Cryptography

Module 1: Benefits and Driving

Requirements for Cryptography
Cryptography Fundamentals
1. Plain Text and Ciphertext:

Plain Text: Original, easily readable data or message.

Ciphertext: Encrypted form of the plain text, making its meaning hidden
through encryption.

2. Key Material:

Also called the cryptographic key, it is essential for encryption and decryption
processes.

Contains information about key validity, security, classification level, and other
management details.

Distributed through key distribution processes.

3. Encryption and Decryption:

Encryption: Process of obscuring the meaning of a message or file using an

algorithm, encryption key, and control parameters.

Decryption: Recovery of the original meaning from ciphertext using the

decryption key.

4. Clear Text vs. Plain Text:

Clear Text: Unencrypted data or message content always sent or stored in

unencrypted form.

Plain Text: Original data with its meaning readily visible.

5. Cryptographic Operations:

Based on two activities: substitution and transposition.

Cryptography 1
 Substitution: Replacing one value with another (e.g., Caesar cipher shifting
letters).

Transposition: Changing the position of letters or symbols in the plaintext.

6. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES):

Uses multiple rounds of substituting and transposing input messages to

generate ciphertext.

Represents a modern encryption system.

7. Encoding and Decoding:

Encoding: Breaking plaintext into symbol sets and substituting them based on
a code book.

Decoding: Reverse process, looking up code values in the book to output

plaintext.

8. Exclusive OR (XOR) Operator:

A common mathematical operator in cryptography.

Used in conjunction with complex cipher systems to enhance encryption

confusion.

Symmetric algorithms use XOR extensively for fast substitution in encryption

and decryption.

Terms to remember
1. Confidentiality:

Definition: Preserving authorized restrictions on information access and

disclosure.

Example: Protecting personal privacy and proprietary information.

2. Integrity:

Definition: Measures the degree to which something is whole, complete,

internally consistent, and correct.

Cryptography 2
 Example: Ensuring that data is accurate and has not been tampered with.

3. Availability:

Definition: Data is accessible to authorized users when and where it is needed,

in the required form and format.

Example: Ensuring that critical systems and information are available during
business operations.

4. Nonrepudiation:

Definition: Protection against an individual falsely denying having performed a

particular action.

Example: Having a mechanism to prove the origin or delivery of a message or

transaction.

5. Authentication:

Definition: The process of verifying whether someone or something is who or

what it is declared to be.

Example: Using passwords or biometrics to confirm the identity of a user.

6. Privacy:

Definition: Freedom to determine how data is collected and used.

Example: Implementing measures to protect sensitive personal information.

7. Safety:

Definition: Focuses on the prevention of unwanted or unauthorized harm to

persons or property.

Example: Implementing safety protocols to protect employees and assets.

#all of it is CIANA+PS

Benefits of Cryptography
1. Applications of Cryptography:

Cryptography 3
 Encryption is used to protect sensitive data during storage and
communication.

2. Considerations and Protection:

Encryption is a common method for protecting sensitive data, including data

backups, databases, and application data.

3. Global Challenges:

Conflicting laws and regulations globally pose challenges for organizations

dealing with cryptography, privacy, and civil security.

4. Compliance and Ethical Responsibilities:

Organizations must comply with state and federal laws, staying informed
about legislative developments.

5. Information as an Asset and Liability:

Personal information is valuable but also a potential liability, with risks

associated with data breaches.

Organizations should view information as both an asset and a potential

liability.

Module 2: Support the use of Symmetric

Encryption Methods
Symmetric Algorithms
1. Symmetric Algorithms:

Examples include DES, 3DES, AES.

Used for encrypting bulk data, such as backups, hard drives, portable
media, and messages in communications channels like IPsec and TLS.

Utilize the same key for both encryption and decryption.

Cryptography 4
 2. Challenges of Symmetric Algorithms:

Key distribution is difficult.

The key cannot be sent in the same channel as the encrypted message to
avoid interception.

Out-of-band key distribution methods include courier, fax, or phone.

Difficulty in proving authenticity and tracking changes to the message.

Scalability challenges as the number of users or groups increases.

3. Stream-Based Algorithms:

Encrypt one symbol at a time, often a bit or byte.

Examples include Rivest Cipher 4, used in Wi-Fi security.

Implemented directly in hardware for fast encryption.

4. Block-Based Encryption Algorithms:

Encrypt and decrypt entire fixed-length blocks of data.

Message or file broken into blocks for encryption.

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) operates on 128-bit blocks.

5. Initialization Vector (IV):

Non-secret binary value used as the starting input for encryption.

Generated by pseudorandom or pure random number generators.

Synchronizes cryptographic equipment and enhances security by

introducing additional cryptographic variants.

##In the quiz##

Block Cipher Modes of Operation

1. Block Cipher Modes:

Electronic Code Book (ECB):

Cryptography 5
 Basic block cipher mode.

Operates on each block independently.

Not suitable for long messages due to regularity.

Cipher Block Chaining (CBC):

More common mode for symmetric block algorithms.

Introduces an initialization vector and chaining function.

Different output for identical input blocks.

Cipher Feedback (CFB), Output Feedback (OFB), Counter Mode (CTR):

Act as if they were stream-based algorithms.

Used for different applications requiring simultaneous transmission of data.

2. Cipher Feedback Mode (CFB):

Input divided into individual segments.

Segments transmitted and fed back into the shift register.

Encryption of the shift register contents generates the key-stream.

3. Output Feedback Mode (OFB):

Similar to CFB but feeds the encrypted key-stream into the shift register.

Key-stream and message data are independent.

4. Counter Mode (CTR):

Used in high-speed applications like IPsec and ATM.

Counter, such as a 64-bit random data block, serves as the first IV.

Counter incremented for each subsequent block.

Key-stream is independent, allowing processing of multiple blocks sim

##END##

The Date Encryption Standard (DES)

Cryptography 6
 1. Data Encryption Standard (DES):

DES is also known as the Data Encryption Standard.

DES key length is 64 bits, but the effective key length is 56 bits after ignoring
parity bits.

2. Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES):

Introduced to overcome weaknesses in DES.

Used two different keys for encryption.

Abandoned due to security vulnerabilities.

3. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES):

Adopted in 1997 to replace DES and 3DES.

Chosen through a selection process, beating other finalists.

Rijndael algorithm, created by Dr. Joan Daemen and Dr. Vincent Rijmen of
Belgium, was selected.

AES is a specific implementation of the Rijndael algorithm.

Criteria for selection included flexibility, implementability on various platforms,

and being royalty-free.

4. Rijndael Algorithm:

Developed by Dr. Joan Daemen and Dr. Vincent Rijmen.

Chosen as the basis for AES due to its efficiency and security.

Can be implemented in modes other than those specified for AES.

##more information##

Rijndael Algorithm
1. Rijndael Algorithm:

Used with block sizes of 128, 192, or 256 bits.

Cryptography 7
 Key sizes: 128, 192, or 256 bits, with varying rounds based on key size (10
rounds for 128-bit key, 12 for 192-bit, and 14 for 256-bit).

AES supports only one block size, a subset of Rijndael.

2. International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA):

Developed in 1991 as a replacement for DES.

Uses a 128-bit key and operates on 64-bit blocks.

Employs eight rounds of transposition and substitution.

3. CAST:

CAST-128 can use keys between 40 and 128 bits with 12 to 16 rounds.

CAST-256 operates on 128-bit blocks with keys of varying lengths (128, 192,
160, 224, and 256 bits) and performs 48 rounds.

4. Secure and Fast Encryption Routine (SAFER):

SAFER algorithms are patent-free.

Developed by James Massey, SAFER operates on either 64-bit input blocks

(SAFER-SK64) or 128-bit blocks (SAFER-SK128).

A SAFER variation is used as a block cipher in Bluetooth.

5. Blowfish:

Symmetrical algorithm developed by Bruce Schneier.

Fast cipher, operates on variable key sizes (32 to 448 bits) and 64-bit
input/output blocks.

Uses S-boxes created from the key, making it unsuitable for frequent key
changes or applications with limited processing power.

Considered unbreakable with over 500 rounds needed to test a single key.

