DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & BUSINESS SYSTEMS

CB3405 – SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

UNIT I - SOFTWARE PROCESS

Introduction to software Engineering - Software Process- Perspective Models: Waterfall,

Iterative & Incremental, V – and Spiral Models – Specialized Process Models : Agile Models,
Component Based Development (CBD), Rapid Application Development (RAD), and Formal
Methods

What is Software?
Software is a program or set of programs containing instructions that provide the desired
functionality. Engineering is the process of designing and building something that serves a
particular purpose and finds a cost-effective solution to problems.
Software Engineering:

Software Engineering is the process of designing, developing, testing, and maintaining software. It
is a systematic and disciplined approach to software development that aims to create high-quality,
reliable, and maintainable software.
1. Software engineering includes a variety of techniques, tools, and methodologies, including
requirements analysis, design, testing, and maintenance.
2. It is a rapidly evolving field, and new tools and technologies are constantly being developed
to improve the software development process.
3. By following the principles of software engineering and using the appropriate tools and
methodologies, software developers can create high-quality, reliable, and maintainable
software that meets the needs of its users.
4. Software Engineering is mainly used for large projects based on software systems rather
than single programs or applications.
5. The main goal of Software Engineering is to develop software applications for improving
quality, budget, and time efficiency.
6. Software Engineering ensures that the software that has to be built should be consistent,
correct, also on budget, on time, and within the required requirements.

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Key Principles of Software Engineering
1. Modularity: Breaking the software into smaller, reusable components that can be developed
and tested independently.
2. Abstraction: Hiding the implementation details of a component and exposing only the
necessary functionality to other parts of the software.
3. Encapsulation: Wrapping up the data and functions of an object into a single unit, and
protecting the internal state of an object from external modifications.
4. Reusability: Creating components that can be used in multiple projects, which can save
time and resources.
5. Maintenance: Regularly updating and improving the software to fix bugs, add new features,
and address security vulnerabilities.
6. Testing: Verifying that the software meets its requirements and is free of bugs.
7. Design Patterns: Solving recurring problems in software design by providing templates for
solving them.
8. Agile methodologies: Using iterative and incremental development processes that focus on
customer satisfaction, rapid delivery, and flexibility.
9. Continuous Integration & Deployment: Continuously integrating the code changes and
deploying them into the production environment.
Main Attributes of Software Engineering
Software Engineering is a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable study and approach to the design,
development, operation, and maintenance of a software system. There are four main Attributes of
Software Engineering.
1. Efficiency: It provides a measure of the resource requirement of a software product
efficiently.
2. Reliability: It assures that the product will deliver the same results when used in similar
working environment.
3. Reusability: This attribute makes sure that the module can be used in multiple applications.
4. Maintainability: It is the ability of the software to be modified, repaired, or enhanced easily
with changing requirements.
Need of Software Engineering:
 Handling Big Projects: A corporation must use a software engineering methodology in
order to handle large projects without any issues.

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  To manage the cost: Software engineering programmers plan everything and reduce all
those things that are not required.
 To decrease time: It will save a lot of time if you are developing software using a software
engineering technique.
 Reliable software: It is the company’s responsibility to deliver software products on
schedule and to address any defects that may exist.
 Effectiveness: Effectiveness results from things being created in accordance with the
standards.
 Reduces complexity: Large challenges are broken down into smaller ones and solved one
at a time in software engineering. Individual solutions are found for each of these issues.
 Productivity: Because it contains testing systems at every level, proper care is done to
maintain software productivity.
Tasks :
The main responsibility of a software engineer is to develop useful computer programs and
applications. Working in teams, you would complete various projects and develop solutions to
satisfy certain customer or corporate demands.
Some of the key responsibilities of software engineer are:
 Requirement Analysis: Collaborating with stakeholders to understand and gather the
requirements to design and develop software solutions.
 Design and Development: Creating well-structured, maintainable code that meets the
functional requirements and adheres to software design principles.
 Testing and Debugging: Writing and conducting unit tests, integration tests, and debugging
code to ensure software is reliable and bug-free.
 Code Review: Participating in code reviews to improve code quality, ensure adherence to
standards, and facilitate knowledge sharing among team members.
 Maintenance: Updating and maintaining existing software systems, fixing bugs, and
improving performance or adding new features.
 Documentation: Writing clear documentation, including code comments, API
documentation, and design documents to help other engineers and future developers
understand the system.
Advantages of Software Engineering
There are several advantages to using a systematic and disciplined approach to software
development, such as:
1. Improved Quality: By following established software engineering principles and
techniques, the software can be developed with fewer bugs and higher reliability.
2. Increased Productivity: Using modern tools and methodologies can streamline the
development process, allowing developers to be more productive and complete projects
faster.
3. Better Maintainability: Software that is designed and developed using sound software
engineering practices is easier to maintain and update over time.

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 4. Reduced Costs: By identifying and addressing potential problems early in the development
process, software engineering can help to reduce the cost of fixing bugs and adding new
features later on.
5. Increased Customer Satisfaction: By involving customers in the development process and
developing software that meets their needs, software engineering can help to increase
customer satisfaction.
6. Better Team Collaboration: By using Agile methodologies and continuous integration,
software engineering allows for better collaboration among development teams.
7. Better Scalability: By designing software with scalability in mind, software engineering
can help to ensure that software can handle an increasing number of users and transactions.
8. Better Security: By following the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) and
performing security testing, software engineering can help to prevent security breaches and
protect sensitive data.
Software Processes:
Software processes in software engineering refer to the methods and techniques used to develop and
maintain software. Some examples of software processes include:
 Waterfall: a linear, sequential approach to software development, with distinct phases such
as requirements gathering, design, implementation, testing, and maintenance.
 Agile: a flexible, iterative approach to software development, with an emphasis on rapid
prototyping and continuous delivery.
 Scrum: a popular Agile methodology that emphasizes teamwork, iterative development, and
a flexible, adaptive approach to planning and management.
 DevOps: a set of practices that aims to improve collaboration and communication between
development and operations teams, with an emphasis on automating the software delivery
process.
Software Process Model
A software process model is an abstraction of the actual process, which is being described. It can
also be defined as a simplified representation of a software process. Each model represents a
process from a specific perspective.
Following are some basic software process models on which different type of software process
models can be implemented:
1. A workflow Model : It is the sequential series of tasks and decisions that make up a
business process.
2. The Waterfall Model: It is a sequential design process in which progress is seen as flowing
steadily downwards.
 Phases in waterfall model:
o Requirements Specification
o Software Design
o Implementation
o Testing

