CN Model paper solution

Q. 1 Mcq

Unit-1
1. ___________ is to make all programs, equipments & specially data available
to anyone on a network without regard to the physical location of the resource
& user.
a) High reliability b) Resource-sharing
c) Saving money d) None of these
2. “Interconnected collection of autonomous computers” is known as
_________.
a) Computer network b) Host
c) Subnet d) Server
3. __________ have a single communication channel that is shared by all the
machines on the network.
a) Point-to-Point network. b) People network
c) Broadcast network. d) Specialized network
4. Traditional LANs run at speeds of _____ to _____ Mbps.
a) 20 to 100 b) 10 to 1000
c) 100 to 1000 d) 10 to 100
5. DQDB stands for ______________.
a) Dual Queue Dual Bus
b) Double Queue Double Bus
c) Dual Queue Dual Bits
d) Distributed Queue Dual Bus
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6. ___________ consists of two distinct components: transmission lines &

switching elements.
a) Host b) Subnet
c) Intermediate System d) Server
7. When the packets are small and all the same size, they are often called
____.
a) Cells b) Trunks
c) Circuits d) Subnet
8. The connection of two or more networks is called an __________.
a) computer network b) internet
c) internetwork d) local Area Network
9. ___________ network consists of many connection between individual parts
of machines.
a) Point-to-Point network. b) People network
c) Broadcast network. d) Specialized network
10. The data elements sent from one device to another per second is known as
_________.
a) Bandwidth d) Data Rate
b) Modulation Rate d) None of these
Unit-2
1 A_______ cable consists of two conductors each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together.
a). Twisted-pair b). Coaxial cables
c). Fiber Optical d).None of these.
2 _________ Cable has a central core conductor of solid wire enclosed in an insulating
sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two.
a). Twisted-pair b). Coaxial cables
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c). Fiber Optical d).None of these.

3 A _______cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
a). Twisted-pair b). Coaxial cables
c). Fiber Optical d).None of these.

4 Which of the following is not a guided medium?

a).Twisted-pair cable b). Coaxial cable
c). Fiber-optic cable d). Atmosphere
5 _______is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.
a). Multiplexing b). Demultiplexing
c). CDMA d).None of these.
6 _______is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.
a).FDM b).TDM
C).WDM d).None of these.
7 _______is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels
into one high-rate one.
a).FDM b).TDM
C).WDM d).None of these.
8 In _______ Transmission is use n wires to send n bits at one time.
a).Serial b). Parallel
c). Simplex d). Half duplex
9 In ________ Transmission only one communication channel rather than n to transmit
data between two communicating devices.
a).Serial b). Parallel
c). Simplex d). Half duplex
10 In a fiber-optic cable, the signal is propagated along the inner core by________
a).Reflection b). Refraction
c). Modulation d). Amplification
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Unit-3
1. A ________ is a set of rules that govern data communications.
(a) Layers (b) Network
(c) protocol (d) Communication
2. A set of layers and protocols is called _________________.
(a) network architecture (b) Protocol stack
(c) Computer architecture (d) Layers stack
3. A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a
_____________.
(a) network architecture (b) protocol stack
(c) Computer architecture (d) Layers stack
4. OSI stands for ______________________________.
(a) Open system interface (b) Organization Standard interface
(c) Open System Interconnection (d) Open Standard Interconnection

5. Bit synchronization is responsibility of ______________ .

(a) Data link layer (b) Network layer
(c) Session layer (d) Physical layer
6. Physical addressing and framing is responsibility of _____________.
(a) Data link layer (b) Session layer
(c) Transport layer (d) Application layer
7. Routing is responsibility of _______________.
(a) Presentation layer (b) Network layer
(c) Physical layer (d) Session layer
8. Error control and flow control is responsibility of _____________.
(a) Data link layer (b) Transport layer
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of Above
9. Service point addressing is responsibility of _______________.
(a) Session layer (b) Transport layer
(c) Presentation layer (d) Application layer
10. Dialog control and synchronization is responsibility of ___________________.
(a) Transport layer (b) Application layer
(c) Network layer (d) Session layer
11. Encryption and compression is responsibility of ___________________.
(a) Presentation layer (b) Application layer
(c) Network layer (d) Session layer
12. Mail and directory service is responsibility of __________.
(a) Presentation layer (b) Application layer
(c) Network layer (d) Session layer
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13. An artificial satellite needs to have ______ which is the path in which it travels
around the Earth.
(a) Channel (b) Tower
(c) Communication lines (d) Orbit
14. The signal from a satellite is normally aimed at a specific area called ___________.
(a) Channel (b) Tower
(c) Footprint (d) Orbit

Unit-4

(1) A Bluetooth Network is called a _______.

a)Piconet b)scatternet c) Wireless d)None of these.