##END##

Counter Mode with Cipher Block Chaining Message

Authentication Code Protocol (CCMP)

Cryptography 8
 1. CCMP (Counter Mode with Cipher Block Chaining Message Authentication
Code Protocol):

It provides message authentication using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

features and operating modes such as cipher block chaining and counter mode.

CCMP ensures message integrity through cipher block chaining and provides
message confidentiality through counter mode.

2. AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) in CCMP:

CCMP uses AES with a 128-bit key and 128-bit block size.

3. Advantages of Symmetric Algorithms:

Speed: Symmetric algorithms operate quickly due to simple stages.

Security: when used with secure key exchange systems, provide military-grade
encryption.

Compliance: Legal, regulatory, and contractual requirements often mandate

the use of the latest generation of specified symmetric algorithms, such as AES-
256.

4. Challenges with Symmetric Algorithms:

Key Distribution: Key distribution and management become challenging,

especially in large organizations where multiple users need to share
information.

Key Compromise Risk: If all users use the same key, the risk of key
compromise increases. Managing unique keys for each pair of communicating
partners can be impractical.

5. Hybrid Systems and Key Exchange Protocols:

Hybrid systems using key exchange protocols address key distribution

challenges in symmetric algorithms.

These systems combine the efficiency of symmetric algorithms with the secure
key exchange of asymmetric algorithms.

6. Security Attributes of Symmetric Algorithms:

Symmetric algorithms excel in confidentiality and integrity.

Cryptography 9
 They may not be suitable for situations requiring high levels of authentication of
sender and recipient or non-repudiation.

Module 3: Support the Use of Asymmetric

Encryption Methods
Asymmetric Algorithms
1. Asymmetric Encryption Overview:

Asymmetric encryption uses a fundamentally different algorithm and key for

encryption and decryption compared to symmetric encryption.

In symmetric encryption, the same key is used for both encryption and
decryption.

2. Trapdoor Functions in Asymmetric Cryptography:

Asymmetric cryptographic algorithms use trapdoor functions, such as discrete

logarithms and prime factoring.

Discrete logarithms involve solving equations like x=c×bn, while prime factoring
generates keys by multiplying large prime numbers.

Examples of algorithms using discrete logarithms include Elliptic Curve

Cryptography (ECC), ElGamal, Diffie-Hellman, Merkel, etc.

RSA is an example of an algorithm using prime factoring.

3. Computationally Infeasible Problems:

The reverse problems in asymmetric encryption, such as solving for the

exponent in discrete logarithms or factoring large primes, are computationally
infeasible.

Cryptographers refer to these problems as computationally infeasible because

solving them would require extensive computational resources.

Cryptography 10
 4. Key Pair Generation and Usage:

A user generates a key pair for asymmetric encryption, consisting of a private

key and a public key.

The private key is kept secret, known only to the key holder, while the public
key can be freely shared.

The key pairs are generated on a user's endpoint device or by an enterprise key
server.

5. Certificate Authorities (CAs) and Digital Certificates:

Certificate Authorities (CAs) are organizations that operate server systems

issuing digital certificates.

Digital certificates associate an identity with its public key and are used for
secure communication.

CAs verify the identity of the requesting entity and issue a certificate,
establishing the binding between an identity and a public key.

6. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI):

PKI is a system of systems that organizes and delivers services related to key
generation, storage, and use.

It involves a combination of applications, logic, and operating system services

for managing private and public keys.

PKI addresses the challenges of key distribution and provides a framework for
secure communication.

7. Encryption with Public and Private Keys:

Anyone can encrypt data using the recipient's public key.

Only the recipient, who possesses the corresponding private key, can decrypt
the encrypted data.

This provides a solution to the key distribution problem inherent in symmetric

encryption.

Cryptography 11
 Asymmetric Encryption for Confidentiality
xample scenario:

1. Key Generation:

Receiver generates a public-private key pair.

Receiver shares the public key openly, perhaps by publishing it on their website.

Receiver keeps the private key secure.

2. Sending a Confidential Message:

Sender wants to send a confidential message to the receiver.

Sender obtains the receiver's public key (which is publicly available).

Sender encrypts the message using the receiver's public key.

Encrypted message is sent over an untrusted channel.

3. Receiving and Decrypting:

Receiver receives the encrypted message.

Since the receiver possesses the private key, they can decrypt the message.

Only the receiver can decrypt the message due to the paired nature of the keys.

Cryptography 12
 Example: Message Proof of Origin for Non-Repudiation
and Authentication
1. Key Generation:

Sender generates a public-private key pair.

Sender keeps the private key secure.

Sender shares the public key openly, perhaps by publishing it on their website.

2. Sending a Message with Proof of Origin:

Sender wants to send a message and provide proof of origin and

authentication.

Sender encrypts the message with their private key.

The encrypted message is sent to the recipients.

3. Verification by Recipients:

Recipients receive the encrypted message.

To verify the authenticity of the sender and ensure non-repudiation, recipients

use the sender's public key to decrypt the message.

If the decryption is successful using the sender's public key, it provides

assurance that the message indeed originated from the sender.

Cryptography 13
 Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange Algorithm
1. Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange:

Diffie-Hellman is used for shared key generation in asymmetric encryption.

It involves two parties creating a shared secret key without exchanging any
secret information.

Large prime numbers and a generator value are used in the key generation
process.

The resulting shared secret is used for subsequent encrypted communication.

2. Key Exchange Process:

Parties, such as Bob and Carol, choose private keys and use a trapdoor
function to calculate public keys.

Public keys are exchanged openly, and each party uses their private key to
derive the shared session key.

The shared session key is kept secret and can be used for secure
communication.

3. Vulnerabilities and Considerations:

The simplified Diffie-Hellman description lacks authentication of the parties,

making it vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks.

Cryptography 14
 The choice of trapdoor function and control values can present exploitable
vulnerabilities.

Despite vulnerabilities, this process forms the basis of public key infrastructure.

4. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI):

PKI involves algorithms for generating shared secret keys.

The algorithms must be implemented in software and hardware.

Trustworthy communication relies on trusted software and hardware distribution

channels.

5. Other Asymmetric Algorithms:

ElGamal Cryptographic Algorithm: Based on Diffie-Hellman, provides message

confidentiality and digital signature services.

RSA Encryption Algorithm: Based on factoring large prime numbers, widely

used with variable key sizes.

6. RSA Key Sizes:

RSA key size recommendations have increased over the years due to
advancements in attack capabilities.

As of May 2021, 2048-bit RSA keys are commonly used, and discussions
continue about moving to larger key sizes, e.g., 3072 bits.

Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)

1. Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC):

ECC is a form of public key cryptography based on the mathematics of elliptic

curves over finite fields.

Public and private keys are generated using points on an elliptic curve.

2. Key Generation Process:

Start by picking a point on the elliptic curve, e.g., point A.

Cryptography 15
 Draw a straight line through A, intersecting the curve at two points, B and C.

This process is called "dotting the curve."

3. Public and Private Keys:

Public Key: The point of intersection on the curve, e.g., point C.

Private Key (n): The number of times the curve is dotted to reach that point.

4. Repeating the Process:

Continue dotting the curve to generate more points, effectively mirroring the
curve.

Drawing lines and projecting points, creating a series of intersections (e.g., D,

E, F, G, H).

Repeat the process a number of times (n) within a defined key space.

5. Key Space:

Define a maximum value to limit the key space, ensuring security.

The key space extends from the start of the curve to the defined maximum
value.

6. Eliminating Invalid Keys:

If a line projected from the starting point goes beyond the maximum value,
eliminate that point as a possible key.

Continue the process until valid points within the key space are generated.

7. Private Key (n):

The unknown value representing the number of times the process is repeated
becomes the private key.

Benefit of an ECC Public Key

1. Comparison of ECC and RSA Key Sizes:

Cryptography 16
 Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) keys are substantially smaller than RSA keys
to achieve high levels of protection.

2. Advantages of Smaller Key Sizes:

Devices with limited resources, such as memory, processing power, or storage,

benefit from the use of smaller keys.

Smaller keys are particularly advantageous for devices like IoT devices (e.g.,
Google Home, Amazon Alexa), embedded systems, and smartphones.

3. Challenges of Long Keys on Limited Devices:

Devices with limited resources may struggle when encrypting or decrypting

messages with long keys.