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 3. Dataflow Model: It is diagrammatic representation of the flow and exchange of information
within a system.
4. Evolutionary Development Model: Following activities are considered in this method:
 Specification
 Development
 Validation
5. Role / Action Model: Roles of the people involved in the software process and the
activities.
Need for Process Model
The software development team must decide the process model that is to be used for software
product development and then the entire team must adhere to it. This is necessary because the
software product development can then be done systematically. Each team member will understand
what is the next activity and how to do it. Thus process model will bring the definiteness and
discipline in overall development process. Every process model consists of definite entry and exit
criteria for each phase. Hence the transition of the product through various phases is definite.
If the process model is not followed for software development then any team member can perform
any software development activity, this will ultimately cause a chaos and software project will
definitely fail without using process model, it is difficult to monitor the progress of software
product. Thus process model plays an important rule in software engineering.
Advantages or Disadvantages of Process Model
There are several advantages and disadvantages to different software development methodologies,
such as:
Waterfall
Advantages of waterfall model are:
1. Clear and defined phases of development make it easy to plan and manage the project.
2. It is well-suited for projects with well-defined and unchanging requirements.
Disadvantages of waterfall model are:
1. Changes made to the requirements during the development phase can be costly and time-
consuming.
2. It can be difficult to know how long each phase will take, making it difficult to estimate the
overall time and cost of the project.
3. It does not have much room for iteration and feedback throughout the development process.
Agile
Advantages of Agile Model are:
1. Flexible and adaptable to changing requirements.
2. Emphasizes rapid prototyping and continuous delivery, which can help to identify and fix
problems early on.
3. Encourages collaboration and communication between development teams and
stakeholders.
Disadvantages of Agile Model are:

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 1. It may be difficult to plan and manage a project using Agile methodologies, as requirements
and deliverables are not always well-defined in advance.
2. It can be difficult to estimate the overall time and cost of a project, as the process is iterative
and changes are made throughout the development.
Scrum
Advantages of Scrum are:
1. Encourages teamwork and collaboration.
2. Provides a flexible and adaptive framework for planning and managing software
development projects.
3. Helps to identify and fix problems early on by using frequent testing and inspection.
Disadvantages of Scrum are:
1. A lack of understanding of Scrum methodologies can lead to confusion and inefficiency.
2. It can be difficult to estimate the overall time and cost of a project, as the process is iterative
and changes are made throughout the development.
DevOps
Advantages of DevOps are:
1. Improves collaboration and communication between development and operations teams.
2. Automates software delivery process, making it faster and more efficient.
3. Enables faster recovery and response time in case of issues.
Disadvantages of DevOps are:
1. Requires a significant investment in tools and technologies.
2. Can be difficult to implement in organizations with existing silos and lack of culture of
collaboration.
3. Need to have a skilled workforce to effectively implement the devops practices.
4. Ultimately, the choice of which methodology to use depends on the specific project and
organization, as well as the goals and requirements of the project.
What are the four 4 main activities of the software process?
The four main activities of Software Process are:
1. Specification
2. Design and Development
3. Verification and Validation
4. Evolution
What are the three types of software process models?
The three main software processes models are:
1. Waterfall Model
2. Agile Model
3. Spiral Model
Explain the Software Process Framework in detail.
Framework is a Standard way to build and deploy applications. Software Process Framework is a
foundation of complete software engineering process. Software process framework includes all set

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of umbrella activities. It also includes number of framework activities that are applicable to all
software projects.
A generic process framework encompasses five activities which are given below one by one:
Communication:
In this activity, heavy communication with customers and other stakeholders, requirement gathering
is done.
Planning:
In this activity, we discuss the technical related tasks, work schedule, risks, required resources etc.

Modeling:
Modelling is about building representations of things in the ‘real world’.In modelling activity, a
product’s model is created in order to better understanding and requirements.
Construction:
In software engineering, construction is the application of set of procedures that are needed to
assemble the product. In this activity, we generate the code and test the product in order to make
better product.
Deployment: In this activity, a complete or non-complete products or software are represented to
the customers to evaluate and give feedback. on the basis of their feedback we modify the products
for supply better product.
Typical umbrella activities are:
1. Software project tracking and control
 In this activity, the developing team accesses project plan and compares it with the predefined
schedule.
 If these project plans do not match with the predefined schedule, then the required actions are
taken to maintain the schedule.

