DELTA CENTRAL COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT AND

SCIENCES (DECCOMS)
IN AFFILIATION WITH
TEMPLE GATE POLYTECHNIC
ABA, ABIA STATE.
COURSE TITLE: FILE ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT
COURSE CODE: COM 214 DEPARTMENTS: COMPUTER SCIENCE
TIME ALLOWED: 2 HOURS INSTRUCTIONS: ANSWER FIVE QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1
1a. What is a file (2 marks)
1b. Define a file system (4 marks)
1c. State and explain the uses of file system (8
marks)
QUESTION 2
2a. Exhaustively explain the five various types of file system (10
marks)
2b. Enumerate the five basic terminologies in file system (5
marks)
QUESTION 3
3a. Files are usually classified into two ways. What are those two
ways (4 marks)
3b. List and explain three reasons why we study file system (6
marks)
3c. What do you understand by file system data management (4
marks)
QUESTION 4
4a. Define data redundancy, data anomalies and data consistency
(6
marks)
4b. state the three differences between physical and logical file (3
marks)
4c. what are the pros and cons of heap storage (5
marks)
QUESTION 5
5a. Briefly highlight three pros and cons of hash file organization
(6 marks)
5b. There are numerous types of files used for storing data needed
for processing, reference or back up. Explain the five main common
types of processing files (9
marks)
QUESTION 6
6a. Explain the two types of file storage (4 marks)
6b. Define the concept of buffer (4 marks)

6c. State the functions of buffer (3

marks)
QUESTION 7
7a. Explain Array, list, stack and queue. (8
marks)
7b. What are indexed sequential (2
marks)

7c. Explain sequential access and random access (4

marks)

MARKING SCHEME
1a. What is a file (2 marks)
WHAT IS A FILE? A file is a collection of data stored in one unit,
identified by a filename. It can be a document, picture, audio, video
stream, data library, application, or other collection of data.

1b. Define a file system (4

marks)
WHAT IS A FILE SYSTEM? This can be said to be a system, used
to control how data is stored and retrieved. It is a system that
manages and organizes all computer files, stores them and makes
them available when they are needed. Without a file system,
information that is kept in a storage area would be one large body
of data with no way to tell where one piece of information stops and
the next begins. By separating data into piece and giving each
piece a name, the information is easily separated and identified.
Taking its name from the paper-based information systems are
named, each piece of data is called a file. The structure and logic
rules used to manage the groups of information and their names
are called file system.

1c. State and explain the uses of file system (8

marks)
USES OF FILE SYSTEM
1. File systems allocate space in a granular manner, usually
multiple physical units on the device.
2. The file system is responsible for organizing files and
directories, and keeping track of which areas of the media
belong to which file and which are not being used.
 3. File system manages access to both the content and the
metadata about those file.
4. It is responsible for arranging storage spacing; reliability,
efficiency, and turning with the physical storage medium are
import designs consideration.
2a. Exhaustively explain the five various types of file system (10
marks)
TYPES OF FILE SYSTEM
1) DISK FILE SYSTEMS: A disk file system takes advantages of
the ability of disk storage media to randomly address data in a
short amount of time. Additional considerations include the
speed of accessing data following that initially requested and
the anticipation that the following data may also be requested.
This permits multiple users (or processes) access to various
data on the disk without regard to the sequential location of
the data.