Mathematical complexity can lead to issues such as overheating, slowing down,

or damage to the device.

4. Impact on Web Services and Page Loads:

Smaller keys in ECC are beneficial for securing web services.

Faster SSL/TLS handshakes with smaller keys result in quicker page loads for
websites.

5. Consideration for IoT Devices and Embedded Systems:

ECC is well-suited for resource-constrained devices like IoT devices and

embedded systems, where efficiency is crucial.

6. Maintaining or Improving Security:

Despite the smaller key sizes, ECC maintains or even improves security,
making it an attractive alternative.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Asymmetric-Key

Algorithms
1. Evolution of Asymmetric Cryptography:

Cryptography 17
 Asymmetric cryptography revolutionized secure communication by enabling
secure messaging over untrusted channels without the need for prior key
exchange.

2. Advantages and Features of Asymmetric Cryptography:

Provides non-repudiation of origin, access control, data integrity, and non-

repudiation of delivery.

Offers confidentiality, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation, privacy, and

safety.

3. Computational Intensity and Cryptographic Hygiene:

Asymmetric cryptography is computationally intensive compared to symmetric

algorithms.

Cryptographic hygiene measures are essential for maintaining the security and
strength of cryptographic systems.

4. Challenges and Vulnerabilities:

Inadvertent vulnerabilities may exist in the complex public key infrastructure.

Cryptographic systems may face challenges due to human errors, design

choices, and evolving attack methods.

5. Testing and Performance of Algorithms:

Cryptographic algorithms may perform differently in terms of throughput,

latency, and speed.

Key size alone may not accurately represent the strength or security of an
encryption system.

6. Cryptographic Hygiene Measures:

Updating algorithms to their latest versions.

Monitoring threat intelligence for vulnerabilities.

Properly managing session keys, digital certificates, and related materials.

Investing in key management and storage systems.

Using validated, trustworthy libraries for software development.

Cryptography 18
 Prohibiting the design or implementation of custom cryptographic algorithms.

7. Data Integrity and Hashing:

Ensuring data integrity is crucial for secure communications.

Various methods like parity bits, checksums, CRC, message authentication

codes, and hashing are employed.

Cryptographic hash functions, such as MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-2, and

SHA-3, play a vital role.

8. Properties of Cryptographic Hash Functions:

Useful, non-reversible, content integrity assurance, and uniqueness.

Applications include digital signatures, message authentication codes,

fingerprinting, and checksums.

9. Hashing Operation and Sensitivity:

Hashing transforms input data into a fixed-length hash value.

Hash functions are sensitive to changes in the input message, and even slight
alterations result in different hash values.

10. Global Use of Cryptographic Suites:

Cryptographic hash algorithms are global and not sponsored by a single entity.

They are commoditized building blocks used in browsers, operating systems,

and security systems.

Specific Hashes
1. Message Digest (MD) 2, 4, and 5:

MD2:

Created in 1989.

Forms a 128-bit message digest using a 128-bit block through 18 rounds of

operation.

Cryptography 19
 Used in certain PKI environments for generating digital certificates.

MD4:

Created in 1990.

Generates a 128-bit message digest using a 512-bit block through three

rounds of operation.

Popular in file-sharing and synchronization applications.

MD5:

Uses a 512-bit block.

Generates a 128-bit message digest through four rounds of operation.

Vulnerable to hash collisions, and exploits for creating collisions are well-
published.

2. Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) 0, 1, 2, and 3:

SHA-0:

First hash standard in the SHA collection, but had fundamental flaws.

SHA-1:

Replaced SHA-0 in 1995.

Uses a 512-bit block to create a 160-bit message digest through 8 rounds

of operation.

No longer considered safe due to vulnerabilities.

SHA-2:

Introduced in 2001 to replace SHA-1.

Possible message digests are 224, 256, 384, and 512 bits in length.

SHA-224 and SHA-256 use a block length of 512 bits, while SHA-384 and
SHA-512 use a block length of 1024 bits.

SHA-3:

Released by NIST on August 5, 2015.

Based on the Keccak family of cryptography.

Cryptography 20
 Uses sponge construction, offering flexibility.

Not designed to replace SHA-2.

3. HAVAL:

Created in the mid-1990s.

Highly flexible and configurable hash function.

Implementer can create hashes of 128, 160, 192, 224, and 256 bits in length.

Uses a fixed block size of 128 bits and 3, 4, or 5 rounds of operation.

4. RIPEMD-160:

RIPEMD: Research and Development in Advanced Communications

Technologies in Europe.

Produces 160-bit message digests using a 512-bit block size.

Result of collaborative efforts by European cryptographers.

Not subject to patent restrictions.

Attacks on Hashing Algorithms and Message

Authentication Codes
1. Types of Attacks on Hashing Algorithms:

Brute Force Attacks:

Aims to find weaknesses in the hashing algorithm.

Attempts to reconstruct the original message from the hash value or find
collisions.

Example: Orshot and Wiener developed a machine for finding collisions in a

128-bit hash in about 24 days.

Cryptanalysis:

Involves defeating cryptographic systems and gaining access to encrypted

messages without knowing the keys.

Example: Side-channel attacks target the implementation of algorithms.

Cryptography 21
 Cryptanalysis contributes to the development of rainbow tables, which
significantly reduce computational time for cracking ciphers.

2. Birthday Paradox and Hashing:

The birthday paradox indicates that finding collisions for hash values might be
easier than assumed.

Hashing algorithms need to resist birthday-type attacks to maintain their

strength and integrity.

3. Salting in Cryptography:

Salting involves inserting random data (salt) as an additional input to a one-way

function hashing a password or passphrase.

Salts defend against dictionary attacks and precomputed rainbow table attacks.

Salt extends the length and complexity of passwords, enhancing security.

Salts are linked with passwords and processed with a cryptographic hash
function for storage.

4. Message Authentication Code (MAC):

Also known as MAC or cryptographic checksum.

Generated using a secret key and appended to the message.

Provides assurance that the message has not been altered during transit.

Assurance is as strong as the trust in the secrecy of the key.

5. Characteristics of Message Authentication Code:

Much smaller than the message.

Impractical to compute the message from the MAC.

Impractical to find another message generating the same MAC.

6. Use of DES and CBC for MAC:

DES (Data Encryption Standard) and CBC (Cipher Block Chaining) are used
together.

MAC is generated using DES algorithm in CBC mode.

Cryptography 22
 The last block of ciphertext is the MAC, attached to the unencrypted message.

Receiver generates their own MAC to ensure message integrity and

authentication.

7. Hashed Message Authentication Code (HMAC):

Common method for creating a MAC.

Slower compared to hash functions like MD5.

RFC 2104 introduces HMAC, widely used in IPsec, SSL, TLS, etc.

HMAC uses a secret key with a hash algorithm and is faster than DES-based
MAC.

8. Hash Message Authentication Code (HMAC):

Implements a freely available hash algorithm as a component.

Facilitates easy replacement of the hashing module if needed.

Provides security assurance through proven cryptographic hash algorithms.

Works by adding a secret key value to the hash input function along with a
source message.

Hybrid Cryptography
1. Usage in Internet Security:

Hybrid encryption is commonly used in securing internet activities, with

examples like Transport Layer Security (TLS) providing session security.

It allows designers and users to choose a mix of strengths that align with their
specific security needs.

2. Trade-offs Between Symmetric and Asymmetric Approaches:

Military-grade encryption can be achieved with both symmetric and asymmetric

approaches.

Purely asymmetric approaches are impractical for large data due to runtime
penalties.

Cryptography 23
 Symmetric approaches face challenges in key management, storage, and
distribution.

3. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI):

PKI brings together multiple security standards and practices.

Standards define how certificates associate public keys with identities, and
protocols negotiate encryption suites and algorithms.

4. Essence of Hybrid Cryptography:

Five basic ideas for putting asymmetric cryptography to work:

Involves a key pair (public and private keys).

Message encryption and decryption involve the same key pair.

Confidentiality is achieved by encrypting with the receiver's public key.

Digital signing with the sender's private key provides proof of origin, non-
repudiation, and authentication.

A certificate binds a public key to an entity.

5. Hybrid Cryptography Examples:

Example 1:

Alice wants to send a confidential message to Bob.