(2) _________ Device amplifies the signals.

A) Amplifier B) gateway (C) repeater (D) router

(3) Which of the following topology requires maximum cabling?

(A) Bus (B) Star (C) Ring (D) Mesh

(4) CSMA stand for _____.

(A) Carrier Sensitive Multimedia Access
(B) Computerized Sensor for Memory Access
(C) Code Sensitive Multiple Access
(D) Carrier Sense Multiple Access

(5) Which of the following is not a valid form of CSMA?

(A) 1-persistent (B) p-persistent (C) non-persistent (D) persistent

(6) Which of the following CSMA has highest chances of collision?

(A) 1-persistent (B) p-persistent (C) non-persistent (D) All have equal
chances.

(7) A ____ can be used to solve problem of attenuation.

(A) hub (B) gateway (C) repeater (D) router

(8) A repeater operates at ____ layer.

(A) physical (B) datalink (C) network (D) all of these
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(9) A bridge operates at ____ layer(s).

(A) physical (B) datalink (C) physical & datalink (D) datalink & network

(10) A router operates at ________ layer.

(A) physical (B) datalink (C) network (D) transport

(11) A router forwards packets on the basis of their ________ address.

(A) MAC (B) logical (C) port (D) all of these

(12) A router uses _____ to determine the route for packets.

(A) routing table (B) GPS (C) Satellite (D) Search engine

(13) A ____ can be used to connect two different networks that use different models.
(A) router (B) switch (C) gateway (D) all of these

(14) A switch performs filtering on the basis of _____ address.

(A) MAC (B) logical (C) port (D) postal
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Q. 2 Short Questions. (Attempt any ten) [20 Marks]

1. What is Computer Network? What are the three categories of computer networks?

- computer network is a collection of an autonomous computer that interconnected by a

single communication channel.
- it is system of connected devices that can share resources and communicate with each
other.
- it allows device to shared information, transfer data and collaborate.
- following are categories of Computer network:
1. Local area network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan area network (MAN)
3. Wide Area network (WAN)
2. Define: Spectrum and Bandwidth
• Spectrum :- The range of frequencies contained in the electromagnetic radiation including
visible light.
• Bandwidth:- Width of spectrum is called Bandwidth.
Extra:

• Topology:-
- Topology of network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices to one another. Topology may be physical or logical.
- Examples of some basic topologies: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
• Data Rate:- Number of data elements sent from one device to another per second is called
data rate
• Modulation Rate:- No. of signal elements sent per second. Measured in baud. Also known
as pulse rate or signal rate or baud rate.
• Spectrum :- The range of frequencies contained in the electromagnetic radiation including
visible light.
• Bandwidth:- Width of spectrum is called Bandwidth.
• Server:- A server is a physical computer dedicated to run one or more services (as a host),
to serve the needs of the users of other computers on a network.
• Host:- A network host is a computer connected to a computer network.
- A network host may offer information resources, services, and applications to users or
other nodes on the network.
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3. Explain Point-to-Point network in short.

- point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual pairs of
machines.
- Large networks usually are of point-to-point.
- To go from the source to the destination, a packet on this type of network may have to
first visit one or more intermediate machines.
- Point-to-point networks use routing algorithms to determine the best path when multiple
routes are available.

4. Explain Magnetic media in short.

One of the most common ways to transport data from one computer to another is to write
them onto magnetic tape or removable media (e.g., recordable DVDs), physically transport
the tape or disks to the destination machine, and read them back in again.