2) FLASH FILE SYSTEM: The flash file system considers the

special abilities, performance and restrictions of flash memory
devices. Frequently a disk file system can use a flash memory
device as underlying storage media, but it is much better to use a
file system specifically designed for a flash device.
3) TAPE FILE SYSTEM: A file system and tape format designed to
store files on tape in a self-describing form. Magnetic tapes are
sequential storage media with significantly longer random data
access times than disks, posing challenges to the creation and
efficient management of a general-purpose file system.
4) DATABASE FILE SYSTEMS: Another concept for file
management is the idea of a data based file system. Instead of, or in
addition to hierarchical structured management.
5) TRANSACTION FILE SYSTEM: Some programs need to
update multiple files "all at once". For example, a software
installation may write program binaries, libraries, and
configuration files. If the software installation fails, the program
may be unusable. If the installation is upgrading a key system
utility, such as the command shell, the entire system may be left in
an unusable state. Transaction processing introduces the isolation
guarantee, which states that operations within a transaction are
hidden from other threads on the system until the transaction
commits, and that interfering operations on the system will be
properly serialized with the transaction. Transactions also provide
the atomicity guarantee, that operations inside of a transaction are
either all committed, or the transaction can be aborted and the
system discards all of its partial results. This means that if there is
a crash or power failure, after recovery, the stored state will be
consistent. Either the software will be completely installed or the
failed installation will be completely rolled back, but an unusable
partial install will not be left on the system. Files are identified by
their characteristics, like type of file, topic, author, or similar rich
metadata.

2b. Enumerate the five basic terminologies in file system (5

marks)

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN FILE SYSTEM

1-DATA: Raw fact that has little meaning unless they have been
organized in some logical manner. The smallest piece of data that
can be recognized by the computer is a single character [e.g.
alphabet [A-Z], digit [0-9], special characters including: + - ? & etc.
Single character requires 1-byte of computer storage. Therefore
we can define data as an item or group of items that do not make
meaning on their own.
2-FIELD: This is a character or group of characters [Alphabetic or
numerical] that has specific meaning. The field may be defined as a
telephone number, a date of birth, customers name etc.

3-RECORD: This is logically connected sets of one or more fields

that describes a person, place or thing e.g. a student examination
record; number of courses taken etc.
4-FILE: A file is a collection of related records for example a file
containing the record of student currently enrolled at Federal
Polytechnic Ekowe.
5-BIT: A Bit is simply defined as binary digits, which are 0’s &1’s.
The bit is the smallest unit of storage.
6-BYTE: A byte is a collection of bits, originally differing in size
depending on the context but now almost always eight bits.

3a. Files are usually classified into two ways. What are those
two ways (4
marks)

CLASIFICATION OF FILE
Files can be classified in two ways and two set of terms developed
for each as follows;
 Physical file :This focuses on how data is stored and retrieved
from storage device, the set of terms developed for its
functions are :,
- Physical record
- Field
- Character
 Logical files: this focuses on the relationship between data.
The set of terms developed for its description are
- Logical records of entity
- Data item “attributes of entity”

3b. List and explain three reasons why we study file system (6
marks)
REASONS WHY WE STUDY FILE SYSTEM
Although the problem created by file system approach tends to be
many, and it is now largely obsolete, there are several good reasons
for studying file systems.
 Some of the problems that plague file system may be
duplicated in electronic file design and management as well as
in data software if the user of the new software is unaware of
the pitfalls of data management. A wise historian once pointed
out that those who do not learn the lessons of history are
doomed to repeat them.

 The greater design complexity of electronic data file software

may be easier to understand once the relatively simple file
system’s character is tics are understood.
  File system provide a useful historical perspective on how we
handle data.

3c. What do you understand by file system data management (4

marks)
FILE SYSTEM DATA MANAGEMENT
In file system data management, data management, the retrievals
task requires an extensive programming. In some high level
languages such as COBOL, BASIC, FORTRAN etc. because, file
system differs from the way computer stores the data on the disk,
the programmer must be familiar with physical file structure.
Therefore, every file referenced in a program requires the
programmer to use complex coding to match the data
characteristics and to define the precise access path to the various
files and system component; this could lead to system malfunction.
However as the number of files in a system expands, the systems
administration becomes difficult too. Each file must have its own
management system; composed of programs that allow the user to:
a) Create the file structure.
b) Add data to the file.
c) Modify the data contained in the file
d) Delete data from the file.
e) List the file content.