She encrypts the message with symmetric encryption, producing ciphertext.

Alice transmits the symmetric key to Bob using asymmetric encryption

(Bob's public key).

Bob decrypts the key using his private key and decrypts the message.

Example 2 (Non-repudiation):

Alice encrypts her message using symmetric encryption.

She encrypts the symmetric key with Bob's public key.

Bob decrypts the symmetric key with his private key.

Alice hashes the original message, encrypts it with her private key, and
appends it to the message.

Cryptography 24
 Bob verifies the integrity using the decrypted message and the decrypted
message digest.

Hybrid Encryption Implementations

1. Hybrid Cryptography:

Combines symmetric and asymmetric encryption for efficient and secure

communication.

Symmetric encryption is fast but has challenges with key distribution.

Asymmetric encryption is slower for large data but addresses key

distribution challenges.

2. Symmetric Encryption:

Fast and suitable for large data.

Challenges include key distribution and scalability.

3. Asymmetric Encryption:

Provides confidentiality for messages.

Slower for large data but addresses key distribution challenges.

4. Hybrid Encryption Implementation:

Uses symmetric algorithms for quick message encryption.

Utilizes asymmetric algorithms to securely transmit the symmetric key.

Symmetric keys used for a single session and then discarded (session
keys).

5. Digital Envelope:

Combination of encrypted message and encrypted symmetric key.

6. Session Keys:

Cryptography 25
 Symmetric keys used for a single communication session and then
discarded.

7. Strengths and Weaknesses:

Symmetric algorithms excel in confidential communication but have

weaknesses in key management, non-repudiation, and authentication.

Asymmetric algorithms are used to support symmetric algorithms and

provide proof of origin.

8. Security Measures:

Ensure message confidentiality, key confidentiality, message integrity, proof

of origin, and timed proof of delivery.

9. Challenges:

Key management, scalability, and addressing vulnerabilities in both

symmetric and asymmetric algorithms.

10. Cryptographic Hygiene Measures:

Keep cryptographic algorithms updated.

Monitor threat intelligence and vulnerabilities.

Manage and validate session keys, digital certificates, and related

materials.

Invest in appropriate key management and storage systems.

Establish policies against designing custom cryptographic algorithms.

11. Hash Functions:

Used for ensuring message integrity.

Cryptographic hash functions must be non-reversible, provide content

integrity assurance, and be unique.

12. Specific Hashes:

MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA-0, SHA-1, SHA-2, SHA-3, HAVAL, RIPEMD-160.

13. Hash Function Attacks:

Brute force attacks and cryptanalysis.

Cryptography 26
 Considerations for collision resistance.

14. Message Authentication Code (MAC):

Small block of data generated with a secret key.

Ensures message integrity.

Implemented using DES, CBC, or Hashed MAC.

15. Hybrid Cryptography Examples:

Combines asymmetric and symmetric encryption.

Provides message confidentiality, integrity, non-repudiation, and

authentication.

Uses digital envelopes and session keys.

16. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI):

Uses certificates to associate public keys with identities.

Defines protocols for encryption suites and algorithms.

Generates session keys for securing activities or files.

17. Knowledge Check Questions:

Cover aspects of encryption steps, key usage, integrity verification, non-

repudiation, and proof of delivery.

Applied Scenario 2: Incorporating Asymmetric

Encryption
Dr. Patel, while symmetric encryption indeed offers speed and efficiency,
asymmetric encryption plays a crucial role in enhancing the security measures
implemented by IMI, especially concerning patient, financial, and customer data. Let
me break down the key reasons for incorporating asymmetric encryption into our
practices:

Importance of Asymmetric Encryption at IMI:

Cryptography 27
 1. Key Distribution: Asymmetric encryption helps securely distribute encryption
keys, addressing challenges in managing shared keys.

2. Secure Communication: It ensures secure communication over untrusted

networks, preventing interception of symmetric keys during transmission.

3. Digital Signatures: Asymmetric encryption facilitates digital signatures,

providing proof of origin, non-repudiation, and authentication.

4. Hybrid Encryption: Combining symmetric and asymmetric encryption

enhances overall security by leveraging their respective strengths.

5. Key Pair for Identity: Unique key pairs for users or devices add an extra layer
of protection, making it harder for unauthorized access.

6. Regulatory Compliance: Asymmetric encryption aligns with regulatory

requirements, crucial in industries like healthcare.

7. Adaptability: It offers flexibility to adapt to future cryptographic advancements

and changing security needs.

Module 4: Support the Use of Public Key

Infrastructure
Applied Scenario 3: Use of Certificate
1. Security Enhancement Request: Dr. Patel, one of IMI's founders, has tasked
the newly appointed SSCP (Systems Security Certified Practitioner) with finding
a method to enhance security across the organization, considering its complex
and diverse range of systems and technologies.

2. Use of Certificates: The SSCP, along with IT specialists and a crypto expert,
considers using digital certificates as a security measure.

3. Certificate-Enabled Systems: Susan Johnson, an IT specialist, informs the

team that most, if not all, IT equipment in IMI is certificate-enabled. This
includes servers, workstations, laptops, tablets, smartphones, routers, switches,

Cryptography 28
 wireless access points, smart cards, IoT devices, and CCTV surveillance
systems.

4. Certificate Authority (CA): Waheed Ahmed, IMI's crypto expert, suggests that
IMI should install and be its own Certificate Authority (CA) rather than
purchasing third-party certificates.

5. Discussion on Certificates: The team discusses the types of certificates

available for consideration and their potential benefits. User certificates are
mentioned as a way to introduce an additional level of control within IMI.

6. Considerations for Waheed's Suggestion: There is a discussion about the

arguments for and against Waheed's suggestion of IMI becoming its own CA.

Applied Scenario 3 Review: Use of Certifcates

1. Argument in Support of Waheed's Suggestion:

Waheed's suggestion is supported by the argument that creating a CA

might be complicated and involve additional capital expenditure. Managing
a CA also requires a specific protection level.

2. Argument Against Waheed's Suggestion:

An argument against Waheed's suggestion is that buying certificates from a

trusted third party might be easier, even though it incurs a cost. This
approach would involve less complexity in creating and managing a CA, but
it may result in less control over the certificates.

3. Types of Certificates Available for Consideration:

SSL/TLS certificates, Code Signing certificates, and Client certificates are

available for consideration.

4. Benefits and Uses of Certificates:

SSL/TLS certificates are installed on servers to encrypt traffic between

clients and servers. Code Signing certificates guarantee the authenticity of
IMI's equipment software updates for customers. Client certificates are used

Cryptography 29
 to identify users and machines, adding an extra layer of control and
security.

Public-Key Infrastructure (PKI)

1. Establishing Trust: PKI is a solution for establishing trust in network
communications. It addresses the challenge of verifying the authenticity of
websites and users.

2. Asymmetric Cryptography: PKI utilizes asymmetric cryptography, also known

as public key cryptography. This involves a key pair—a public key that can be
shared openly and a private key that must be kept secret.

3. Certificate Authority (CA): A Certificate Authority, such as Network Solutions,

plays a crucial role in PKI. Organizations provide their public keys to a CA,
which issues a digital certificate validating the association between the public
key and the organization.

4. Certificate Validation: The certificate includes information about the

organization, the public key, and a period of validity. Users can validate the
certificate to ensure that it is genuine and belongs to the claimed organization.

5. Period of Validity: Certificates have a defined period of validity, and expired

certificates may trigger warnings in web browsers. Users can inspect the
certificate details to make informed decisions about trusting the organization.

6. Browser Security Features: Browsers provide security features that allow

users to inspect certificates. Clicking on the lock icon in the navigation bar or
using browser options enables users to view information about the site's
security status.

7. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI): PKI is a comprehensive infrastructure that

facilitates the use of cryptography. It enhances the effectiveness of symmetric
cryptography, provides better access control, supports non-repudiation, and
enables the use of digital signatures.

Cryptography 30
 8. Access Control: PKI contributes to better access control by verifying the
identity of users and organizations through certificates, allowing secure
interactions.

9. Non-Repudiation: PKI supports non-repudiation, ensuring that the parties

involved in a communication cannot deny their actions. This is achieved through
the use of digital signatures.