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 2. Risk management
 Risk is an event that may or may not occur.
 If the event occurs, then it causes some unwanted outcome. Hence, proper risk management is
required.
3. Software Quality Assurance (SQA)
 SQA is the planned and systematic pattern of activities which are required to give a guarantee of
software quality. For example, during the software development meetings are conducted at every
stage of development to find out the defects and suggest improvements to produce good quality
software.
4. Formal Technical Reviews (FTR)
 FTR is a meeting conducted by the technical staff.
 The motive of the meeting is to detect quality problems and suggest improvements.
 The technical person focuses on the quality of the software from the customer point of view. 5.
Measurement
 Measurement consists of the effort required to measure the software.
 The software cannot be measured directly. It is measured by direct and indirect measures.
 Direct measures like cost, lines of code, size of software etc.
 Indirect measures such as quality of software which is measured by some other factor. Hence, it
is an indirect measure of software.
6. Software Configuration Management (SCM)
It manages the effect of change throughout the software process.
7.Reusability management
 It defines the criteria for reuse the product.
 The quality of software is good when the components of the software are developed for certain
application and are useful for developing other applications.
8. Work product preparation and production
 It consists of the activities that are needed to create the documents, forms, lists, logs and user
manuals for developing a software.
Software Process Models / Prescriptive Models
Prescriptive process models advocate an orderly approach to software engineering
A software process model is a simplified representation of a software process. Each model
represents a process from a specific perspective.
Some methodologies are sometimes known as software development life cycle (SDLC)
methodologies, though this term could also be used more generally to refer to any methodology.
What is the SDLC Waterfall Model?
The waterfall model is a software development model used in the context of large, complex
projects, typically in the field of information technology. It is characterized by a structured,
sequential approach to project management and software development.
The waterfall model is useful in situations where the project requirements are well-defined and
the project goals are clear. It is often used for large-scale projects with long timelines, where there

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is little room for error and the project stakeholders need to have a high level of confidence in the
outcome.
The name 'prescriptive' is given because the model prescribes a set of activities, actions, tasks,
quality assurance and change the mechanism for every project.

3 types of Perspective models are:

1.TheWaterfallModel
2.TheIncrementalProcessmodel
3. RAD model

Features :
Following are the features of the waterfall model:
1. Sequential Approach: The waterfall model involves a sequential approach to software
development, where each phase of the project is completed before moving on to the next one.
2. Document-Driven: The waterfall model depended on documentation to ensure that the
project is well-defined and the project team is working towards a clear set of goals.
3. Quality Control: The waterfall model places a high emphasis on quality control and
testing at each phase of the project, to ensure that the final product meets the requirements and
expectations of the stakeholders.
4. Rigorous Planning: The waterfall model involves a careful planning process, where the
project scope, timelines, and deliverables are carefully defined and monitored throughout the
project lifecycle.
The waterfall model is used in situations where there is a need for a highly structured and
systematic approach to software development. It can be effective in ensuring that large, complex
projects are completed on time and within budget, with a high level of quality and customer
satisfaction.

Importance of Waterfall Model :

Following are the importance of waterfall model:

1. Clarity and Simplicity: The linear form of the Waterfall Model offers a simple and
unambiguous foundation for project development.
2. Clearly Defined Phases: The Waterfall Model phases each have unique inputs and
outputs, guaranteeing a planned development with obvious checkpoints.
3. Documentation: A focus on thorough documentation helps with software comprehension,
maintenance, and future growth.
4. Stability in Requirements: Suitable for projects when the requirements are clear and
stable, reducing modifications as the project progresses.
5. Resource Optimization: It encourages effective task-focused work without continuously
changing contexts by allocating resources according to project phases.
6. Relevance for Small Projects: Economical for modest projects with simple specifications
and minimal complexity.

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Phases of Waterfall Model

The Waterfall Model has six phases which are:

1. Requirements: The first phase involves gathering requirements from stakeholders and
analyzing them to understand the scope and objectives of the project.
2. Design: Once the requirements are understood, the design phase begins. This involves
creating a detailed design document that outlines the software architecture, user interface, and
system components.
3. Development: The Development phase include implementation involves coding the
software based on the design specifications. This phase also includes unit testing to ensure
that each component of the software is working as expected.
4. Testing: In the testing phase, the software is tested as a whole to ensure that it meets the
requirements and is free from defects.
5. Deployment: Once the software has been tested and approved, it is deployed to the
production environment.
6. Maintenance: The final phase of the Waterfall Model is maintenance, which involves
fixing any issues that arise after the software has been deployed and ensuring that it continues
to meet the requirements over time.
The classical waterfall model divides the life cycle into a set of phases. This model considers that
one phase can be started after the completion of the previous phase. That is the output of one
phase will be the input to the next phase. Thus the development process can be considered as a
sequential flow in the waterfall. Here the phases do not overlap with each other. The different
sequential phases of the classical waterfall model are shown in the below figure.

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Incremental Development Model
What is the Incremental Process Model?
First, a simple working system implementing only a few basic features is built and then that is
delivered to the customer. Then thereafter many successive iterations/ versions are implemented
and delivered to the customer until the desired system is released.

1. Requirement analysis: In Requirement Analysis At any time, the plan is made just for
the next increment and not for any kind of long-term plan. Therefore, it is easier to modify the
version as per the needs of the customer.
2. Design & Development: At any time, the plan is made just for the next increment and not
for any kind of long-term plan. Therefore, it is easier to modify the version as per the needs of
the customer. The Development Team first undertakes to develop core features (these do not
need services from other features) of the system. Once the core features are fully developed,
then these are refined to increase levels of capabilities by adding new functions in Successive
versions. Each incremental version is usually developed using an iterative waterfall model of
development.
3. Deployment and Testing: After Requirements gathering and specification, requirements
are then split into several different versions starting with version 1, in each successive
increment, the next version is constructed and then deployed at the customer site. in
development and Testing the product is checked and tested for the actual process of the
model.
4. Implementation: In implementation After the last version (version n), it is now deployed
at the client site.

A, B, and C are modules of Software Products that are incrementally developed and delivered.

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Phases of incremental model

Requirements of Software are first broken down into several modules that can be incrementally
constructed and delivered.