4a. Define data redundancy, data anomalies and data consistency

(6
marks)
A. DATA REDUNDANCY: The system contains two or more
fields in two or more file. For instance, Agent name and phone
number can occur in both CUSTOMERS and AGENT file such
duplication cost extra data to lead to data inconsistency.
B.DATA CONSISTENCY: suppose we change an agent phone
number or address in the AGENT file if we forget to make
corresponding changes in the customers’ file, the file will
contain different data for the same agent. Report will then
yield inconsistent result.
C. DATA ANOMALIES: Data anomaly means data abnormality.
Identity, a value change should be made only in single place.
Data redundancy, however, create an abnormal condition by
field forcing field value changes in many different locations.
4b. state the three differences between physical and logical file (3
marks)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND LOGICAL FILE

PHYSICAL FILE
1. A physical file contains one record format
2. If there is a logical file for a physical file, the physical file
can`t be deleted until and unless we delete the logical file
3. Physical file occupies the portion of memory and it contains
the original data

4c. what are the pros and cons of heap storage (5

marks)

Pros of Heap storage

Heap is a good storage structure in the following situations; when
data is being bulk-loaded into the relation. The relation is only a
few pages long. In this case, the time to locate any tuple is Short,
even if the entire relation has been searched serially. When every
tuple in the relation has to be retrieved (in any order) every time
the relation is accessed. For example, retrieve the name of all the
students.
Cons of Heap storage
Heap files are inappropriate when only selected tuples of a relation
are to be accessed.
5a. Briefly highlight three pros and cons of hash file
organization
(6 marks)
Pros of Hash file organization
Hash is a good storage structure in the following situations:
When tuples are retrieved based on an exact match on the hash
field value, particularly if the access order is random. For example,
if the STUDENT relation is hashed on Name then retrieval of the
tuple with Name equal to "john Charles” is efficient.

Cons of Hash file organization

Hash is not a good storage structure in the following situations:
When tuples (data structure having multiple parts) are retrieved
based on a range of values for the hash field. For example, retrieve
all students whose name begins with the "R". When tuples are
retrieved based on a range of values for the hash field. For
example, if STUDENT relation has hash filed Roll Number and the
query is to retrieve all students with roll numbers in the range of
3000-5000. When tuples re retrieved based on a field other than the
hash field. For example, if the STUDENT relation is hashed on Roll
Number, then hashing cannot be used to search for a tuple based
on the Class attribute. When tuples are retrieved based on only part
of the hash field. For example, if the STUDENT relation is hashed
on Roll Number and Class, then hashing cannot be used to search
for a tuple based on the class attribute alone. when the hash field
frequently updated. When a hash field updated, the DBMS must
deleted the entire tuple and possible relocate it to a new address (if
the has function results in a new address). Thus, frequent updating
of the hash field impacts performance.

5b. There are numerous types of files used for storing data needed
for processing, reference or back up. Explain the five main common
types of processing files (9
marks)
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FILES

There are numerous types of files used for storing data needed for
processing, reference or back up. Explain the common types of
processing files include

 Master files,
 Transaction,
 Reference,
 Backup, report
 Sort file.

Master file

A master file is the main file that contains relatively permanent

records about particular items or entries. For example a customer
file will contain details of a customer such as customer ID, name
and contact address.

Transaction (movement) file

A transaction file is used to hold data during transaction

processing. The file is later used to update the master file and audit
daily, weekly or monthly transactions. For example in a busy
supermarket, daily sales are recorded on a transaction file and later
used to update the stock file. The file is also used by the
management to check on the daily or periodic transactions.

Reference file

A reference file is mainly used for reference or look-up purposes.

Look-up information is that information that is stored in a separate
file but is required during processing. For example, in a point of
sale terminal, the item code entered either manually or using a
barcode reader looks up the item description and price from a
reference file stored on a storage device.

Backup file

A backup file is used to hold copies (backups) of data or information

from the computers fixed storage (hard disk). Since a file held on
the hard disk may be corrupted, lost or changed accidentally, it is
necessary to keep copies of the recently updated files. In case of
the hard disk failure, a backup file can be used to reconstruct the
original file.

Report file

It is used to store relatively permanent records extracted from the

master file or generated after processing. For example you may
obtain a stock levels report generated from an inventory system
while a copy of the report will be stored in the report file.
Sort file
it stores data which is arranged in a particular order.

 Used mainly where data is to be processed sequentially. In

sequential processing, data or records are first sorted and
held on a magnetic tape before updating the master file.