10. Digital Signatures: Digital signatures are a key feature of PKI, providing a
means to sign electronic documents or messages, adding a layer of authenticity
and integrity.

Certificate Authority (CA)

1. Certificate Purpose: Certificates are used to prove that the public key contained in
them belongs to the owner of the public key. This is achieved through the X.509
version 3 standard, and certificates are signed by a Certificate Authority (CA).

2. Levels of Assurance: The level of assurance associated with a certificate depends

on the verification process carried out by the Certificate Authority. Rigorous
verification results in higher trust levels.

3. Trust Verification: Trust is established through a verification process where entities

provide certified identification, such as government-issued IDs, bills, or credit
reports, to the Certificate Authority.

4. Revocation of Certificates: Certificate Authorities can revoke certificates, and a

Certificate Revocation List (CRL) is maintained to identify non-valid certificates that
should no longer be accepted.

5. Registration Authority (RA): In some cases, applicants go to a Registration

Authority (RA), a local representative of the Certificate Authority. The RA validates
applications and forwards them to the CA for certificate issuance.

6. Certificate Signing Request (CSR): To obtain a digital certificate, individuals or

entities send a Certificate Signing Request (CSR) to a Certificate Authority. The

Cryptography 31
 CSR includes necessary information like entity identification, addresses, contacts,
URL, and the public key.

7. Certificate Authorities and Security Needs: Choosing a Certificate Authority is

based on security needs, and various online tools can help in the selection process.

8. Digital Signatures: When a Certificate Authority issues a certificate, it signs it with

a digital signature, providing proof of the certificate's source and integrity.

9. Hierarchy of Trust: Many Certificate Authorities operate on a hierarchy of trust

model. A Root Certificate Authority is at the top, and lower-level CAs are validated
by the Root. Cross certification may be required if organizations use different Root
CAs.

10. Web of Trust: An alternative trust model is the Web of Trust, proposed by PGP
creator Phil Zimmerman. It is a decentralized model where users establish trust
between peers, forming a fault-tolerant web of competence for public keys.

11. Validation in Web of Trust: In a Web of Trust, individuals act as validators for
others. If Alex trusts Sam and Sam trusts Zack, Alex can trust Zack's public key.
This model is decentralized compared to the hierarchical trust model of PKI.

12. Authenticity in Web of Trust: Web of Trust serves to establish authenticity

between a public key and its owner, functioning as an alternative to the centralized
trust model of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI).

Implementing PKI and Managing Digital Certificates

1. Importance of Managing Digital Certificates:

Many organizations do not manage digital certificates well, leading to potential

risks.

Poor digital certificate management can impact organizations in areas such as

compliance audits, security attacks, code signing errors, certificate expiration,
and server outages.

2. Risks of Poor Certificate Management:

Failing compliance audits can occur due to unmanaged certificates.

Cryptography 32
 Man-in-the-middle (MITM) and phishing attacks become more likely.

Code signing errors and key misuse may happen.

Unexpected outages result from unmanaged certificate expiration.

Server outages can occur due to certificate and key misuse issues.

3. Task Areas for Managing Risks:

Own and manage your baseline: Enumerate and inventory information and IT
systems, prioritize risks, and create a security baseline.

Technically manage your public key implementations: Decide on the certificate

authority, consider certificate and key management services, and implement a
certificate management lifecycle model.

Certificate management for enterprises: Identify process maturity metrics,

consider the organization's size and complexity, and establish certificate
management processes.

4. Certificate Management Lifecycle Model:

Different models exist, but common steps include enrollment, discovery,

validation, deployment, activation, revocation, renewal, destruction, and audit.

Two major processes involve planned new uses of certificates and discovering
current use.

5. Challenges and Considerations:

Organizations may start at different points in implementing a managed public

key infrastructure.

Certificate management may vary based on the organization's size, complexity,

and security needs.

The lack of a standardized framework for certificate management poses

challenges for organizations.

6. Importance of Process Maturity Metrics:

It's crucial to identify candidate process maturity metrics for certificate and key
management practices.

Cryptography 33
 Process maturity metrics help organizations assess and improve their certificate
management processes.

7. Consideration of Certificate Types:

Different certificates may be necessary for specific business processes.

The level of assurance and security token technologies (e.g., smart cards)
should be considered based on the organization's needs.

8. Need for Standardization:

The field of certificate management lacks standardized frameworks and

planning tools.

Efforts, such as those by organizations like NIST, aim to address the need for
guidance in certificate management.

Digital Signatures
1. Digital Signatures:

Created by encrypting a digest of a message with the private key of the sender.

Proves message integrity and establishes non-repudiation.

Non-repudiation is as strong as the encryption algorithm and key used.

2. Purpose of Digital Signatures:

Proves message integrity and non-repudiation.

Does not provide confidentiality for the message itself.

3. Legality of Digital Signatures:

In the U.S., the EU, and many other nations, digital signatures can replace
handwritten signatures on contracts and documents.

Legally binding and convey a high degree of authenticity.

4. Applications of Digital Signatures:

Cryptography 34
 Used in various applications, document management systems, email add-ons,
and browser plugins.

Commonly used for software updates delivered via digitally signed code files.

Smart contracts in blockchain technologies utilize similar techniques.

5. Digital Certificates:

Electronic credentials used to assert online identities.

Used to assert identities of both individuals and computers.

6. Certificate Authority (CA):

Organizations, systems, or servers that issue digital certificates.

7. Certificate Path (Chain of Trust):

Certificates are issued in a tiered hierarchical chain.

Certificate path or chain of trust maps out the tiers and shows the association
between them.

Module 5: Support Key Management

Processes
Fundamental Key Management ConceptsSave note
1. Key Management in Cryptography:

The term "key management" encompasses all activities related to safely and
securely using cryptographic materials, also referred to as cryptographic assets.

Effective use of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is essential for various

organizations, becoming integral to business processes, automated workflows,
and software development.

2. Principles of Cryptography:

Cryptography 35
 August Kerckhoff's principle emphasizes that a cryptographic algorithm does
not need to be a secret to be secure.

Claude Shannon's extension states that the strength of a cryptos

3. Key Management Overview:

Key management involves activities related to safely and securely using

cryptographic materials, referred to as cryptographic assets.

PKI (Public Key Infrastructure) is increasingly integrated into business

processes and automated workflows.

4. Cryptographic Principles:

Kerckhoff's principle states that a cryptographic algorithm doesn't need to be a

secret to be secure.

Claude Shannon emphasized that the strength of a cryptosystem depends on

the secrecy of the key.

5. Protection of Cryptographic Keys:

Cryptographic keys are crucial for protecting and unlocking data.

Compromise of keys can lead to the loss or disclosure of data.

6. Secure Protocols and Shared Secrets:

Secure protocols require handshaking to exchange information, but revealing

secrets is not necessary.

Building trust relationships between strangers can be achieved by not sharing

secrets initially.

7. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) Role:

PKI provides shared key creation, key distribution, and management functions
to users.

Key pairs generation and certificate identity generation are fundamental to PKI's
key management role.

8. XML Key Management Specification 2.0:

Cryptography 36
 Defines protocols for distributing and registering public keys.

Consists of the XML Key Information Service Specification and the XML Key
Registration Service Specification.

XML Key Information Service allows clients to delegate tasks to a trust service,
simplifying XML Digital Signatures processing.

XML Key Registration Service enables public key information registration,

supporting key recovery and private key retrieval.

9. Complexity Reduction for Applications:

The XML Key Management Specification aims to minimize the complexity of

applications using XML Digital Signatures.

Client applications can delegate tasks to trust services, reducing the complexity
and syntax related to the underlying public key infrastructure.

10. Key Objectives of XML Digital Signature Element:

XML Digital Signature element provides key-related data for validating the
signature.

It may include the key itself, key name, X.509 version 3 certificate, PGP key
identifier, chain of trust, revocation list info, or key agreement data.

11. XML Key Registration Service (X-KRSS):

Describes a protocol for public key information registration, including key

recovery and private key retrieval.

Allows applications to bind information to a public key, such as name, identifier,

or other attributes.

12. Simplifying Key Management:

The XML Key Management Specification shields client applications from the
complexities of the underlying public key infrastructure.

