THE UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA

COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

Course Title: ANALOGUE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Course Code: EEEP3223

April 2025

(For internal use only)

Emmanuel Suh
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: CONTROL SYSTEMS ........................................................................................... 2
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Examples of control systems ................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Analogue and digital control systems ................................................................................... 4
1.4 Open-loop and closed-loop control systems ......................................................................... 4
1.5 Characteristics of feedback control system........................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 2: TERMINOLOGY ASSOCIATED WITH FEEDBACK SYSTEMS ..................... 7
2.1 Block diagram fundamentals ............................................................................................ 7
2.2 Block diagrams of continuous feedback control systems ................................................ 8
2.3 Terminology associated with closed-loop block diagram ................................................ 9
Chapter 3: Block Diagram Algebra and Transfer Functions of Systems...................................... 11
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 11
3.2 Review of fundamentals ..................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Blocks in cascade ................................................................................................................ 11
3.4 Canonical form of a feedback control system..................................................................... 12
3.5 Block diagram transformation theorems ............................................................................. 12
3.6 Unity feedback systems ...................................................................................................... 14
3.7 Superposition of multiple inputs ......................................................................................... 14
3.8 Reduction of complicated block diagrams .......................................................................... 15
CHAPTER 4: CONCEPTS OF STABILITY AND ALGEBRAIC CRITERIA FOR LTI
SYSTEMS..................................................................................................................................... 18
4.1 The concept of stability .................................................................................................. 18
4.2 Characteristic root locations for continuous systems ..................................................... 18
4.3 Graphical representation of poles and zeros of a system. .............................................. 19
4.4 Necessary conditions for stability .................................................................................. 20
Chapter 5: Frequency response analysis ....................................................................................... 25
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 25
5.2: Graphical representation .................................................................................................... 25
5.2.1: Bode diagram representation ...................................................................................... 25
5.2.2: Nichols chart ............................................................................................................... 28
5.3: Relative Stability................................................................................................................ 30
5.3.1: Phase margin ............................................................................................................... 30
2.3.2: Gain margin ................................................................................................................ 30
Tutorials Analogue Control Systems ........................................................................................ 32

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 CHAPTER 1: CONTROL SYSTEMS
Objective:
The aim of this chapter is to show the interest of control engineering and its applicability in
various domains. To also let the student understand the difference between an open-loop control
system and a closed-loop system.
1.1 Introduction
The word system has many meanings. In literature, a system refers to “An arrangement, set,
or collection of things connected or related in such a manner as to form an entirety or whole”.
In engineering sciences, a system refers to “An arrangement of physical components
connected or related in such a manner as to form and/or act as an entire unit”.
The word control is usually taken to mean regulate, direct or command. Combining the above
definitions, we have:
A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a
manner as to command, direct or regulate itself or another system.
In engineering and science, we usually restrict the meaning of control systems to apply to
those systems whose major function is to dynamically or actively command, direct or regulate
1.2 Examples of control systems
Control systems are found almost everywhere in our environment. But before exemplifying this,
we need to define two terms: input and output, which help in identifying or defining a control
system.
Input: It is the stimulus, excitation or command applied to a control system, typically from an
external energy source, usually in order to produce a specific response from the control system.
Output: It is the actual response obtained from a control system. It may or may not be equal to
the specified response implied by the input.
If the output and input are given, it is possible to identify or define the nature of the
system components. Control systems may have more than one input or output. Often all inputs
and outputs are well defined by the system description. But sometimes, they are not. For
example, in telecommunication, an atmospheric electrical storm may intermittently interfere with
radio reception, producing an unwanted output from a loudspeaker. This “noise” (output) is part
of the total output as defined above, but for the purpose of simply identifying a system, spurious
inputs producing undesirable outputs are not normally considered as inputs and outputs in the