Characteristics of Incremental Process Model

1. System development is divided into several smaller projects.
2. To create a final complete system, partial systems are constructed one after the other.
3. Priority requirements are addressed first.
4. The requirements for that increment are frozen once they are created.
Advantages of the Incremental Process Model
1. Prepares the software fast.
2. Clients have a clear idea of the project.
3. Changes are easy to implement.
4. Provides risk handling support, because of its iterations.
5. Adjusting the criteria and scope is flexible and less costly.
6. Comparing this model to others, it is less expensive.
7. The identification of errors is simple.
Disadvantages of the Incremental Process Model
1. A good team and proper planned execution are required.
2. Because of its continuous iterations the cost increases.
3. Issues may arise from the system design if all needs are not gathered upfront throughout
the program lifecycle.
4. Every iteration step is distinct and does not flow into the next.
5. It takes a lot of time and effort to fix an issue in one unit if it needs to be corrected in all
the units.
Incremental Vs Waterfall Model
Incremental software development is better than a waterfall approach for most business, e-
commerce, and personal systems. By developing the software incrementally, it is cheaper and easier

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to make changes in the software as it is being developed.

Compared to the waterfall model, incremental development has three important benefits:

The cost of accommodating changing customer requirements is reduced. The amount of analysis
and documentation that has to be redone is much less than that’s required with waterfall model.
It’s easier to get customer feedback on the work done during development than when the system is
fully developed, tested, and delivered.
More rapid delivery of useful software is possible even if all the functionality hasn’t been
included. Customers are able to use and gain value from the software earlier than it’s possible with
the waterfall model.
Iterative Model:
The Iterative Waterfall Model is a software development approach that combines the
sequential steps of the traditional Waterfall Model with the flexibility of iterative design. It allows
for improvements and changes to be made at each stage of the development process, instead of
waiting until the end of the project. The iterative waterfall model provides feedback paths from
every phase to its preceding phases, which is the main difference from the classical waterfall
model.
1. When errors are detected at some later phase, these feedback paths allow for correcting errors
committed by programmers during some phase.
2. The feedback paths allow the phase to be reworked in which errors are committed and these
changes are reflected in the later phases.
3. But, there is no feedback path to the stage – feasibility study, because once a project has been
taken, does not give up the project easily.
4. It is good to detect errors in the same phase in which they are committed.
5. It reduces the effort and time required to correct the errors.
6. A real-life example could be building a new website for a small business.

Process of Iterative Waterfall Model

Following are the phases of Iterative Waterfall Model:

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1. Requirements Gathering: This is the first stage where the business owners and developers
meet to discuss the goals and requirements of the website.
2. Design: In this stage, the developers create a preliminary design of the website based on the
requirements gathered in stage 1.
3. Implementation: In this stage, the developers begin to build the website based on the design
created in stage 2.
4. Testing: Once the website has been built, it is tested to ensure that it meets the requirements
and functions properly.
5. Deployment: The website is then deployed and made live to the public.
6. Review and Improvement: After the website has been live for a while, the business owners
and developers review its performance and make any necessary improvements.
This process is repeated until the website meets the needs and goals of the business. Each iteration
builds upon the previous one, allowing for continuous improvement and iteration until the final
product is complete.

Application of Iterative Waterfall Model:

Below are some application of Iterative Waterfall Model:
1. The essential needs are established, but as time passes, the finer points may become relevant.
2. Programmers have a learning curve to climb when they utilize new technology.
3. The resources needed to complete a large project are constrained, hence on a smaller scale, the
automation is more temporary.
4. Very high risk as the project’s objective may occasionally alter.

Advantages of Iterative Waterfall Model:

1. Phase Containment of Errors:

2. Collaboration
3. FlexibilityTesting and feedback
4. Scalability
5. MaintenanceEasy to Manage
6. Faster Time to Market
7. Predictable Outcomes
8. Improved Customer Satisfaction
9. Quality Assurance
10. Risk Reduction

Drawbacks of Iterative Waterfall Model:

1. Difficult to incorporate change requests

2. Incremental delivery not supported
3. Overlapping of phases not supported
4. Risk handling not supported
5. Limited customer interactions

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Spiral Model

The Spiral Model is one of the most important Software Development Life Cycle models. The
Spiral Model is a combination of the waterfall model and the iterative model. It provides support
for Risk Handling.
It was designed to include the best features from the waterfall and prototyping models, and
introduces a new component; risk-assessment.
What Are the Phases of the Spiral Model?
The Spiral Model is a risk-driven model, meaning that the focus is on managing risk through
multiple iterations of the software development process. It consists of the following phases:

1. Objectives Defined: In first phase of the spiral model we clarify what the project aims to
achieve, including functional and non-functional requirements.
2. Risk Analysis: In the risk analysis phase, the risks associated with the project are
identified and evaluated.
3. Engineering: In the engineering phase, the software is developed based on the
requirements gathered in the previous iteration.
4. Evaluation: In the evaluation phase, the software is evaluated to determine if it meets the
customer’s requirements and if it is of high quality.
5. Planning: The next iteration of the spiral begins with a new planning phase, based on the
results of the evaluation.

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Each phase of the Spiral Model is divided into four quadrants as shown in the above figure. The
functions of these four quadrants are discussed below:
1. Objectives determination and identify alternative solutions: Requirements are gathered
from the customers and the objectives are identified, elaborated, and analyzed at the start of
every phase. Then alternative solutions possible for the phase are proposed in this quadrant.
2. Identify and resolve Risks: During the second quadrant, all the possible solutions are
evaluated to select the best possible solution. Then the risks associated with that solution are
identified and the risks are resolved using the best possible strategy. At the end of this
quadrant, the Prototype is built for the best possible solution.
3. Develop the next version of the Product: During the third quadrant, the identified
features are developed and verified through testing. At the end of the third quadrant, the next
version of the software is available.

