTs component in embedded design is that the
manufacturer may withdraw the product or discontinue the production of the COTs at
any time if rapid change in technology .
 This problem adversely affect a commercial manufacturer of the embedded system
which makes use of the specific COTs.

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2.2 MEMORY

2.2.1 Program Storage Memory (ROM)

 Memory is an important part of an embedded system. The memory used in embedded

system can be either Program Storage Memory (ROM) or Data memory (RAM)
 Certain Embedded processors/controllers contain built in program memory and data
memory and this memory is known as on-chip memory
 Certain Embedded processors/controllers do not contain sufficient memory inside the
chip and requires external memory called off-chip memory or external memory.

2.2.1.1. Masked ROM (MROM):

 One-time programmable memory.

 Uses hardwired technology for storing data.
 The device is factory programmed by masking and metallization process according to
the data provided by the end user.
 The primary advantage of MROM is low cost for high volume production.
 MROM is the least expensive type of solid state memory.
 Different mechanisms are used for the masking process of the ROM, like
 By creating the memory cell either using a standard transistor or a high threshold
transistor.
 In the high threshold mode, the supply voltage required to turn ON the transistor
is above the normal ROM IC operating voltage.
 This ensures that the transistor is always off and the memory cell stores always
logic 0.
 The limitation with MROM based firmware storage is the inability to modify the
device firmware against firmware upgrades.

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 The MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is not possible to alter the bit
information.

2.2.1.2 Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) / (OTP):

 It is not pre-programmed by the manufacturer

 The end user is responsible for Programming these devices.
 PROM/OTP has nichrome or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix, these wires can
be functionally viewed as fuses.
 It is programmed by a PROM programmer which selectively burns the fuses
according to the bit pattern to be stored.
 Fuses which are not blown/burned represents a logic “1” where as fuses which are
blown/burned represents a logic “0”.The default state is logic “1”.
 OTP is widely used for commercial production of embedded systems whose proto-
typed versions are proven and the code is finalized.
 It is a low cost solution for commercial production.
 OTPs cannot be reprogrammed.

2.2.1.3 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):

 Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-
program the same chip.
 During development phase , code is subject to continuous changes and using an OTP
is not economical.
 EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of an FET
 Bit information is stored by using an EPROM Programmer, which applies high
voltage to charge the floating gate
 EPROM contains a quartz crystal window for erasing the stored information. If the
window is exposed to Ultra violet rays for a fixed duration, the entire memory will be
erased
 Even though the EPROM chip is flexible in terms of re-programmability, it needs to
be taken out of the circuit board and needs to be put in a UV eraser device for 20 to 30
minutes

2.2.1.4 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):

 Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-
program the same chip using electrical signals
 The information contained in the EEPROM memory can be altered by using electrical
signals at the register/Byte level
 They can be erased and reprogrammed within the circuit
 These chips include a chip erase mode and in this mode they can be erased in a few
milliseconds
 It provides greater flexibility for system design
 The only limitation is their capacity is limited when compared with the standard ROM
(A few kilobytes).

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2.2.1.5 Program Storage Memory – FLASH

 FLASH memory is a variation of EEPROM technology.

 FALSH is the latest ROM technology and is the most popular ROM technology used
in today‟s embedded designs
 It combines the re-programmability of EEPROM and the high capacity of standard
ROMs
 FLASH memory is organized as sectors (blocks) or pages
 FLASH memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET transistors
 The erasing of memory can be done at sector level or page level without affecting the
other sectors or pages
 Each sector/page should be erased before re-programming
 The typical erasable capacity of FLASH is of the order of a few 1000 cycles.

2.2.2 Read-Write Memory/Random Access Memory (RAM)

 RAM is the data memory or working memory of the controller/processor

 RAM is a direct access memory, meaning we can access the desired memory location
directly without the need for traversing through the entire memory locations to reach the
desired memory position (i.e. Random Access of memory location)

Fig: Classification of working memory (RAM)

2.2.2.1. Static RAM (SRAM):

 Static RAM stores data in the form of Voltage.
 They are made up of flip-flops
 In typical implementation, an SRAM cell (bit) is realized using 6 transistors (or 6
MOSFETs).
 Four of the transistors are used for building the latch (flip-flop) part of the memory
cell and 2 for controlling the access.

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2.2.2.2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

 The advantages of DRAM are its high density and low cost compared to SRAM

 The disadvantage is that since the information is stored as charge it gets leaked off
with time and to prevent this they need to be refreshed periodically

 Special circuits called DRAM controllers are used for the refreshing operation. The
refresh operation is done periodically in milliseconds interval
SRAM Vs DRAM:
SRAM Cell DRAM Cell
Made up of 6 CMOS transistors (MOSFET) Made up of a MOSFET and a capacitor
Doesn‟t Require refreshing Requires refreshing
Low capacity (Less dense) High Capacity (Highly dense)
More expensive Less Expensive
Fast in operation. Typical access time is 10ns Slow in operation due to refresh
requirements. Typical access time is 60ns.
Write operation is faster than read operation.

2.3 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

 Embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world

 Controlling/monitoring functions executed by the embedded system is achieved in
accordance with the changes happening to the Real World.
 The changes in the system environment or variables are detected by the sensors
connected to the input port of the embedded system.
 If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the system will
produce some changes in controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the
desired value.
 It is achieved through an actuator connected to the out port of the embedded system.

2.3.1 Sensors
 A transducer device which converts energy from one form to another for any
measurement or control purpose. Sensors acts as input device
 Eg. Hall Effect Sensor which measures the distance between the cushion and magnet
in the Smart Running shoes from adidas
 Example: IR, humidity , PIR(passive infra red) , ultrasonic , piezoelectric ,
smoke sensors

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2.3.2 Actuator:

 A form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts signals to

corresponding physical action (motion). Actuator acts as an output device
 Eg. Micro motor actuator which adjusts the position of the cushioning element in the
Smart Running shoes from adidas

2.3.3 The I/O Subsystem:

 The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction of the embedded
system with external world
 The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the Input and
output ports respectively of the embedded system
 The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the Input ports, instead they may be
interfaced through signal conditioning and translating systems like ADC,
Optocouplers etc

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