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system description. However, it is usually necessary to carefully consider these extra inputs and
outputs when the system is examined in detail.
The terms input and output also may be used in the description of any type of system,
whether or not it is a control system. A control system may be part of a larger system, in which
case it is called a subsystem. The subsystem is also called a control system. This is because its
inputs and outputs may then be internal variables of the larger system. Common examples of
control systems are:
1. An electric switch is a manufactured control system, controlling the flow of electricity.
By definition, the apparatus or person flipping the switch is not a part of this control. Flipping
the switch on or off may be considered as the input. That is, the input can be in one of the two
states, on or off. The output is the flow or non flow (two states) of electricity.
2. A thermostatically controlled heater or furnace automatically regulating the temperature
of a room or enclosure is a control system. The input to this system is a reference temperature,
usually specified by appropriately setting a thermostat. The output is the actual temperature of
the room or enclosure. When the thermostat detects that the output is less than the input, the
furnace provides heat until the temperature of the enclosure becomes equal to the reference
input. Then the furnace is automatically turned off. When the temperature falls somewhat below
the reference temperature, the furnace is turned on again.
3. The seemingly simple act of pointing at an object with a finger requires a biological
control system consisting chiefly of the eyes, the arm, hand and finger, and the brain. The input
is the precise direction of the object (moving or not) with respect to some reference, and the
output is the actual pointed direction with respect to the same reference.
4. The control system consisting of a person driving an automobile has components which
are clearly both manufactured and biological. The driver wants to keep the automobile in the
appropriate lane of the roadway. The driver accomplishes this by constantly watching the
direction of the automobile with respect to the direction of the road. In this case, the painted
guide line or lines on either side of the lane may be considered as the input. The heading of the
automobile is the output of the system. The driver controls this output by constantly measuring it
with his or her eyes and brain, and correcting it with his or her hands on the steering wheel. The
major components of this control system are the driver´s hands, eyes and brain, and the vehicle.

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 1.3 Analogue and digital control systems
The signals in a control, for example, the input and the output waveforms, are typically
functions of some independent variable, usually time, denoted t. In control engineering, there
exist two classes of signals.
Signals that consist of a continuity of values of the independent variable t is called a
continuous-time signal, or more generally, a continuous-data signal or (less frequently) an
analogue signal.
Signal defined at, or of interest at, only discrete (distinct) instants of the independent variable
t (upon which it depends) is called a discrete-time, a discrete-data, a sampled-data or a digital
signal.
Control systems can be classified according to the type of signals they process: continuous-
time (analogue), discrete-time (digital), or a combination of both (hybrid).
Continuous-time control systems, also called continuous-data control systems, or analogue
control systems, contain or process only continuous-time signals and components.
Discrete-time control systems, also called discrete-data control systems, or sampled-data
control systems, have discrete-time signals or components at one or more points in the system.
Hybrid control systems have continuous-time as well as discrete-time signals. Sampled-data
control differ from hybrid control is that the former MUST include at least one discrete-data
signal.
1.4 Open-loop and closed-loop control systems
Control systems are classified into two general categories: open-loop and closed-loop systems.
1.4.1 Open-loop control system
Open-loop control systems are used for very small applications. An open-loop control system is
one in which the control action is independent of the output(s) as shown by the figure below.

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 The main problem with open-loop control is that the controlled variable is sensitive to changes in
disturbance inputs. So, for example, if a gas fire is switched on in a room, and the temperature
rises to 200 C , it will remain at that value unless there is a disturbance. This could be caused by
leaving a door to the room open, for example or alternatively by a change in outside temperature.
In either case, the internal room temperature will change. For the room temperature to remain
constant, a mechanism is required to vary the energy output from the gas fire.
The major characteristics or features of open-loop control systems are:
1. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by calibration.
2. They are not usually troubled with problems of instability.

1.4.2 Closed-loop or feedback control system

A closed-loop control system is one in which the control action is somehow dependent on the
output.

The controller and the system/plant lie along the forward path, and the sensor in the feedback
path. The measured value of the plant output is compared at the summing point with the desired
value. The difference or error is fed to the controller which generates a control signal to drive the
system until its output equals the desired value. Such an arrangement is sometimes called error-
actuated system.
Feedback is that characteristic of closed-loop control systems which distinguishes them
from open-loop systems. Feedback is that property of a closed-loop system which permits the
output (or some other controlled variable) to be compared with the input of the system (or an
input to some other internally situated component or subsystem) so that the appropriate control
action may be formed as some function of the output and input.

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 More generally, feedback is said to exist in a system when a closed sequence of cause-
and-effect relations exist between system variables.
1.5 Characteristics of feedback control system
The presence of feedback typically imparts the following properties to a system:
1. Increased accuracy: the ability to faithfully reproduce the input.
2. Tendency toward oscillations or instability
3. Reduced sensitivity of the ratio of output to input to variations in system parameters and
other characteristics
4. Reduced effects of nonlinearities.
5. Reduced effects of external disturbances or noise.
6. Increase bandwidth. The bandwidth of a system is a frequency response measure of how
well the system responds to variations in the input signal.