4. Review and plan for the next Phase: In the fourth quadrant, the Customers evaluate the so-
far developed version of the software. In the end, planning for the next phase is started.
Risk Handling in Spiral Model
A risk is any adverse situation that might affect the successful completion of a software project. The
most important feature of the spiral model is handling these unknown risks after the project has
started. Such risk resolutions are easier done by developing a prototype.
1. The spiral model supports coping with risks by providing the scope to build a prototype at
every phase of software development.
2. The Prototyping Model also supports risk handling, but the risks must be identified
completely before the start of the development work of the project.
3. But in real life, project risk may occur after the development work starts, in that case, we
cannot use the Prototyping Model.
4. In each phase of the Spiral Model, the features of the product dated and analyzed, and the
risks at that point in time are identified and are resolved through prototyping.
5. Thus, this model is much more flexible compared to other SDLC models.

Example of Spiral Model

Real-Life Example of Spiral Model: Developing an E-Commerce Website

First Spiral – Planning and Requirements: The initial phase involves gathering basic requirements
for the e-commerce website, like product listing, shopping cart, and payment options. The team
analyzes any risks, such as security or scalability, and creates a small prototype.
Example: The team builds a simple homepage with a basic product catalog to see how users
interact with it and identify any design flaws.
Second Spiral – Risk Analysis and Refining the Design: After gathering feedback from the
prototype, the next spiral focuses on adding more features and fixing early issues. The team
addresses security risks, such as secure payment processing, and tests how well the site handles
increasing user traffic.

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Example: A basic shopping cart and user registration system are added. The payment system is
also tested with dummy transactions to ensure security.
Third Spiral – Detailed Implementation: With more feedback, the team further refines the
design, adding advanced features like order tracking, customer reviews, and search functionality.
Risks like scalability (handling many users) are re-evaluated, and more testing is conducted.
Example: The website now supports user profiles, product reviews, and real-time inventory
updates. The team tests how the system handles large volumes of orders during peak times.

Final Spiral – Full Deployment: The final phase involves full implementation, thorough testing,
and launching the e-commerce website to the public. Ongoing risks like system crashes or user
feedback are monitored and addressed as needed.
Example: The website goes live with all features, including secure payments, product listings, and
order tracking, ready for users to shop online.

Advantages of the Spiral Model

1. Risk Handling
2. Good for large projects
3. Flexibility in Requirements
4. Customer Satisfaction
5. Iterative and Incremental Approach
6. Emphasis on Risk Management
7. Improved Communication
8. Improved Quality

Disadvantages of the Spiral Model

1. Complex
2. Expensive
3. Too much dependability on Risk Analysis
4. Difficulty in time management
5. Complexity
6. Time-Consuming
7. Resource Intensive

Why Spiral Model is called Meta Model?

The Spiral model is called a Meta-Model because it subsumes all the other SDLC models. For
example, a single loop spiral actually represents the Iterative Waterfall Model.

The spiral model incorporates the stepwise approach of the Classical Waterfall Model.
The spiral model uses the approach of the Prototyping Model by building a prototype at the
start of each phase as a risk-handling technique.
Also, the spiral model can be considered as supporting the Evolutionary model – the iterations
along the spiral can be considered as evolutionary levels through which the complete system is
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built.

The V – Model :

The V-model is a type of SDLC model where the process executes sequentially in a V-
shape. It is also known as the Verification and Validation model. It is based on the association
of a testing phase for each corresponding development stage. The development of each step is
directly associated with the testing phase. The next phase starts only after completion of the
previous phase.

V-Model Design

1. Requirements Gathering and Analysis: The first phase of the V-Model is the requirements
gathering and analysis phase, where the customer’s requirements for the software are gathered
and analyzed to determine the scope of the project.

2. Design: In the design phase, the software architecture and design are developed, including the
high-level design and detailed design.

3. Implementation: In the implementation phase, the software is built based on the design.

4. Testing: In the testing phase, the software is tested to ensure that it meets the customer’s
requirements and is of high quality.

5. Deployment: In the deployment phase, the software is deployed and put into use.

6. Maintenance: In the maintenance phase, the software is maintained to ensure that it continues
to meet the customer’s needs and expectations.

7. The V-Model is often used in safety: critical systems, such as aerospace and defence systems,
because of its emphasis on thorough testing and its ability to clearly define the steps involved
in the software development process.

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The following illustration depicts the different phases in a V-Model of the SDLC.
Verification Phases:
It involves a static analysis technique (review) done without executing code. It is the process of
evaluation of the product development phase to find whether specified requirements are met.

There are several Verification phases in the V-Model:

Business Requirement Analysis:

This is the first step of the designation of the development cycle where product requirement needs
to be cured from the customer’s perspective. in these phases include proper communication with
the customer to understand the requirements of the customers. these are the very important
activities that need to be handled properly, as most of the time customers do not know exactly
what they want, and they are not sure about it at that time then we use an acceptance test
design planning which is done at the time of business requirement it will be used as an input for
acceptance testing.

System Design:

Design of the system will start when the overall we are clear with the product requirements, and
then need to design the system completely. This understanding will be at the beginning of
complete under the product development process. these will be beneficial for the future execution
of test cases.

Architectural Design:

In this stage, architectural specifications are comprehended and designed. Usually, several
technical approaches are put out, and the ultimate choice is made after considering both the
technical and financial viability. The system architecture is further divided into modules that each
handle a distinct function. Another name for this is High-Level Design (HLD).

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At this point, the exchange of data and communication between the internal modules and external
systems are well understood and defined. During this phase, integration tests can be created and
documented using the information provided.