6a. Explain the two types of file storage (4

marks)
TYPES OF FILE STORAGE

File storage can be classified as permanent storage and temporal

storage. File can also be classified and having been stored to or
retrieved from primary or secondary memory. The primary memory
is also known as main memory is the computer’s main random
access memory (RAM). All information that is processed by the
computer must first pass through main memory. Secondary is any
form of memory/storage other than the main computer memory.
Such memories (devices) cover a wide range of capacities and
speed of access. The examples are; magnetic disk storage which
include floppies, hard-disks, cartridge, exchangeable multi-platter,
CD-ROMs, fixed disks, flash disk and magnetic tape.

a. Permanent storage

Information is stored permanently on storage that is written only

once, such ROM (read only memory) chips and CD-ROM (compact
disk read only memory). Permanent storage media is used for
archiving files or in case of ROM chips, for storing basic
information that the computer needs to function that cannot be
overwritten.

b. Temporary storage

Temporary information storage is used as intermediate storage

between permanent or semi-permanent storage and computer’s
central processing unit (CPU). The temporary storage is the form of
memory chip called random access memory (RAM). Information is
stored in RAM while the CPU is using it. It is then returned to a
more permanent form of memory. RAM chips are known as volatile
memory because they must have power supplied to them
continuously otherwise they lose the content of their memory.
6b. Define the concept of buffer (4 marks)
CONCEPT OF BUFFER

Buffer is a temporary memory for data, normally used to

accommodate the difference in the rate at which two devices can
handle data during transfer. The buffer may be built into a
peripheral device such as printer or disk drive or may be part of the
system’s main memory.

Buffering technique is used to compensate for the slow and possible

erratic rate at which a peripheral device produces or consume data.
If the device communicates directly with the program, the program
is constrained to run in synchronism with the device to operate
independently.

Consider a program sending output to a slow device, a memory

area (the buffer) is set aside for communication. The program
places data in the buffer at its own rate. Although the device may
be slow, the program does not have to stop unless the buffer fills up
at the same time the device runs at full speed unless the buffer is
empty. This buffering technique is applicable to input device.

By providing a data buffer in the device or control unit, devices that

would ordinarily require the channel for a long period can be made
to perform independently of the channel. For instance, a card
reader may physically require about 60 ms to read a card and
transfer the data to memory through the channel. However, a
buffered card reader always reads one card before it is needed and
save the 80 bytes in a buffer in the card reader or control unit.
When the channel requests that a card be read, the contents of the
80-bytes buffered are transferred to memory at high speed (e.g 100
µs) and the channel is released. The device then proceeds to read
the next card and buffer it independently. Card readers, card
punches and printers are frequently buffered.
6c. State the functions of buffer (3
marks)
Functions of Buffer

Buffer synchronizes the speed of data transfer among the

systems/devices that are under the control of the CPU. It makes
individual devices (that is, input and output devices) to perform
their functions independently. This is because, the rate at which the
CPU performs/sends or receive it data is very high compare to the
rate at which the I/O devices receive or send data. Buffer is equally
used to accommodate the differences in the rate at which two
devices can handle data during data communication/transfer.
6d. What is file processing (3 marks)
File Processing

File is a body of stored data or information in an electronic format.

Almost all information stored on computers is in the form of files.
Files reside on mass storage devices such as hard drives, CD-
ROMs, magnetic tape, and floppy disks. When the central
processing unit (CPU) of a computer needs data from a file, or
needs to write data to a file, it temporarily stores the file in its main
memory, or Random Access Memory (RAM), while it works on the
data.
Information in computers is usually classified into two different
types of files: data files (those containing data) and program files
(those that manipulate data). Within each of these categories, many
different types of files exist that store various kinds of information.
Different computer operating systems have unique rules for the
naming of files. Windows 95 (Win95) and disk operating systems
(DOS), for instance, make use of an extension attached to the end
of each filename in order to indicate the type of file. Extensions
begin with a period (.), and then have one or more letters. An
example of a file extension used in Win95 and DOS is .bak, which
indicates that the file is a backup file.
When saving a file, a user can give it any name within the rules of
the operating system. In addition, the name must be unique. Two
files in the same directory may not have the same name, but some
operating systems allow the same name for one file to be placed in
more than one location. These additional names are called aliases.