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 CHAPTER 2: TERMINOLOGY ASSOCIATED WITH FEEDBACK
SYSTEMS
2.1 Block diagram fundamentals
A block diagram is a short hand, pictorial representation of the cause-and –effect relationship
between the input and output of a physical system. It provides a convenient and useful method
for characterising the functional relationships among the various components of a control
system. System components are alternatively called elements of the system. The simplest form of
the block diagram is the single block with one input and one output as shown by Figure 2.1:

Figure 2. 1 A simple block diagram

The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually contains a description of or the name
of the element, or the symbol for the mathematical operation to be performed on the input to
yield the output. The direction of arrows indicates signal flow or information as shown by Figure
2.2

Figure 2. 2 Alternate representations

The operations of addition and subtraction have a special representation. The block becomes a
small circle, called a summing point, with the appropriate plus or minus sign associated with the
arrows entering the circle. The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs. Any number of inputs
may enter a summing point.

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 Figure 2. 3 Representation of the summing point

Some authors use a cross-in-circle to represent a summing point as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2. 4 Alternate representation

This notation needs a special attention when used in a block diagram because, it sometimes
confused with the multiplication operation.

2.2 Block diagrams of continuous feedback control systems

The blocks representing the various components of a control system are connected in a fashion
which shows their functional relationships within the system. The basic configuration of a simple

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closed-loop (feedback) control system with a single input and single output (SISO) is shown by
Figure 2.5:

Figure 2. 5 General structure of a feedback control system

2.3 Terminology associated with closed-loop block diagram

1 The plant (or process, or controlled system), is the system, subsystem, process or object
controlled by the feedback control system.
2 The controlled output is the output variable of the plant under the control of the feedback
control system.
3 The forward path is the transmission path from the summing point to the controlled
output
4 The feed forward (control) elements are the components of the forward path that generate
the control signal applied to the plant. Note that these elements typically include
controllers, compensators (or equalisation elements), and/or amplifiers.
5 The control signal (or manipulated variable) is the output signal of the feed forward
elements applied as input to the plant.
6 The feedback path is the transmission path from the controlled output back to the
summing point.
7 The feedback elements establish the functional relationship between the controlled output
and the primary feedback signal. Note that the feedback elements typically include
sensors of the controlled output, compensators, and/or controller elements.

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8 The reference input is an external signal applied to the feedback control system, usually
at the first summing point in order to command a specified action of the plant. It usually
represents ideal (or desired) plant output behaviour.
9 The primary feedback signal is a function of the controlled output, algebraically summed
with the reference input to obtain the actuating (error) signal. Note an open-loop system
has no primary feedback signal.
10 The actuating (or error) signal is the reference input signal plus or minus the primary
feedback signal. The control action is generated by the actuating (error) signal in a
feedback control system. In an open-loop system, the actuating signal is equal to the
reference input.
11 Negative (degenerative) feedback means the summing point is a subtractor. Positive
(regenerative) feedback means the summing point is an adder.
12 A transducer is a device that converts one energy form into another.
13 A disturbance (or noise input) is an undesired stimulus or input signal affecting the value
of the controlled output.
14 Take-off point: A take-off point allows the same signal or variable as input to more than
one block or summing point, thus permitting the signal to proceed unaltered along several
different paths to several destinations. It is represented as a dot (solid circle) with arrows
pointing away from it.
15 Time response of a system, subsystem, or element is the output as a function of time,
usually following application of a prescribed input under specified operating conditions.

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 Chapter 3: Block Diagram Algebra and Transfer Functions of Systems
3.1 Introduction
A block diagram is a shorthand, pictorial representation of a physical system, illustrating
the functional relationships among its components. This latter feature permits evaluation of the
contributions of the individual elements to the overall performance of the system.
In this chapter we are interested in developing methods for reducing complicated block
diagrams to manageable forms so that they may be used to predict the overall performance of a
system.
3.2 Review of fundamentals
In general, a block diagram consists of a specific configuration of four types of elements: blocks,
summing points, takeoff points, and arrows representing unidirectional signal flow:

Figure 3. 1 Block diagram configuration

3.3 Blocks in cascade

Any finite number of blocks in series may be algebraically combined by multiplication of their
transfer functions. That is, n components or blocks with transfer functions G1, G2, . . . ,Gn,
connected in cascade are equivalent to a single element G with a transfer function given by
n
G  G1.G2 .G3 ...Gn   Gi
i