5. Differentiate between TDM and FDM.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Analog multiplexing Digital multiplexing
Divides bandwidth into frequency bands Divides time into slots
Uses guard bands to prevent overlap Uses time slots, no guard bands
needed
Transmits signals simultaneously at different Transmits signals sequentially in time
frequencies slots

6. Explain serial transmission in short.

→ In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel
rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices
→ Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are required at the
interface between the sender and the line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line and
the receiver (serial-to-parallel).
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7. Define: Protocol Stack and Network architecture

→ A set of layers and protocols is called network architecture.
→ The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the layer n
protocol.
8. What is OSI model? List all layers of OSI model.
An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.

OR
The OSI Model is a method of describing and analysing data communications networks by
breaking the entire set of communication processes into a number of layers. It is a model for
understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible and robust. The OSI model
describes how data flows from one computer, through a network, to another computer.

Following is list of layers of OSI model.

a. Physical Layer
b. Data Link Layer
c. Network layer
d. Transport Layer
e. Session Layer
f. Presentation Layer
g. Application Layer
9. Explain footprint.
→ Satellite processes microwaves with bidirectional antennas (line of sight). Therefore the
signal from a satellite is normally aimed at a specific area called the footprint.
→ The signal power at the center of the footprint is maximum.
→ The power decreases as we move out from the footprint center.
10. Explain Wireless Network in short.
→ Wireless networks can be design to connect these components (devices) without wires.
→ It also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners, and other devices to connect to a
computer by merely being brought within range. No cables, no driver installation, just
put them down, turn them on, and they work.
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11. Write full form of CSMA. List different types of CSMA.

- Full form of CSMA Carrier Sense Multiple Access.
- Following is different types (Methods) of CSMA
1. 1-Persistent method.
2. No Persistent method.
3. P-persistent method.

12. Explain Bluetooth in short.

→ Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions
such as telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers, Coffee
makers, and so on.
→ A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed
spontaneously; the devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a
network called a piconet.
→ A Bluetooth LAN can even be connected to the Internet if one of the gadgets has this
capability. A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large. If there are many gadgets that try
to connect it,
→ Bluetooth defines two types of networks piconet and scatternet.
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Long Questions :

Q. 3 A] What are the advantages and disadvantages of Computer Networks? Explain in detail.
Advantages Of Computer Network :
File Sharing:
The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and remote file
access. A person sitting at one workstation of a network can easily see the files present on
the other workstation, provided he is authorized to do so.
Resource Sharing:
A computer network is a system that connects multiple computers to share resources such
as the Internet, printers, and files. One of the most important benefits of a computer
network is resource sharing, which allows multiple users to access and use the same
resources efficiently.
Increased Storage Capacity:
When computers are connected in a network, they can easily share files and storage space,
solving the problem of limited memory. It provides a cost-effective way to expand storage
capacity without upgrading individual computers.
Increased Cost Efficiency:
There are many software available in the market which are costly and take time for
installation. Computer networks resolve this issue as the software can be stored or installed
on a system or a server and can be used by the different workstations.
Speed: Sharing and transferring files within Networks are very fast. Networks provide a very
rapid method for sharing and transferring files.
Data Security and Management: In a business environment, a network allows the
administrators to better manage the company's critical data.
Communication medium: A computer network can provide a powerful communication
medium among people spread widely at different physical locations.

Disadvantage of computer network:

Expensive to Install: Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial
costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are expensive,
and the installation may require the services of a technician.
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Networking software requires memory space in each of the computer used on the
network. This reduces the memory space available for other programs.
Hardware and Software Management and Administration Costs:
Networking adds another level of complexity to the computer operations. The installation
and management of a network requires for more technical and administrative skills. Some
controls on the part of the user are lost. One may face the situation like entire network
suddenly locking up because one user has made a mistake.
Data Security:
If a network is implemented properly, it is possible to greatly improve the security of
important data. In contrast, a poorly secured network puts critical data at risk, exposing it to
the potential problems associated with hackers, unauthorized access.
B] Explain LAN in detail.