Module Design:
This phase, known as Low-Level Design (LLD), specifies the comprehensive internal design for
every system module. Compatibility between the design and other external systems as well as
other modules in the system architecture is crucial. Unit tests are a crucial component of any
development process since they assist in identifying and eradicating the majority of mistakes and
flaws at an early stage. Based on the internal module designs, these unit tests may now be created.

Coding Phase:
The Coding step involves writing the code for the system modules that were created during the
Design phase. The system and architectural requirements are used to determine which
programming language is most appropriate.
The coding standards and principles are followed when performing the coding. Before the final
build is checked into the repository, the code undergoes many code reviews and is optimized for
optimal performance.

Validation Phases:
It involves dynamic analysis techniques (functional, and non-functional), and testing done by
executing code. Validation is the process of evaluating the software after the completion of the
development phase to determine whether the software meets the customer’s expectations and
requirements.

So, V-Model contains Verification phases on one side of the Validation phases on the other side.
The verification and Validation phases are joined by the coding phase in a V-shape. Thus, it is
called V-Model.

There are several Validation phases in the V-Model:

Unit Testing:
Unit Test Plans are developed during the module design phase. These Unit Test Plans are executed
to eliminate bugs in code or unit level.

Integration testing:
After completion of unit testing Integration testing is performed. In integration testing, the
modules are integrated and the system is tested. Integration testing is performed in the
Architecture design phase. This test verifies the communication of modules among themselves.

System Testing:
System testing tests the complete application with its functionality, inter-dependency, and
communication. It tests the functional and non-functional requirements of the developed
application.

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User Acceptance Testing (UAT):
UAT is performed in a user environment that resembles the production environment. UAT verifies
that the delivered system meets the user’s requirement and the system is ready for use in the real
world.

Design Phase:
 Requirement Analysis: This phase contains detailed communication with the customer to
understand their requirements and expectations. This stage is known as Requirement
Gathering.

 System Design: This phase contains the system design and the complete hardware and
communication setup for developing the product.

 Architectural Design: System design is broken down further into modules taking up different
functionalities. The data transfer and communication between the internal modules and with
the outside world (other systems) is clearly understood.

 Module Design: In this phase, the system breaks down into small modules. The detailed
design of modules is specified, also known as Low-Level Design (LLD).

Testing Phases:

 Unit Testing: Unit Test Plans are developed during the module design phase. These Unit Test
Plans are executed to eliminate bugs at the code or unit level.

 Integration testing: After completion of unit testing Integration testing is performed. In

integration testing, the modules are integrated, and the system is tested. Integration testing is
performed in the Architecture design phase. This test verifies the communication of modules
among themselves.

 System Testing: System testing tests the complete application with its functionality,
interdependency, and communication. It tests the functional and non-functional requirements
of the developed application.

 User Acceptance Testing (UAT): UAT is performed in a user environment that resembles the
production environment. UAT verifies that the delivered system meets the user’s requirement
and the system is ready for use in the real world.

Advantages of V-Model
 This is a highly disciplined model and Phases are completed one at a time.
 V-Model is used for small projects where project requirements are clear.
 Simple and easy to understand and use.
 It enables project management to track progress accurately.

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Disadvantages of V-Model
 High risk and uncertainty.
 It is not good for complex and object-oriented projects.
 It is not suitable for projects where requirements are not clear and contain a high risk of
changing.
 This model does not support iteration of phases.
 It does not easily handle concurrent events.
 Inflexibility: The V-Model is a linear and sequential model, which can make it difficult to
adapt to changing requirements or unexpected events.

Specialised Process Models

Specialized process models take on many of the characteristics of one or more of the
traditional models. However, these models tend to be applied when a specialized or narrowly
defined software engineering approach is chosen.
1. Component Based Development
2. Formal Methods Model

1. Component Based Development : Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software components,

developed by vendors who offer them as products, provide targeted functionality with well-defined
interfaces that enable the component to be integrated into the software that is to be built. The
component-based development model incorporates many of the characteristics of the spiral model.
It is evolutionary in nature, demanding an iterative approach to the creation of software. However,
the component-based development model constructs applications from prepackaged software
component.

Modeling and construction activities begin with the identification of candidate components. These
components can be designed as either conventional software modules or object-oriented classes or
packages of classes. Regardless of the technology that is used to create the components, the
component-based development model incorporates the following steps:

1. Available component-based products are researched and evaluated for the application
domain in question.
2. Component integration issues are considered.
3. A software architecture is designed to accommodate the components.
4. Components are integrated into the architecture.
5. Comprehensive testing is conducted to ensure proper functionality

The component-based development model leads to software reuse, and reusability provides
software engineers with a number of measurable benefits. software engineering team can achieve a
reduction in development cycle time as well as a reduction in project cost if component reuse
becomes part of your culture.

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2. Formal Methods Model : The formal methods model encompasses a set of activities that leads
to formal mathematical specification of computer software. Formal methods enable to specify,
develop, and verify a computer-based system by applying a rigorous, mathematical notation. A
variation on this approach, called cleanroom software engineering is currently applied by some
software development organizations. When formal methods are used during development, they
provide a mechanism for eliminating many of the problems that are difficult to overcome using
other software engineering paradigms.

Ambiguity, incompleteness, and inconsistency can be discovered and corrected more easily,
through the application of mathematical analysis. When formal methods are used during design,
they serve as a basis for program verification and therefore enable you to discover and correct
errors that might otherwise go undetected. The formal methods model offers the promise of defect-
free software. There are some of the disadvantages too:

• The development of formal models is currently quite time consuming and expensive.
• Because few software developers have the necessary background to apply formal methods,
extensive training is required.
• It is difficult to use the models as a communication mechanism for technically unsophisticated
customer.

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THE RAD MODEL:

Rapid Application Development (RAD) is an incremental software process model that

emphasizes a short development cycle. The RAD model is a “high-speed” adaption of the waterfall
model, in which rapid development is achieved by using a component base construction approach.