Example

Figure 3. 2 Blocks in cascade

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3.4 Canonical form of a feedback control system
Consider the feedback system represented by Figure 3.3:

Figure 3. 3 Canonical form of a closed loop system

The two blocks in the forward path of the feedback system may be combined. Letting G = G 1G2,
the resulting configuration is called the canonical form of a feedback control system. G and H
are not necessarily unique for a particular system. The canonical form associated with the system
in Figure 3.3, is represented by Figure 3.4:

Figure 3. 4 Simplified canonical form

3.5 Block diagram transformation theorems

Block diagrams of complicated control systems may be simplified using easily derivable
transformations. The first important transformation, combining blocks in cascade, has already
been presented. It is repeated for completeness in the chart illustrating the transformation
theorems. The letter P is used to represent any transfer function, and W, X, Y, Z denote any
transformed signal.

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3.6 Unity feedback systems
A unity feedback system is one in which the primary feedback is identically equal to the
controlled output. for a unity feedback system, the control diagram is represented by Figure 3.5:

Figure 3. 5 Unity feedback system

Any feedback system with only linear time-invariant elements can be put into the form of a unity
feedback system by using Transformation 5.
Example

Figure 3. 6 Canonical form and unity feedback equivalent

3.7 Superposition of multiple inputs

Sometimes it is necessary to evaluate system performance when several inputs are
simultaneously applied at different points of the system.
When multiple inputs are present in a linear system, each is treated independently of the others.
The output due to all stimuli acting together is found in the following manner. We assume zero
initial conditions, as we seek the system response only to inputs.
Step 1: Set all inputs except one equal to zero.
Step 2: Transform the block diagram to canonical form, using the transformations theorems
Step 3: Calculate the response due to the chosen input acting alone.
Step 4: Repeat Steps 1 to 3 for each of the remaining inputs.
Step 5: Algebraically add all of the responses (outputs) determined in Steps 1 to 4. This sum is
the total output of the system with all inputs acting simultaneously.

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Example
Determine the output C due to the inputs U and R for the block diagram in Figure 3.7:

Figure 3. 7 A multiple input system

Solution
Since we are dealing with linear systems, we are going the exploit the principle of
superimposition in order to determine the overall transfer function of the system.
Step 1:Set U  0 to determine the transfer function due to the action of R. The two blocks are
then in cascade and form a unity feedback system, in which we later eliminate the feedback loop
to obtain the transfer function.

C s G1G2

R  s  U 0 1  G1G2

Step 2: Set R  0 to determine the transfer function due to the action of U. The modified block
diagram becomes block G2 in a negative feedback loop with block G1, in which we later
eliminate to obtain the transfer function.

C s G2

U  s  R 0 1  G1G2

Step 3: The output of the system is the combination of the outputs due to the actions of R and U
G1G2 G2
C s  R U
1  G1G2 1  G1G2

3.8 Reduction of complicated block diagrams

The block diagram of a practical feedback control system is often quite complicated. It may
include several feedback or feedforward loops, and multiple inputs. By means of systematic
block diagram reduction, every multiple loop in a linear feedback system may be reduced to

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canonical form. The techniques developed in the preceding paragraphs provide the necessary
tools.
The following general steps may be used as a basic approach in the reduction of complicated
block diagrams. Each step refers to specific transformations listed earlier.
Step 1: Combine all cascade blocks using Transformation 1.
Step 2: Combine all parallel blocks using Transformation 2.
Step 3: Eliminate all minor feedback loops using Transformation 4.
Step 4: Shift takeoff points to the right of the major loop, using Transformations 6, and 7.
Step 5: Repeat Steps 1 to 4 until the canonical form has been achieved for a particular input.
These Transformations are sometimes useful, and experience with the reduction technique will
determine their application.
Example
Reduce the block diagram represented by Figure 3.8, in to canonical form and obtain its
feedback equivalent.

Figure 3. 8 A multiple-loop feedback control system

Solution
Step 1: Blocks G1 and G4 are in cascade resulting in G14  G1G4

G1G4
Step 2: Block G14 is in feedback with H1 resulting in G14 H1 
1  G1G4 H1

Step 3: Blocks G2 and G3 are in parallel resulting in G23  G2  G3

Step 4: Blocks G14 H1 and G23 are in cascade resulting in G5 

 G2  G3  G1G4
1  G1G4 H1
Step 5: Block G5 is in a feedback loop with H2 which is then eliminated to obtain the overall
transfer function for the system as:

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C  G2  G3  G1G4
s 
R 1  G1G4 H1   G2  G3  G1G4 H 2

Even though the solution presented is quite elaborate, the intermediate steps leading to the
solution are not unique thus it is left for the student to develop skills on how to solve a given
system.