- Local area networks generally called LAN are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometres in size.
- They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstation in company offices
and factories to share resources and exchange information.
LAN networks by three characteristics:
1. Size:
2. Transmission technology:
3. Topology:
Size: LAN is restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is
bounded and known in advance.
Transmission technology: Transmission technology consisting of a single cable to which all
the machines are attached, like the telephone lines. LAN runs at speeds of 10 to 100 mbps
Topology:
- various topologies are possible for broadcast lan.
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- In bus IEEE802.3 popularly called Ethernet, for example is a bus based broadcast network
with operating at 10 to 100 mbps.
- A second type of broadcast system is the ring. IEEE802.5 (IBM token ring), is a popular
ring-based Lan operating at 4 and 16 Mbps.
OR
Q. 3 A] How can we classify computer Network?

➢ Computer networks classification into two ways.

1. Broadcast network
- Broadcast networks use a shared communication channel where all machines receive
messages.
- Each packet has an address field; if it matches, the machine processes it; otherwise, it is
ignored.
- A special code enables broadcasting to all machines.
- Multicasting allows sending packets to specific groups using a reserved bit, and machines
can subscribe to groups.
- so routing algorithms play an important role in point-to-point networks.

2. Point-to-point network
- point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual pairs of
machines.
- Large networks usually are of point-to-point.
- To go from the source to the destination, a packet on this type of network may have to
first visit one or more intermediate machines.
- Point-to-point networks use routing algorithms to determine the best path when multiple
routes are available.
-
B] Explain WAN in detail.

➢ A wan spans a large geographical area often a country or continent.

➢ It is a collection of machines for running user programs these machines call hosts.

➢ The hosts are connected by a communication subnet. The job of the subnet is to carry
messages from host to host. Just as telephone system.

➢ In a wan, the subnet consists of two components:

➢ Transmission line: transmission lines move bits between machines

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➢ Switching elements: the switching elements are specialized computers (router) used to
connect two or more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the
switching elements must choose an outgoing line to forward them.

➢ In fig the collection of communication lines and routers form the subnet that moved
packets from the source host to the destination host

➢ In wan numerous cables or telephone lines, each one connecting a pair of routers. If two
routers do not share a cable it communicates indirectly, via other routers.

➢ When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or more intermediate routers,
the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there until the
required output line is free and then forwarded. A subnet using this principle is called a
point-to-point, store-and-forward or packet-switched subnet. When the packets are small
and all the same size they are called cells.

➢ Wan is a satellite or ground radio system. Each router has an antenna through which it
can send and receive.
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Q. 4 A] Explain Twisted Pair cable in detail.

➢ A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
Insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure

➢ One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a
ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
➢ In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and
crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
➢ If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both
wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g.,
one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference at the receiver.
➢ By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one wire
is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true.
➢ Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences (Noise
or crosstalk). This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference between the two,
receives no unwanted signals. The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out.Unshielded
Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
➢ The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP).
➢ IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted-
pair (STP).

Categories:
➢ The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify unshielded
twisted-pair cable into seven categories.
➢ Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7 as the highest.

Performance:
➢ A twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range of frequencies.
➢ A twisted-pair cable can increase frequency, the attenuation, measured in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km), sharply increases with frequencies above 100 kHz.
Applications:
➢ Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
➢ The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
➢ Local-area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.
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B] Explain Coaxial Cable in detail with its performance and applications.

→ Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted
pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
→ Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
→ The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit.
→ This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is
protected by a plastic cover (see Figure)

→ Coaxial Cable Standards:

→ Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings.
→ Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge
of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construction of
the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.
→ Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function, as shown in
Table 7.2.
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→ Coaxial Cable Connectors:

o To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors.
o In coaxial cable three popular types of these connectors: the BNC connector, the
BNC T connector and the BNC terminator.
Performance:
→ Coaxial cable that the attenuation is much higher than in twisted-pair cable.
→ In other words, although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal weakens
rapidly and requires the frequent use of repeaters.

Applications:
→ Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial
network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
→ Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
→ Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs.
→ The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors the
10Base5, or Thick Ethernet, uses RG-11 (thick coaxial cable)

OR Q. 4
A] Explain Fiber Optic in detail.
• Optical fibers use light to send information through the optical medium.
• It uses the principal of total internal reflection.
• Modulated light transmissions are used to transmit the signal.
• Light travels through the optical media by the way of total internal reflection.
• Modulation scheme used is intensity modulation.