Standards for Financial Institutions

1. Financial Institution Key Management Standard (ANSI X9.17):

ANSI X9.17 is a financial institution key management standard.

Cryptography 37
 Developed to address the secure transmission of securities and funds
electronically.

2. Hierarchy of Keys:

ANSI X9.17 employs a hierarchy of keys.

Master key encrypting keys (KKMs) are at the top, distributed manually.

Data keys, used for encryption and decryption of messages, have short
lifespans.

3. Three-Tier Model:

In the three-tier model, master key encrypting keys encrypt key encrypting keys,
which, in turn, encrypt data keys.

4. Security Engineering Principles:

Segregation of duties and splitting of knowledge are essential for effective key
management.

These principles enforce the "need to know" principle as part of business

processes.

5. Fungible and Non-Fungible Assets:

Fungible assets, like cash, can be freely exchanged, posing challenges in

proving rightful ownership.

Non-fungible assets, such as stock certificates or property deeds, are unique

and have more control measures.

6. Segregation of Key Management Duties:

The segregation of key management duties is vital to prevent harm caused by

sharing cryptographic keying materials with adversaries.

7. Security Risks and Considerations:

Session keys protecting internal data movement are critical, and compromise
could risk the company's survival.

Banks store high-value customer details, making them targets for financial
criminals.

Cryptography 38
 Encryption of credit card and PII data during transfer is crucial to prevent
accounting fraud and identity theft.

8. Hardware Security Managers (HSMs):

HSMs are hardened processors and storage devices managing digital

signatures, certificates, and keys.

Compliance regimes may require HSMs' use when certain risk thresholds are
exceeded.

HSMs enforce a need-to-know limitation and strengthen the splitting of

knowledge.

9. Segregation of Duties and HSMs:

HSMs assist in the segregation of duties by not allowing direct access to keys
and materials.

Some HSM designs require multiple security operators to be present and

interact physically within tight timelines.

10. Validation of Cryptographic Modules:

Organizations may need to validate cryptographic modules, such as HSMs,

based on standards like FIPS Publication 140-2.

Validation ensures modules are secure, tamper-resistant, and robust against

environmental attacks.

11. Compliance and Employee Bypass:

Strong separation of duty requirements can be bypassed by employees,

whether deliberately or by mistake.

Compliance with standards and effective implementation of security measures

are essential.

Key Creation
1. Considerations for Key Generation:

Cryptography 39
 The number of unique keys needed across all users and systems.

Average and maximum key validity periods.

Size of the required key space and the distribution of keys within that space.

2. Key Space Size:

Key space size is the theoretical maximum number of unique keys based on the
chosen length.

It is represented by numbers in base 2, base 10, or base 16.

Examples include a four-digit PIN with a key space of 10,000 and a 64-bit
binary key with a key space of more than 1.8 x 10^19 possible keys.

3. Key Space Distribution:

Key space distribution refers to how key values are distributed and if they are
adjacent to each other.

Clumping in the key space can lead to vulnerabilities, allowing attackers to

guess or derive valid keys.

4. Key Clustering:

Some key generation processes may cause key clustering, resulting in different
keys generating the same ciphertext from the same plaintext.

Key clustering indicates flaws in the algorithm, implementation, or use,

compromising the security of keys.

5. Manual Key Creation:

Manual key creation by humans is error-prone and weak.

Users may choose predictable passphrases, making them vulnerable to

dictionary and rainbow table attacks.

Commercial operating systems may also exhibit clumping in software-

generated key spaces.

6. Password Manager Systems:

Organizations should consider using password manager systems to simplify the

generation and management of key seeds.

Cryptography 40
 Programs like LastPass or NordPass can provide reliable and secure key
management for home or small office use.

7. Algorithms for Key Generation:

Software algorithms generate a sequence of keys.

The key generator should produce unpredictable results for the next key given
the current value.

Random number functions, hardware random number generators (RNGs), and

pseudorandom numbers are used in key generation algorithms.

8. Key Length:

Key length, measured in bits or bytes, is crucial in cryptographic algorithms.

The resistance to attacks is related to key length, but longer keys can be
computationally expensive.

Cryptographic security is a logarithmic measure of the fastest known

computational attack on the algorithm, measured in bits.

9. NIST Recommendations and ISO Standard:

The U.S. federal government provides recommendations on deterministic

random number generators through NIST.

An international standard for random number generation suitable for

cryptographic systems is ISO 18031.

10. Statistical Analysis of RNG Output:

Rigorous statistical analysis is necessary to have confidence in the output of

random number generators.

True random number generators use physical events, while pseudorandom

numbers are deterministic and require careful analysis.

Cryptoperiod
1. Importance of Crypto Period:

The longer a key is used, the higher the likelihood of compromise.

Cryptography 41
 Organizations typically set a maximum usage time for keys before they must be
changed.

2. Considerations for Crypto Period:

Crypto periods should be chosen carefully as part of an overall risk mitigation

strategy.

Short cycles enhance security but may complicate key generation, distribution,
and management.

Long cycles may expose systems to various cryptanalytic attacks.

3. Table for Crypto Periods:

The text refers to a table suggesting possible crypto periods based on the type
of keys.

However, it emphasizes that the table doesn't consider data sensitivity or

organizational security needs.

4. Security Measures:

Short crypto periods generally enhance security, limiting an adversary's access

to encrypted information.

Caution is advised when deleting keys, as simple deletion may not completely
obliterate information.

Manual key distribution methods have human error risks, and more frequent
changes may increase exposure.

5. Automated Key Distribution:

Secure, automated key distribution with proper authentication and access

controls can compensate for control issues in manual methods.

6. Key Lifetimes Based on Roles:

Users with different roles should have keys with lifetimes based on their
responsibilities and the applications they use.

7. Reissuing Keys:

Reissuing keys should balance between minimizing loss due to compromise

and avoiding excessive burdens on users.

Cryptography 42
 8. Deactivation or Revocation:

Handle the deactivation or revocation of keys to allow verification of data signed

prior to a compromise date.

Signature verification capability may need to be maintained for lost or

compromised keys.

9. Maintaining Signature Verification:

When a key is designated as lost or compromised, maintaining signature

verification capability ensures data previously signed with that key can still be
verified.

Key History
1. Storage of Old Keys:

Organizations and individuals are often required to retain copies of old keys for
accessing encrypted files such as backups.

Secure storage methods are crucial to prevent compromise or loss, as the loss
of an encryption key results in potential data loss.

2. Legal Requirements:

In some jurisdictions, laws may require organizations to retain copies of old

keys for law enforcement, regulatory bodies, or litigation purposes.

3. Key Management Services:

Key management services, including Hardware Security Modules (HSMs) or

Key Management Services (KMS), can support secure storage of old keys.

4. Key Distribution:

Secure exchange of keys between communicating parties is crucial.

Methods range from Diffie-Hellman to personal couriers, and the challenge is to

prevent compromise during distribution.

Cryptography 43
 Public key distribution in certificates ensures the validity and ownership of
public keys.

5. Key Wrapping and KEKs:

Key Encrypting Keys (KEKs) are long-term keys used for key distribution or
exchange.

Key wrapping involves protecting session keys with a KEK, using symmetric
ciphers for encryption.

6. Key Storage and Destruction:

Proper storage and periodic change of cipher keys are essential for effective
cryptography.

Protection methods include HSMs, passphrase-protected smart cards, key

wrapping, and strong passwords/passphrases.

7. Key Expiration:

Keys must have an expiration date to guard against long-term cryptanalytic

attacks.

The key length should be sufficient to make the chances of pre-expiration

cryptanalysis extremely small.

Expired keys should be replaced with newer, longer keys to enhance security.

8. Additional Guidance for Key Storage:

Centrally stored data related to user keys should be signed, have a MAC for
integrity, and be encrypted if confidentiality is required.

Individual key records in a database and the entire database should have
integrity checks and encryption.

Backup copies of central/root keys should be made, and key recovery

capabilities should be provided.

9. Factors Affecting Risk Exposure:

Various factors influence the risk of exposure, including cryptographic

mechanisms, implementation details, operating environment, volume of
information flow, security life of the data, and more.