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 CHAPTER 4: CONCEPTS OF STABILITY AND ALGEBRAIC CRITERIA
FOR LTI SYSTEMS
4.1 The concept of stability
Stability in a system implies that small changes in the system input, initial conditions or in
system parameters do not result in large changes in system output. Stability is a very important
characteristic of the transient performance of a system. A linear time-invariant system is stable if
the following two notions of system stability are verified:
i. When the system is excited by a bounded input, the output is bounded. This statement
is called the bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) definition of stability.
ii. In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero (the equilibrium state of the
system) irrespective of initial conditions. This stability concept is known as asymptotic
stability.
The second notion of stability generally concerns a free system relative to its transient behaviour.
The first notion concerns a system under the influence of an input. Clearly, if a system is
subjected to an unbounded input, noting can be said about its stability. But, if it subjected to a
bounded input and produces an unbounded response, it is by definition unstable. In this chapter,
we are concerned with stability determination of LTI systems

4.2 Characteristic root locations for continuous systems

In a vast majority of practical systems, the following statements on stability are quite useful:
Consider a system represented by the transfer function:
N ( s)
H s 
D( s)
i. If all the poles have negative real parts, then the system H(s) is stable. The pole(s) is/are
the root(s) of the characteristic equation (D(s) =0)
ii. If any pole has a positive real part or if there is a repeated pole on the j -axis, the
system is unstable.
iii. If all the poles have negative real parts, and there exist one or more non repeated
(distinct) poles on the j -axis, the system is limitedly or marginally stable.
The following statements are also true concerning systems stability
1 A system is asymptotically stable if and only if, all its poles have negative real parts.

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 2 A system is marginally stable if it has one or more distinct poles (nonrepeating) on
the imaginary axis, and any remaining poles have negative real parts.
3 A system is unstable if any pole has a positive real part, or if there are any repeated
poles on the imaginary axis.

Note it is the worst pole(s) that determine the stability properties of the system. In further
subdivision of the concept of stability, a linear time invariant system is characterised as:
i. Absolutely stable with respect to a parameter of the system if it is stable for all values of
this parameter
ii. Conditionally stable with respect to a parameter, if the system is stable for only certain
bounded ranges of this parameter.

4.3 Graphical representation of poles and zeros of a system.

The poles and zeros of a transfer function can be represented on a two dimensional diagram,
referred to as the s-plane. This plane is obtained in the usual way for complex quantities. In the s-
plane, a pole is represented with a cross (x) and a zero is represented with a small circle (o).
Pole: any root of factors of the characteristic equation in the denominator, that causes the transfer
function to become infinite that is D(s) = 0.
Zero: any roots of factors of the numerator, that causes the transfer function to become zero that
is N(s) = 0.

Figure 4. 1 Regions of pole-location for stable and unstable systems

From the representation of the poles of the system, it gives an idea about the nature of the
transient response of the system.

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 Figure 4. 2Effect of pole position in the s-plane on system transient response

The responses may be summarised as follows:

1. Negative  gives decaying response
2. Positive  gives growing response
3. Zero  gives constant response, but multiple coincident poles on  axis give growing
response.
4. Large  gives high frequency
5. Small  gives low frequency
6. Zero  gives an aperiodic response.
4.4 Necessary conditions for stability
Certain conditions regarding the stability of a system can be drawn by merely inspecting the
coefficients of its characteristic equation in polynomial form, that is D(s) = 0, this is done using
the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion.
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion states that the number of roots of the characteristic
equation with positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in sign of the first
column of the Routh array.
To use this criterion, the characteristic equation needs to verify certain conditions which are:

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 i. If some of the coefficients are zero or negative, it can be concluded that the system is
unstable.
ii. If all the coefficients of D(s) = 0, are positive or negative, the possibility of stability of
the system may exists.
If the conditions above are satisfied, construct the Routh-Hurwitz table.
Consider the characteristic equation of the form:
D( s )  a0 s 4  a1s 3  a2 s 2  a3 s  a4  0

s4 a0 a2 a4

s3 a1 a3 0

s2 a0 a2 a0 a4 a0 0
  
a1 a3 a1 0 a1 0
 b1  b2 0
a1 a1 a1

s1 a1 a3 a1 0
 
b1 b2 b1 0
 c1 0
b1 b1

s0 a4 0

The elements of b1, b2, b3, c1, and c2 are calculated as follows:
a1 a 2 − a 0 a 3 a1 a 4 − a 0 a 5 b1 a3 − a1 b2 b1 a5 − a1 b3
b1 = , b2 = , c1 = , c2 =
a1 a1 b1 b1
This process is continued till we get a zero as the last coefficient in the third column.
From the table, the stability criterion is as follows:
For a system to be stable, it is necessary and sufficient that all the coefficients of the first column
of the Routh array of the characteristic equation are all positive or negative. If this condition is
not verified, the system is unstable and the number of sign changes of the terms of the first
column of the Routh array, corresponds to the number of poles in the right half of the s-plane.
It is to be noted that, the Routh-Hurwitz criterion gives only the number of poles in the
right half of the s-plane. It gives no information as regards the values of the poles and also does
not distinguish real and complex poles.

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Example 1
Determine whether the system described by its characteristic equation
D(s)  s 4  8s3  24s 2  32s  16
Is stable or not?
Solution
Conditions one and two verified, indicates that, they may be a possibility for stability.
s4 1 24 16

s3 8 32 0

s2 20 16 0

s1 25.6 0

s0 16 0

The system is stable because all the elements of the Routh array have the sign
Example 2
Determine whether the system described by its characteristic equation
D(s)  s3  5s 2  6s  45
Is stable or not?
Solution
Conditions one and two verified, indicates that, they may be a possibility for stability.
s3 1 6

s2 5 45

s1 -3 0

s0 45 0

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The system is unstable because the elements of the Routh array are not having the same sign. It
also reveals that there two poles in the right hand side of the s-plane.
Occasionally, in applying the Routh-Hurwitz, stability criterion, certain difficulties arise
causing the breakdown of the test.
Case 1: A zero in the first column
If there is a zero in the first column, then further calculations cannot normally proceed since it
will involve dividing by zero. The problem is solved by replacing the zero with a small number
 which can be assumed to be either positive or negative. When the array is evaluated, the signs
of the elements in the first column are evaluated by letting  to approach zero (   0 ) in order
to determine the range of  for which the system will be stable.
Example
s 4  2s 3  2s 2  4s  3  0

s4 1 2 3

s3 2 4 0

s2  3 0

s1 4  6 0

s0 3 0

From the Routh array, it is seen that the first element in the third row is 0. Causing the
breakdown of the test, since further calculations involve dividing by zero. This problem is solved
by replacing the 0 element with a small positive value  . From the Routh array, it is noticed
that, when  tends to zero, we notice a sign change in the Routh elements thus indicating the
presence of two poles in the right hand side of the s – plane, and hence making the system
unstable.
Case 2: All elements in a row are zero
This condition occurs when the polynomial contains singularities that are symmetrically located
about the origin of the s-plane. If all the elements of a particular row are zero, then they are

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replaced by the derivatives of an auxiliary polynomial, formed from the elements of the previous
row
Example
s 5  2s 4  6s 3  12s 2  8s  16  0

s5 1 6 8

s4 2 12 16

s3 0 0 0

Since the terms in the s3-row are all zero, the Routh’s test breaks down. To overcome this
breakdown an auxiliary polynomial P(s) is therefore formed from the elements of the s 4-row.
Which is given by:
P  s   2s 4  12s 2 16

The derivative of the polynomial with respect to s is

dP  s 
 8s 3 24 s
ds
The zeros in the s3-row are replaced by the coefficients 8 and 24. The Routh array then becomes
s5 1 6 8

s4 2 12 16

s3 8 24 0

s2 6 16 0

s1 8 0
3
s0 16 0

We see that there is no change of sign in the first column of the new array. Therefore the system
under consideration is marginally stable.

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 Chapter 5: Frequency response analysis
5.1 Introduction
The frequency response of a system is that response of the system to a sinusoidal input.
This response also gives the phase difference of the output signal with respect to the input. The
frequency response method of analysis and design is a powerful technique for the comprehensive
study of a system by conventional methods. Performance requirements can be readily expressed
in terms of the frequency response, in addition the frequency-response characteristics of a system
permit the evaluation of the effect of noise. The frequency response is also useful in situations
for which the transfer functions of some or all of the components in a system are unknown. The
frequency response can be determined experimentally for these situations, and an approximate
expression for the transfer function can be obtained from the graphical plot of the experimental
data.
In practice instead of the magnitude of the system i.e. H  j  , we are interested but in the

logarithmic gain G, defined as GdB  20 log H  j  , where G is expressed in decibels (dB).