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If requirements are well understood and project scope is constrained, the RAD process enables a
development team to create a “fully functional system” within a very short time period.

The RAD approach maps into the generic framework activities. Communication works to
understand the business problem and the information characteristics that the software must
accommodate.
Planning is essential because multiple software teams works in parallel on different system
functions.
Modeling encompasses three major phases- business modeling, data modeling and process
modeling- and establishes design representation that serve existing software components and the
application of automatic code generation.
Deployment establishes a basis for subsequent iterations. The RAD approach has
drawbacks:
1. For large, but scalable projects, RAD requires sufficient human resources to create the
right number of RAD teams.
2. If developers and customers are not committed to the rapid-fire activities necessary to
complete the system in a much abbreviated time frame, RAD projects will fail
3. If a system cannot be properly modularized, building the components necessary for
RAD will be problematic
4. If high performance is an issue, and performance is to be achieved through tuning the
interfaces to system components, the RAD approach may not work; and
RAD may not be appropriate when technical risks are high.
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Agile Process View:
Agility is flexibility, it is a state of dynamic, adapted to the specific circumstances. The agile
methods refers to a group of software development models based on the incremental and iterative
approach, in which the increments are small and typically, new releases of the system are created
and made available to customers every few weeks.

Phases in the Agile Model

The agile model is a combination of iterative and incremental process models. The steps involve in
agile SDLC models are:
 Requirement gathering
 Design the Requirements
 Construction / Iteration
 Testing / Quality Assurance
 Deployment
 Feedback

1. Requirements gathering:
In this phase, you must define the requirements. You should explain business opportunities and plan
the time and effort needed to build the project. Based on this information, you can evaluate
technical and economic feasibility.
2. Design the requirements: When you have identified the project, work with stakeholders to
define requirements. You can use the user flow diagram or the high-level UML diagram to show
the work of new features and show how it will apply to your existing system.

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3. Construction/ iteration: When the team defines the requirements, the work begins. Designers
and developers start working on their project, which aims to deploy a working product. The product
will undergo various stages of improvement, so it includes simple, minimal functionality.
4. Testing: In this phase, the Quality Assurance team examines the product's performance and
looks for the bug.
5. Deployment: In this phase, the team issues a product for the user's work environment.

6. Feedback: After releasing the product, the last step is feedback. In this, the team receives
feedback about the product and works through the feedback.

Principles of the Agile Model

 To establish close contact with the customer during development and to gain a clear
understanding of various requirements, each Agile project usually includes a customer
representative on the team. At the end of each iteration stakeholders and the customer
representative review, the progress made and re-evaluate the requirements.
 The agile model relies on working software deployment rather than comprehensive
documentation.
 Frequent delivery of incremental versions of the software to the customer representative in
intervals of a few weeks.
 Requirement change requests from the customer are encouraged and efficiently
incorporated.
 It emphasizes having efficient team members and enhancing communications among them
is given more importance. It is realized that improved communication among the
development team members can be achieved through face-to-face communication rather
than through the exchange of formal documents.
 It is recommended that the development team size should be kept small (5 to 9 people) to
help the team members meaningfully engage in face-to-face communication and have a
collaborative work environment.
 The agile development process usually deploys Pair Programming. In Pair programming,
two programmers work together at one workstation. One does coding while the other
reviews the code as it is typed in. The two programmers switch their roles every hour or so.

Characteristics of the Agile Process

 Agile processes must be adaptable to technical and environmental changes. That means if
any technological changes occur, then the agile process must accommodate them.
 The development of agile processes must be incremental. That means, in each development,
the increment should contain some functionality that can be tested and verified by the
customer.
 The customer feedback must be used to create the next increment of the process.
 The software increment must be delivered in a short span of time.
 It must be iterative so that each increment can be evaluated regularly.

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Advantages of the Agile Model
 Working through Pair programming produces well-written compact programs which have
fewer errors as compared to programmers working alone.
 It reduces the total development time of the whole project.
 Agile development emphasizes face-to-face communication among team members, leading
to better collaboration and understanding of project goals.
 Customer representatives get the idea of updated software products after each iteration. So,
it is easy for him to change any requirement if needed.
 Agile development puts the customer at the centre of the development process, ensuring that
the end product meets their needs.

Disadvantages of the Agile Model

 The lack of formal documents creates confusion and important decisions taken during
different phases can be misinterpreted at any time by different team members.
 It is not suitable for handling complex dependencies.
 The agile model depends highly on customer interactions so if the customer is not clear,
then the development team can be driven in the wrong direction.

What is the Agile Software Development Life Cycle (Agile SDLC)?

The Agile Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is an iterative and incremental
software development methodology that prioritizes flexibility, collaboration, and customer
feedback. Unlike traditional SDLC models, such as the waterfall model, which completes each step
sequentially, the agile SDLC divides the development process into smaller iterations or
increments.

The major factors of agile,

 Early customer involvement
 Iterative development
 Self-organizing teams
 Adaptation to change

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Agile SDLC Process Flow
1. Concept: In concept phase vision of the project, its scope, objectives, and goals are set.
2. Inception: This stage is conducted before Construction. The major goal of this phase is
to complete just enough work to get your team moving in the correct direction.
3. Iteration/Construction: The main goal of this phase is to create a consumable solution
with enough functionality to satisfy your stakeholders’ present needs, or to configure it in
the event of a package implementation.
4. Release: This stage normally involves final performance testing, security assessments, and
documentation updates, as well as user acceptability testing (UAT), which ensures that user
demands are satisfied and the product is successful. When the software is complete, it is
released into production or made available to users.
Production: The Production Phase aims to keep systems viable and productive after
they have been deployed to the user population

What is a scrum in software development?