7a. Explain Array, list, stack and queue. (8

marks)
Array

Array is an ordered collection of a number of elements of the same

type, the number being fixed unless the array is flexible. The
elements of one array may be of type integer; those of another
array may be of type real, while the elements of a third array may
be of type character string. Each element has a unique list of index
values that determine its position in the ordered collection. Each
index is of a discrete type and the number of dimension in the
ordering is fixed.

One dimensional array called vector consists of a list of elements

distinguished by a single index. For instance, if v is a one-
dimensional array and i is an index value, the vi refer to the ith
element of v. If the index ranges from L through U then the L is
called the lower bound of v and U is the upper bound. Usually, in
mathematics and often in mathematical computing the index type is
taken as integer and the lower bound is taken as one. In a two-
dimensional array, or matrix, the elements are ordered in the form
of a table comprising a fixed number of rows and a fixed number of
columns. Each element in such an array is distinguished by a pair
of indexes. The first index gives the row and the second index gives
the column of the array in which the elements is located. The
element in the ith row and jth column is called i,jth element of the
array. If i range from L1 through U1 and j ranges from L2 through
U2 then L1 is the first lower bound of the array, U1 is the first
upper bound, L2 is the second lower bound and U2 is the second
upper bound.
Again it is common practice to take the indexes as integers and to
set both L1 and L2 equal to one. An example of two-dimensional
array with U1 = m, U2 = n is give in the diagram below;

a11 a12 ... a1n

a21 a22 ... a2n
: : … :
am1 am2 ... amn

Two-dimensional array here

List

List is a finite ordered sequence of items (x1, x2, …, xn), where

n ≥ 0. If n = 0, the list has no elements and is called null list (or
empty list). If n > 0, the list has at least one element, x1, which is
called the head of the list. The list consisting of the remaining items
is called the tail of the original list. The tail of the null list is the null
list, as the tail of a list containing only one element.
The items in a list can be arbitrary in nature, unless stated
otherwise. In particular it is possible for an item to be in another
list, in this case it is known as a sub list. For example, let L be the
lists (A, B, (C, D), E), then the third list of L is the list (C, D), which
is a sub list of L. If a list has one or more sub list it is called a list
structure. If it has no sub list it is a linear list. The two basic
representation forms for lists are sequentially allocated lists and
linked lists, the latter being more flexible.

Stack

A stack is a linear list that can be accessed for either input or

output at just one of its two ends. In stack operations, all accesses
involving insertions and removals are made at one end of the list,
called top. This implies access on a last in first out (LIFO) basis
where the most recently inserted item on the list is the first to be
removed.
The operations push and pop refer respectively to the insertion
and removal of items at the top of the stack. Stacks occur
frequently in computing and in particular are closely associated
with recursion.
One example of this model of access can be found in a stack of
plates on a kitchen shelf or in a spring-loaded dispenser in a
cafeteria. In both cases, the only two logical possibilities are to add
a plate to the top of the stack. A stack is also exemplified by a
railroad spur. In this model, we can insert a boxcar from the input
to the open end of the spur, and we can remove a boxcar from the
open end of the spur to the output, missing insertion and deletion
as wish. The essence of these examples is that the next object to be
removed will always be the last one that will be added, hence the
acronym LIFO or Last-in First-out. Stacks illustrated by railroad
spur as in diagrams below;

Output Input

A B C D B C
D

Stack A

(a) Initial (b) Push A

 C D

C D
B

A
A

(c) Push B (d) Pop B

B C D
B D

C
A
A
(f) Pop C
(e) Push C

Figures showing: A Railroad Model of a stack

QUEUE

Queue is concerned with the most useful handling of various

waiting-line situations, from airplanes waiting to land to computer
programs filed for processing. The field arose from telephone
networking studies in the early 20th century, and deals with such
factors as the pattern of arrivals in a queue, the varying needs of
each arrival, and the resulting probabilities and statistical patterns
of processing times.
The basic process assumed by most queuing models is that
processes requiring service are generated over a period of time by
a queue. At certain times, a number of queues are selected for
service by some rules known as “service discipline”. The required
service is then performed for the process by the service
mechanism, after which the process leaves the system. This queue
process is illustrated in the diagram below;

7b. What are indexed sequential (2

marks)
Indexed sequential:

Indexed sequential access: This is an access method for a

sequentially organized file whose records are indexed with their
corresponding address. This access method supports both
sequential access and indexed access and the two types of access
that can be comfortably done in this method are sequential access
and random access. Note that this method is only possible with disk
files.