5.2: Graphical representation

There exist three graphical representations of the transfer function of the system H  j  . These

representations are: Bode diagram representation, Nyquist diagrams and Nichols chart
representation. In the following sections, we shall be presenting how to draw the Bode diagrams
and the Nichols chart for a given system

5.2.1: Bode diagram representation

Bode plots or diagrams are the most commonly used graphical method for the analysis and
design of feedback control systems. However, Bode plots consist of two graphs: the magnitude
and the phase angle of the system both plotted as a function of the frequency. In Bode plots,
logarithmic scales are usually used for the frequency axes. This is because logarithmic scales
considerably simplify the construction, manipulation and interpretation of the system
performance. In addition, it permits the construction of the Bode diagrams over a greater range
of frequencies than with linear frequency axes. Bode plots can also be drawn using straight – line
approximations (asymptotic diagrams).Bode plots clearly illustrate the relative stability of a
system (gain and phase margins). These measures of relative stability can be determined for a
given system with a minimum of computational effort using Bode plots.

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Two diagrams are used:
The magnitude diagram
Ordinate: 20log H  j  in dB

Abscissa: log  in rd/s

Phase diagrams
Ordinate: Arg  H  j     in rd or degrees

Abscissa: log  in rd/s

The following outline the steps carried out during the construction of Bode diagrams:
1. Express the transfer function of the system H  s  in terms of the frequency 

2. Calculate the magnitude in dB of the system H  j  as a function of the frequency 

3. Calculate the phase angle of the system i.e. arg  H  j   as a function of the frequency


4. On a semi – logarithmic graph paper, plot the magnitude for the system linearly on the
ordinate against the frequency on a logarithmic scale log  after which the same
procedure is done for the phase angle of the system to obtain the complete Bode diagrams
for the system.
Example
Plot the Bode diagrams for the system describe by its open-loop transfer function
1
H s 
s2
Solution
1. Expressing H  s  in terms of  . Note it is advisable to write the transfer function in

standard form for filters. This will help in determining the range of possible values of  .
When the cutoff frequency ( c )has been determine, choose about five to ten values of 

around the cutoff frequency c

1
1
H  j    2 , where   2 rad / s

j  2 j  1
c

2
2. Expression for the gain in dB

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 1  2 
GdB  20 log H  j   20 log    10 log   1
2  4 
3. Expression for the argument
 
 1
  Arg  H  j    Arg  2   Arg  1   Arg  j   1
   2  2 
 j  1
 2 
 
   tan 1  
2
4. Calculating the gain and the phase angle for some values of 

Table of data

 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1 c  2 3 4 6 7 9

GdB -6.2 -6.4 -6.5 -6.8 -7.0 -9.0 -11.1 -13.0 -16.0 -17.2 -19.3

0 -11.3 -16.7 -19.3 -24.2 -26.6 -45.0 -56.3 -63.4 -71.6 -74.1 -77.5

Figure 5. 1: Bode diagrams for a first order system

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5.2.2: Nichols chart
The Nichols chart, representation is a convenient way of evaluating the unity feedback frequency
response of a system. It represents or translates the evolution of the magnitude in dB versus
phase angle plot in rectangular coordinates or grid on the Nichol chart. For each pair of values on
the Nichols chart, the corresponding closed-loop frequency response values can be read on the
curved contours. On the Nichols chart, it is usual to label each point with the corresponding
frequency.

Ordinate: 20log H  j  in dB

Abscissa: Arg  H  j     degrees

The Nichols chart plot and the Bode plot share common properties except for the fact that
H  j  and arg  H  j   are included on a single Nichols chart plot rather than on two Bode

plots.
To plot the Nichols chart, it is advisable to plot the Bode diagrams from which the Nichols chart
is obtained. The following outline the steps carried out during the construction of Nichols chart:
1. Express the transfer function of the system H  s  in terms of the frequency 

2. Calculate the magnitude in dB of the system H  j  as a function of the frequency 

3. Calculate the phase angle of the system i.e. arg  H  j   as a function of the frequency


4. From the Bode plot, transfer the open-loop frequency response plot to the Nichols chart,
point by point, using a rectangular grid. Note the Nichols plot is done on a linear scale.
5. Use the curved grid to determine the characteristics of the closed-loop frequency
response.