Scrum is a management framework that teams use to self-organize tasks and work towards a
common goal. It is a framework within which people can address complex adaptive problems while
the productivity and creativity of delivering products are at the highest possible value. Scrum is a
management framework that teams use to self-organize and work towards a common goal.
 Scrum allows us to develop products of the highest value while making sure that we
maintain creativity and productivity.
 The iterative and incremental approach used in scrum allows the teams to adapt to the
changing requirements.
Silent features of Scrum
 Scrum is a light-weighted framework
 Scrum emphasizes self-organization
 Scrum is simple to understand
 Scrum framework helps the team to work together
 Lifecycle of Scrum

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Sprint: A Sprint is a time box of one month or less. A new Sprint starts immediately after the
completion of the previous Sprint. Release: When the product is completed, it goes to the Release
stage.
Sprint Review: If the product still has some non-achievable features, it will be checked in this
stage and then passed to the Sprint Retrospective stage.
Sprint Retrospective: In this stage quality or status of the product is checked. Product
Backlog: According to the prioritize features the product is organized.
Sprint Backlog: Sprint Backlog is divided into two parts Product assigned features to sprint and
Sprint planning meeting.

Advantage of Scrum framework

 Scrum framework is fast moving and money efficient.
 Scrum framework works by dividing the large product into small sub-products.
 It’s like a divide and conquer strategy
 In Scrum customer satisfaction is very important.
 Scrum is adaptive in nature because it has short sprint.
 As Scrum framework rely on constant feedback therefore the quality of product increases in less
amount of time.

Disadvantage of Scrum framework

 Scrum framework does not allow changes into their sprint.
 Scrum framework is not fully described model. If you want to adopt it you need to fill in the
framework with your own details like Extreme Programming(XP), Kanban, Dynamic Systems
Development Method (DSDM).
 It can be difficult for the Scrum to plan, structure and organize a project that lacks a clear
definition.
 The daily Scrum meetings and frequent reviews require substantial resources.

Crystal Method in Agile Development/Framework

Crystal methods are flexible approaches used in Agile software development to manage projects
effectively. They adapt to the needs of the team and the project, promoting collaboration,
communication, and adaptability for successful outcomes.
The crystal method is an agile framework that is considered a lightweight or agile methodology that
focuses on individuals and their interactions. The methods are color-coded to significant risk to
human life. It is mainly for short-term projects by a team of developers working out of a single
workspace. Among a few Agile Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) models crystal is
considered as one of the Agile SDLC models.

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Properties of Crystal Agile Framework

1. Frequent Delivery: It allows you regularly deliver the products and test code to real users.
Without this, you might build a product that nobody needs.
2. Reflective Improvement: No matter how good you have done or how bad you have done.
Since there are always areas where the product can be improved, so the teams can implement
to improve their future practices.
3. Osmotic Communication: Alistair stated that having the teams in the same physical phase
is very much important as it allows information to flow in between members of a team as in
osmosis.

4. Personal Safety: There are no bad suggestions in a crystal team, team members should feel
safe to discuss ideas openly without any fear.
5. Focus: Each member of the team knows exactly what to do, which enables them to focus
their attention. This boosts team interaction and works towards the same goal.
6. Easy access to expert users: It enhances team communication with users and gets regular
feedback from real users.
7. Technical tooling: It contains very specific technical tools which to be used by the software
development team during testing, management, and configuration. These tools make it
enable the team to identify any error within less time.
8. Continuous learning: The framework emphasizes on continuous learning, enabling team
members to acquire new skills and knowledge, and apply them in their work.

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 9. Teamwork: The framework stresses on the importance of teamwork, promoting
collaboration, and mutual support among team members.
10. Timeboxing: The framework adopts timeboxing to manage project deadlines, ensuring that
the team delivers within set timelines.
11. Incremental development: The framework promotes incremental development, enabling
the team to deliver working software frequently, and adapt to changes as they arise.
12. Automated testing: The framework emphasizes on automated testing, enabling the team to
detect and fix bugs early, reducing the cost of fixing errors at later stages.
13. Customer involvement: The framework emphasizes on involving customers in the
development process, promoting customer satisfaction, and delivering products that meet
their needs.
14. Leadership: The framework encourages leadership, enabling team members to take
ownership of their work and make decisions that contribute to the success of the project.

How does Crystal Methodology Operates?

Till now, we got to know that crystal is a family of various developmental approaches, and it
is not a group of prescribed developmental tools and methods. In the beginning, the approach is set
by considering the business requirements and the needs of the project. Various methodologies in the
Crystal family also known as weights of the Crystal approach are represented by different colors of
the spectrum.

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Crystal family consists of many variants like Crystal Clear, Crystal Yellow, Crystal Red, Crystal
Sapphire, Crystal Red, Crystal Orange Web, and Crystal Diamond.
1. Crystal Clear- The team consists of only 1-6 members that is suitable for short-term
projects where members work out in a single workspace.
2. Crystal Yellow- It has a small team size of 7-20 members, where feedback is taken from
Real Users. This variant involves automated testing which resolves bugs faster and redues
3. the use of too much documentation.
4. Crystal Orange- It has a team size of 21-40 members, where the team is split according to
their functional skills. Here the project generally lasts for 1-2 years and the release is
required every 3 to 4 months.
5. Crystal Orange Web- It has also a team size of 21-40 members were the projects that have
a continually evolving code base that is being used by the public. It is also similar to Crystal
Orange but here they do not deal with a single project but a series of initiatives that required
programming.
6. Crystal Red- The software development is led by 40-80 members where the teams can be
formed and divided according to requirements.
7. Crystal Maroon- It involves large-sized projects where the team size is 80-200 members
and where methods are different and as per the requirement of the software.

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