Two types of Fiber media:

1. Multimode
2. Single mode
• Multimode Fiber can support less bandwidth than Single mode Fiber.
• Single-mode Fiber has a very small core and carries only one beam of light. It can support Gbps data rates over >
100 Km without using repeaters.
• Single and Multimode Fiber
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fiber-optic cable :

• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
• Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance.
• If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a different
density), the ray changes direction.
Advantages Fiber-optic cable:
1. Higher bandwidth
2. Less signal attenuation
3. Immunity to electromagnetic interference
4. Resistance to corrosive materials
5. Lightweight
6. Greater immunity to tapping:

Disadvantages Fiber-optic cable:

1. Installation and maintenance
2. Unidirectional light propagation
3. Cost
B] Explain FDM in detail.
➢ Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when
the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals
to be transmitted.
➢ In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies.
➢ These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be
transported by the link.
➢ Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various
signals travel.
➢ Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent
signals from overlapping.
➢ In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.
➢ Figure 6.3 gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration, the transmission path is
divided into three parts, each representing a channel that carries one transmission.
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➢ We consider FDM to be an analog multiplexing technique; however, this does not mean
that FDM cannot be used to combine sources sending digital signals.
➢ A digital signal can be converted to an analog signal before FDM is used to multiplex
them.
➢ FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.

• Multiplexing Process:
➢ Figure 6.4 is a conceptual illustration of the multiplexing process. Each source generates a
signal of a similar frequency range.
➢ Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulate different carrier frequencies (f1, f2,
and f3).
➢ The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is
sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.

• Demultiplexing Process:
➢ The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals.
➢ The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their
carriers and passes them to the output lines.
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• Other Applications of FDM:

➢ A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting.
➢ Another common use of FDM is in television broadcasting. Each TV channel has its own
bandwidth of 6 MHz.
➢ The first generation of cellular telephones (still in operation) also uses FDM.
➢ Each user is assigned two 30-kHz channels, one for sending voice and the other for
receiving.
• Implementation:
➢ FDM can be implemented very easily.
➢ In many cases, such as radio and television broadcasting, there is no need for a physical
multiplexer or demultiplexer.
➢ As long as the stations agree to send their broadcasts to the air using different carrier
frequencies, multiplexing is achieved.
➢ In other cases, such as the cellular telephone system, a base station needs to assign a
carrier frequency to the telephone user.
➢ There is not enough bandwidth in a cell to permanently assign a bandwidth range to
every telephone user.
When a user hangs up, her or his bandwidth is assigned to another caller.
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Q. 5 A] List all layers of OSI model. Explain any two layers.

➢Following is list of layers of OSI model.

a. Physical Layer

b. Data Link Layer

c. Network layer

d. Transport Layer

e. Session Layer

f. Presentation Layer

g. Application Layer

Physical layer

− Bit representation – encode bits into electrical or optical signals

− Transmission rate – The number of bits sent each second
− Physical characteristics of transmission media
− Synchronizing the sender and receiver clocks
− Transmission mode – simplex, half-duplex, full duplex
− Physical Topology – how devices are connected – ring, star, mesh, bus topology

Data Link Layer

− Framing – divides the stream of bits received from network layer into manageable data
units called frames.
− Physical Addressing – Add a header to the frame to define the physical address of the
source and the destination machines.
− Flow control – Impose a flow control – control rate at which data is transmitted so as not
to flood the receiver (Feedback-based flow control)
− Error Control – Adds mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. This
is achieved by adding a trailer to the end of a frame
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B] Explain any two categories of Satellite in detail.

❖ Geostationary (GEO) satellites:
➢ Line-of-sight propagation requires that the sending and receiving antennas be locked
onto each other's location at all times (one antenna must have the other in sight). For
this reason, a satellite that moves faster or slower than the Earth's rotation is useful
only for short periods.
➢ To ensure constant communication, the satellite must move at the same speed as the
Earth so that it seems to remain fixed above a certain spot. Such satellites are called
geostationary.
➢ Orbital speed is based on the distance from the planet; only one orbit can be
geostationary. But one geostationary satellite cannot cover the whole Earth.
➢ One satellite in orbit has line-of-sight contact with a vast number of stations, but the
curvature of the Earth still keeps much of the planet out of sight.
➢ It takes a minimum of three satellites equidistant from each other in geostationary
Earth orbit (GEO) to provide full global transmission.
➢ Figure 16.16 shows three satellites, each 120° from another in geosynchronous orbit
around the equator.