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Example
Draw the Nichols diagrams for the system describe by its open-loop transfer function
1
H s 
s2
Table of data
 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1 c  2 3 4 6 7 9

GdB -6.2 -6.4 -6.5 -6.8 -7.0 -9.0 -11.1 -13.0 -16.0 -17.2 -19.3

0 -11.3 -16.7 -19.3 -24.2 -26.6 -45.0 -56.3 -63.4 -71.6 -74.1 -77.5

Figure 5. 2 Nichols diagram for a first order system

Note:
The Routh – Hurwitz stability criterion is used in the closed-loop. For geometric criteria, the
analysis is done in the open-loop, and the conclusions are made for the systems stability or
behaviour in the closed-loop.

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Generally therefore for a system to be stable using the Revers criterion, it must fulfil the
necessary conditions for the Revers criterion which are:
 The system should be stable in the open-loop
 The order of the open-loop transfer function should be greater than one
 The system should be a minimal phase system, (i.e. all zeros have negative real parts)

5.3: Relative Stability

The relative stability indicators of a system are its phase and gain margins, defined in terms of
the system open – loop frequency response.

5.3.1: Phase margin

The phase margin is the amount of additional open-loop phase shift required at unity gain to
make the closed-loop system unstable or it is the amount of additional phase log required to
bring a stable system to a point of instability. The frequency at which the magnitude frequency
response plot is zero dB is known as the phase margin frequency and it is the frequency at which
the phase margin is measured.

m  Arg Go ( j1 ) H  j1    180

and
Go ( j1 ) H  j1   1

Where 1 is called the gain-crossover frequency

2.3.2: Gain margin

Gain margin is the factor by which the gain factor K can be multiplied before the closed-loop
system becomes unstable or it is the factor by which the gain of a stable system is allowed to
increase before the system reaches instability. It is defined as the magnitude of the reciprocal of
the open-loop transfer function evaluated at the frequency 2 at which the phase angle is 1800 .

1
GM    Go ( j2 ) H  j2  dB
Go ( j2 ) H  j2 

and
Arg Go ( j2 ) H  j2   180

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Where 2 is the phase crossover frequency.
The definitions of the phase and gain margins are such that there are all positive for a stable
system. The figure below illustrates how these parameters can be obtained from the Nichols
chart and Bode plots.

Figure 5. 3 Illustration of gain and phase margins

Generally, for a system to be stable in the closed-loop, 1  2 , and for instability, 2  1 .

The importance of the phase and gain margins are that, it provides a security margin or some
allowable variation of a particular system parameter, over which the system remains stable, and
it also constitutes a criterion for the transient performance of the system.
The values that are commonly used to ensure the stability of the system under all circumstances
(including disturbance) are:
Phase margin: 400 to 600
Gain margin: 8 dB to 15 dB
These values have a great impact on the determination of the parameters of the controller.

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Tutorials Analogue Control Systems
1. Define the following
a. A control system
b. Feedback control system
c. Automatic control system
d. Manual control system
2. Differentiate between open loop control system and closed loop control system using suitable
examples? Use block diagrams to elaborate.
3. Draw the general block diagram for a continuous feedback system and explain how the
various components in the system interact.
4. Determine the transfer function of the various block diagrams represented by Figure 1 (a) to
(b).

(a)

(b)

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5. Represent the following systems in the s-plane and conclude on their stability:
s 1
a) H ( s) 
( s  2)( s  6)
s 1
b) H ( s ) 
( s  4)( s  3)
s 3
c) H ( s ) 
( s  2)( s  4)
s 1
d ) H (s) 
s ( s  2)( s  3)
s4
e) H ( s ) 
s ( s  2)( s  3)
2

1
f ) H ( s) 
s( s  2)( s  3)
6. By means of Routh-Hurwitz criterion, determine the stability of the systems represented by
the following characteristic equations:
a) D(s)  s3  8s 2  14s  24

b) D(s)  2s 4  8s3  10s 2  10s  20

c) D(s)  s3  7s 2  7s  46

d ) D(s)  s5  6s 4  10s 2  5s  24
7. The characteristic equations for certain feedback control systems are given. In each case,
determine the range of values of K for the system to be stable,
a) D(s)  s 2  Ks  2K 1

b) D(s)  s3  (4  K )s 2  6s  16  8K
8. Consider the unity feedback system represented by its open loop transfer function
1
G s 
 s  s 
s 1   1  
 10   100 
Determine the phase and gain margins for the system. Determine the gain and the phase cross
over frequencies. Is the system stable?

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