Cryptography 44
 Key Recovery and Key Escrow
1. Multi-party or Split Knowledge Key Recovery:

Involves splitting a key into multiple fragments.

Fragments are stored separately and require collaboration to recombine.

Different individuals or organizational departments respond to authenticated

and authorized requests.

2. Dual Control Key Recovery:

Stores the key as a single unit in a secure storage system.

Requires two or more individuals to perform separate actions for retrieval.

3. Key Escrow:

Similar to key recovery but often used in an external or higher authority context.

Preserves the ability to access plaintext of encrypted files or messages.

Copies of encryption keys and certificates may be deposited with a specified

organizational unit.

Raises questions about non-repudiation when keys are recovered, emphasizing

the need for trust.

4. Legal Attempts for Key Escrow:

Some nations have attempted legal requirements for placing encryption keys in
escrow with government agencies.

Such efforts have faced backlash due to concerns from businesses, security
professionals, and civil liberties watchdog organizations.

5. Key Management Importance:

Key management is crucial for secure information sharing and collaboration in

high-risk environments.

The integration of security, particularly cryptography, directly into applications or

network devices is essential.

Cryptography 45
 6. Standardized Key Management Specifications:

Many standardized key management specifications are being developed and

implemented.

These specifications serve as key management plug-ins for products.

7. Assessing Key Management Approaches:

Organizations should assess their key management approaches and systems.

Consider new standards, practice guides, and frameworks.

Evaluate where the organization stands on the conceptual key management

growth path.

8. Organization's Key Management Growth Path:

Organizations may start in an unmanaged state with no awareness or inventory

of keys.

Password vault manager capabilities can provide a step up from an unmanaged

state.

Enterprise-wide Key Management Systems (KMS) offer choices for medium or

large organizations.

Managed security services should naturally include KMS as part of their

offerings.

Module 6: Support the Use of Secure

Protocols
Implementation of Secure Communications - Email
1. Overview of SMIME:

SMIME stands for Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions.

Developed by RSA Security in the 1990s.

Cryptography 46
 Embraced by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and defined in various
Requests for Comments (RFCs).

Ongoing development through the SMIME Working Group of the CA/Browser

Forum.

2. Historical Context:

Email systems originated in the 1960s as extensions of remote access

timesharing computing systems.

Early systems lacked provisions for securing email contents during

transmission.

Utility programs like Pretty Good Privacy provided encryption but lacked built-in
key sharing or management.

3. SMIME Functionality:

Integrated capability or plugin in browsers and office productivity suites.

Provides encryption, authentication, and message integrity for email

communication.

Utilizes concepts of asymmetric encryption demonstrated in Module Three

(public and private keys).

4. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI):

Relies on a PKI for certificate issuance by a Certificate Authority (CA).

Certificates validate the validity of public keys and their association with
authenticated identities.

Mail server plays a crucial role in managing certificates and facilitating secure
email communication.

5. End User Interaction:

End users send secure emails through the certificate issued to the mail server.

This reliance on PKI establishes trust in cryptographic keys used for encryption
and authentication.

6. Enhancing Email Security:

Cryptography 47
 SMIME enhances email security by providing encryption, sender authentication,
and message integrity.

Integration with browsers and office suites makes it a practical choice for
organizations aiming to secure email correspondence.

Digital Signatures
1. Digital Signatures in Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/MIME):

Commonly used service in S/MIME.

Key functions: authentication, non-repudiation, and data integrity.

2. Authentication:

Certificate tied to an entity with a pre-established identity.

Confidence that the presenter is who they claim to be.

3. Non-repudiation:

Legal function.

Binding of a certificate to an entity.

Signer cannot deny sending the digitally signed document.

4. Data Integrity:

Assured when recipient validates the digital signature.

Ensures the received message is the same as the signed and sent message.

5. Core Functions of Digital Signing:

Authentication, non-repudiation, and data integrity.

6. Signature Operation:

Requires information provided only by the sender.

Appended to outbound mail.

7. Encryption:

Changes information to make it unreadable until converted back.

Message content encryption for SMTP-based Internet email lacking security.

Cryptography 48
 8. Confidentiality in Email:

Encryption in S/MIME assures a reasonable level of confidentiality.

9. Combining Digital Signatures and Encryption:

Digital signatures provide authentication and non-repudiation.

Message encryption provides confidentiality.

Can be used independently or in conjunction.

10. Policy and Procedures:

Policies and procedures need to be created due to the different security issues
addressed by encryption and digital signing.

11. Deployment Variations:

Different vendors may deploy encryption and digital signatures together or

separately.

Purpose of the demonstration is to show the interaction of various steps in the

process.

Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer

Security (TLS)
1. Cryptography in E-commerce Transactions:

Commonly used for secure e-commerce transactions.

Implemented through Secure Socket Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security

(TLS).

2. Shift from SSL to TLS:

Organizations have moved away from SSL due to protocol weaknesses.

PCI DSS does not permit the use of SSL for secure communications.

3. SSL/TLS Encryption Purpose:

Encrypts confidential data over insecure networks.

Cryptography 49
 Positioned between the application protocol layer and the TCP/IP layer.

4. SSL/TLS Protocols:

Similar but can create interoperability issues.

Used to send Layer 7 data down to Layer 4.

5. SSL/TLS Layers:

Divided into the handshake layer and the record layer.

6. Handshake Protocol:

Establishes agreed parameters (SSL/TLS version, encryption protocol, etc.).

Utilizes an x.509 version 3 certificate for identity proof.

Certificate includes public key, serial number, validity period, identification

information, and issuer's digital signature.

7. Certificate Authority (CA):

Trusted third party.

Relies on the registration authority to confirm the identity of a certificate

requester.

Issues, renews, and revokes certificates.

8. Record Protocol:

Breaks data into smaller units, applies compression, adds a message

authentication code.

9. Handshake Sub-Protocols:

Handshake: Negotiates session information.

Change Cipher Spec: Changes raw data to create encryption keys.

Alert: Indicates a change in status or an error to the peer.

10. Hybrid Cryptography Approach:

Uses both symmetric key and asymmetric key encryption.

Symmetric encryption for message encryption due to strength and speed.

Cryptography 50
 Asymmetric encryption for exchanging pre-shared keys over potentially
unsecured channels.

11. Hashing in Handshake Process:

Hash algorithm agreed upon during the handshake.

Hashing used for integrity checking.

Hash digest added to the message, recipient compares it for integrity.

12. Message Authentication Code (MAC):

Introduction of a second pre-shared secret produces a hash MAC.

Shared secret key is appended to the data for hashing, providing basic proof of
origin.

Both parties need two keys: one to decrypt the message and the second for
integrity checking.

Steganography
1. Definition of Steganography:

Derived from Greek: "steganos" (concealed) and "graphy" (writing).

Art of concealing or hiding the existence or contents of a message.

2. Historical Methods of Steganography:

Null ciphers, invisible ink, microdots, and other secret means of communication.

Concealing messages for centuries.

3. Modern Steganography:

Involves using videos, pictures, and music to carry hidden messages.

Often hides messages in the least significant bit of each byte of an image.

Requires specific steganography tools for detection and reading.

4. Difference Between Cryptography and Steganography:

Cryptography: Protects the contents of a message.

Steganography: Conceals or hides the existence or contents of a message.

Cryptography 51
 5. Combining Cryptography and Steganography:

Both processes can be combined for enhanced message protection.

6. Methods of Performing Steganography:

Physical concealment techniques (physical steganography).

Modern methods: covert channels, hidden text within web pages, messages
within picture or sound files, null ciphers.

7. Legitimate Uses of Steganography:

Digital watermarking is one of the widely used applications.

Digital watermark replicates an image, logo, or text for partial authentication.

Used by graphic artists to embed a signature in an image for copyright

protection.

8. Examples of Modern Steganography:

Covert channels.

Hidden text within a web page.

Messages within picture or sound files.

Null ciphers (hidden with another plaintext message).

Null Cipher
1. Definition of Null Cipher:

Null cipher involves hiding a message within another plaintext message.

Specifically, it hides ciphertext within plaintext.

2. Example of Null Cipher:

Sentence: "Interesting how additional time explains better every daily task,
inspiring more expectations."

Null cipher created: "I hate bedtime."

Cryptography 52
 Hides a message within the first character of each word.