• MEO Satellites
➢ Medium-Earth-orbit (MEO) satellites are positioned between the two Van Allen
belts.
➢ A satellite at this orbit takes approximately 6-8 hours to circle the Earth.
➢ Global Positioning System
➢ One example of a MEO satellite system is the Global Positioning System (GPS),
constructed and operated by the US Department of Defense, orbiting at an
altitude about 18,000 km (11,000 mi) above the Earth.
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➢ The system consists of 24 satellites and is used for land, sea, and air navigation to
provide time and locations for vehicles and ships.
➢ GPS uses 24 satellites in six orbits, as shown in Figure 16.17.
➢ The orbits and the locations of the satellites in each orbit are designed in such a
way that, at any time, four satellites are visible from any point on Earth.

➢ A GPS receiver has an almanac that tells the current position of each satellite.

OR
Q. 5 A] Write a note on Protocol Hierarchies.
➢ Most networks are organized as a series of layers or levels, each on built upon the one
below it.

➢ The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the
function of each layer differ from network to network.

➢ Layer n on one machine carries on a conversion with layer n on another machine.

➢ The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the layer n
protocol.

➢ A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication

is to proceed.

➢ A five- layer network is in fig 1.9. the entities comprising the corresponding layers on
different machines are called PEERS. In other words, it is the peers that communicate
using the protocol.
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➢ In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on
another machine. Each layer passes data and control information to the layer
immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached.

➢ Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs. In fig
virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical communication by solid
lines.

➢ Each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface. The interface defines which primitive
operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper layer.

➢ Network designers decide how many layers to include in a network and what each one
should do, one of the most important is defining clean interface between the layers.

➢ A set of layers and protocols is called network architecture. The specification of

architecture must contain enough information to allow an implementer to write the
program or build the hardware for each layer so that it will correctly obey the
appropriate protocol.

B] Write a note on design issues for the Layers.

➢ Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying sender and receivers. Since a network
normally has many computers, some of which have multiple processes, a means is needed
for a process on one machine to specify with whom it want to communicate and having
multiple destinations, some form of addressing is needed in order to specify a specific
destination.
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➢ Data transfer: in some system, data only travel in one direction (simplex communication).
In others they can travel in either direction, but not simultaneously (half-duplex
communication). In still others they travel in both directions at once (full-duplex
communication).

➢ The protocol must also determine how many logical channels the connection correspond
to, and what their priorities are. Many networks provide at least two logical channel per
connection, one for normal data and one for urgent data.

➢ Error control: is an important issue because physical communication circuits are not
perfect. Many error-detecting and error-correcting codes are known, but both ends of the
connection must agree on which one being used. the receiver must have telling the
sender which message have been correctly received and which have not.

➢ Not all communication channel preserve the order of messages sent them. To deal with a
possible loss of sequencing, the protocol must make explicit provision for receiver to allow
the pieces to be put back together properly.

➢ At every level is how to keep a fast sender from swamping a slow receiver with data. Some
kind of feedback from the receiver to sender, either directly or indirectly, about the
receiver current situation.

➢ At several levels is the inability of all processes to accept arbitrarily long messages. This
property leads to mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting, and then reassembling
messages.

➢ It is inconvenient or expensive to set up a separate connection for each pair of

communicating processes, the layer may decide to use the same connection for multiple,
unrelated conversations. As long as this multiplexing and demultiplexing is done
transparently, it can be used by any layer.

➢ There are multiple paths between sources to destination, a route must be chosen.
Sometime this decision must be split over two or more layers.
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Q. 6 A] Explain Bus & Ring topology in detail.

Bus topology

Ring topology
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B] Explain Switch & Router & Bridge in detail.

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OR
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Q. 6 A] Explain Mesh & Star topology in detail.

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B] Write a short note on CSMA\CD.

the end