7c. Explain sequential access and random access (4

marks)
i. Sequential access: The access of the index sequential file
makes minimal use of the index. The records can be accessed
serially as they are ordered one after another and from the first to
the last record in the file.
ii. Random access: The random access of the index sequential
makes full use of the index to access the records using the record
address associated with the index. The records are accessed
without any defined sequence of sorting. The method is used when
the transaction is to be processed immediately without waiting for
sorting and it’s widely used in commercial data processing because
it can be allow both sequential and random methods of access.

8a. Explain the following file security techniques

Backup
Encryption
Passwords
Firewall
(8 marks)

FILE SECURITY TECHNIQUES

BACKUP
Storing backup copies of software and data or files and having
backup computer and communication capabilities are important
basic safeguards because the data can then be restored if it was
altered or destroyed by a computer crime or accident. Computer
data should be backed up frequently and should be stored nearby in
secured locations in case of damage at the primary site.
Transporting sensitive data to storage locations should also be done
securely.

ENCRYPTION
Another technique to protect confidential information is encryption.
Computer users can scramble information to prevent unauthorized
users from accessing it. Authorized users can unscramble the
information when needed by using a secret code called a key.
Without the key the scrambled information would be impossible or
very difficult to unscramble. A more complex form of encryption
uses two keys, called the public key and the private key, and a
system of double encryption. Each participant possesses a secret,
private key and a public key that is known to potential recipients.
Both keys are used to encrypt, and matching keys are used to
decrypt the message. However, the advantage over the single-key
method lies with the private keys, which are never shared and so
cannot be intercepted. The public key verifies that the sender is the
one who transmitted it. The keys are modified periodically, further
hampering unauthorized unscrambling and making the encrypted
information more difficult to decipher.

APPROVED USERS
Another technique to help prevent abuse and misuse of computer
data is to limit the use of computers and data files to approved
persons. Security software can verify the identity of computer users
and limit their privileges to use, view, and alter files. The software
also securely records their actions to establish accountability.
Military organizations give access rights to classified, confidential,
secret, or top-secret information according to the corresponding
security clearance level of the user. Other types of organizations
also classify information and specify different degrees of protection.

PASSWORDS
Passwords are confidential sequences of characters that allow
approved persons to make use of specified computers, software, or
information. To be effective, passwords must be difficult to guess
and should not be found in dictionaries. Effective passwords
contain a variety of characters and symbols that are not part of the
alphabet. To thwart imposters, computer systems usually limit the
number of attempts and restrict the time it takes to enter the
correct password.
A more secured method is to require possession and use of tamper-
resistant plastic cards with microprocessor chips, known as “smart
cards,” which contain a stored password that automatically
changes after each use. When a user logs on, the computer reads
the card's password, as well as another password entered by the
user, and matches these two respectively to an identical card
password generated by the computer and the user's password
stored in the computer in encrypted form. Use of passwords and
'smart cards' is beginning to be reinforced by biometrics,
identification methods that use unique personal characteristics,
such as fingerprints, retinal patterns, facial characteristics, or voice
recordings.

FIREWALLS
Computers connected to communication networks, such as the
Internet, are particularly vulnerable to electronic attack because so
many people have access to them. These computers can be
protected by using firewall computers or software placed between
the networked computers and the network. The firewall examines,
filters, and reports on all information passing through the network
to ensure its appropriateness. These functions help prevent
saturation of input capabilities that otherwise might deny usage to
legitimate users, and they ensure that information received from an
outside source is expected and does not contain computer viruses.