3. Military Message Example:

Original message: "President’s embargo ruling should have immediate notice.

Grave situation affecting international law. Statement foreshadows ruin of many
neutrals. Yellow journals unifying national excitement immensely."

Null cipher: "Pershing sails from N.Y. June 1."

Message becomes clear when taking the first letter from each word.

Secure Protocols IP Security (IPsec)

1. IPsec Overview:

IP Security (IPsec) is a suite of protocols for secure communication over the

Internet Protocol.

Provides mechanisms for authentication and encryption.

2. Implementation:

Mandatory in IP version 6; many organizations use it for IP version 4

communications.

Two modes: Tunnel mode (default, for network-to-network protection), Transport

mode (end-to-end protection).

3. Authentication and User Authentication:

Standard IPsec authenticates hosts.

User authentication requires non-standard proprietary IPsec or IPsec over

Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP).

4. NAT Transversal:

Incompatibility with Network Address Translation (NAT) resolved using NAT

transversal encapsulating IPsec with User Datagram Protocol (UDP) port 4500.

5. Authentication Header (AH):

Proves the identity of the source IP address and ensures data integrity.

Hash value of packet contents inserted in the AH's last field.

Cryptography 53
 Thwarts replay attacks with a sequence number for each packet.

6. Transport Mode:

AH inserted between IP and TCP headers.

Ensures integrity, not confidentiality.

7. Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP):

Encrypts IP packets and ensures integrity.

Four sections: ESP header (SA info, sequence number), ESP payload
(encrypted packet), ESP trailer (padding), Authentication (integrity check value).

8. Security Association (SA):

Defines mechanisms for communication.

Covers transmissions in one direction; two-way communication requires a

second SA.

Mechanisms include encryption, authentication algorithms, and the choice of

AH or ESP protocol.

9. Transport vs. Tunnel Mode:

Transport mode protects IP payload (mostly for end-to-end protection).

Tunnel mode protects IP payload and header; used for network-to-network

protection (firewall-to-firewall VPNs).

10. Flexibility in Mechanisms:

Security associations allow partners to use appropriate mechanisms based on

situational risk.

11. Communication Modes:

Endpoints communicate with IPsec using transport or tunnel mode based on

the desired level of protection.

12. Activity Reminder:

Readers are encouraged to check their understanding in the implementing

IPsec activity.

Cryptography 54
 Internet Security Association Key Management
Protocol (ISAKMP)
1. Internet Security Association Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP):

Developed in the late 1980s.

Establishes security associations, binding algorithms and data for encryption

services to protect data transmitted over the Internet.

Facilitates the exchange and authentication of keys between parties.

2. Relationship with IPsec:

IPsec, developed in the 1980s and early 1990s, preceded the widespread
development of public key infrastructure.

ISAKMP works with IPsec to handle key exchange and authentication needs.

3. Key Exchange Mechanisms in IPsec:

Internet Key Exchange (IKE) or IKE Version 2.

Uses the Kerberized Internet Negotiation of Keys Protocol as its main

mechanisms.

4. DNS Record for Key Exchange:

ISAKMP can use an IPsec key type of Domain Name System (DNS) record for
key exchange and validation.

5. Expertise in Implementation:

Implementing ISAKMP or other key exchange protocols requires expertise.

Security practitioners must understand these protocols and incorporate them

into the organization's overall security program.

6. Internet Key Exchange (IKE):

Allows communication partners to prove their identity and establish a secure

communication channel.

Applied as an authentication component of IPsec.

Cryptography 55
 7. IKE Phases:

Phase 1: Authentication using shared secret, public key encryption, or revised

mode of public key encryption.

Reduces overhead using a nonce encrypted with the partner's public key.

Establishes a temporary security association and secure tunnel.

8. Phase 2 of IKE:

Establishes peer's security associations using the secure tunnel and temporary
security association created in Phase 1.

9. Implementation of IPsec:

Usually implemented through software, where each node creates and secures
the connection.

Hardware version, like High Assurance Internet Protocol Encryptor, can also be
used.

10. High Assurance Internet Protocol Encryptor:

Extension of IPsec with additional restrictions and enhancements.

Encrypts multicast data using high assurance hardware encryption.

Used for highly secure communications in military, law enforcement, emergency

services, rail, air transport, and other markets.

11. Growing Demand for Military-Grade Encryption:

Many markets adopting High Assurance Internet Protocol Encryptor devices for
secure communications in various applications.

Remote Access Content Protection

1. Virtual Private Network (VPN):

A point-to-point connection between two hosts enabling communication.

Cryptography 56
 May not necessarily be an encrypted tunnel but can provide secure
communication if security protocols are selected and configured.

2. VPN for Remote Access:

Remote users use VPNs to access an organization's network.

Depending on the implementation, remote users can have access to most

resources as if they were physically at the office.

3. Gateway to Gateway VPNs:

Used by organizations to securely transmit information over the Internet

between sites or with business partners.

An alternative to expensive dedicated point-to-point connections.

4. Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP):

VPN protocol running over other protocols, often used for remote access.

Relies on Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) to build tunnels between

endpoints.

Authenticates users, typically with Microsoft Challenge Handshake

Authentication Protocol version 2.

5. Weaknesses of PPTP:

Derives encryption key from the user's password, violating cryptographic

principles.

Password-based VPN authentication is not recommended for remote access,

violating the two-factor authentication recommendation.

6. Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP):

A hybrid of Cisco's Layer 2 Forwarding and Microsoft's PPTP.

Allows dial-up users to connect to their Internet service providers' L2TP Access
Concentrator (LAC) using Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).

LAC encapsulates PPP packets into L2TP and forwards them to the remote
network's Layer 2 Network Server.

7. L2TP Authentication:

Cryptography 57
 L2TP does not provide encryption and relies on other protocols like tunnel mode
IPSec for confidentiality.

Authentication can involve a shared secret between LAC and Layer 2 Network
Server.

8. OpenVPN:

Open-source software for secure site-to-site or point-to-point connections.

Supports various authentication methods: certificates, pre-shared keys,

username-password combination.

Can use Secure Socket Layer Library or Transport Layer Security.

Allows multiple ways to authenticate.

9. Complexity and Vulnerabilities:

As protocols are layered, the complexity of the system increases.

Operational limitations and vulnerabilities may be introduced, and side effects of

the system design must be considered.

Module 7: Cryptanalysis
Cryptanalysis
1. Cryptanalysis Focus:

The module focuses on cryptanalysis.

2. Predictability in Cryptography:

Predictability is considered the enemy of cryptography.

Using predictable keys or patterns makes cryptanalysis simpler.

3. Similar Messages and Cryptanalysis:

Many messages an organization sends may have similarities in format and

content.

Cryptography 58
 Cryptanalysts can analyze similar ciphertext to find patterns, uncovering
operations of the cryptosystem.

4. Initialization Vector (IV):

Cryptosystems use an initialization vector during the encryption process.

The initialization vector is a random value added to the plaintext message

before encryption.

5. Purpose of Initialization Vector:

Ensures that even if similar documents are encrypted using the same key, the
resulting ciphertext will be substantially different.

6. Example: Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP):

WEP uses an initialization vector.

The implementation of the streaming cipher Rivest Cipher 4 in WEP faced

issues with a too-short initialization vector.

This inadequacy in randomness led to a compromise of web encrypted

transmissions.

Methods of Cryptanalytic Attack

1. Password Attacks:

Three common types: brute force, dictionary, and rainbow table attacks.

Passwords are often stored as hash values.

Various attacks aim to discover keys required to defeat encryption.

2. Ciphertext-Only Attack:

Attacker starts with unintelligible data, attempting to decipher an encrypted

message.

Becomes easier with multiple pieces of ciphertext.

Adequate encryption should withstand brute-force attacks.

Cryptography 59
 3. Moore's Law and Encryption:

Available computing power doubles every 18 months.

Encryption strength considered adequate today may not be sufficient in the

future due to technological advances.

4. Chosen Ciphertext Attack:

Similar to chosen plaintext attack.

Attacker has access to the decryption device and attempts to discover the key
by decrypting chosen pieces of ciphertext.

Asymmetric cryptosystems, like RSA, are vulnerable but can be mitigated with
random padding.

5. Known Plaintext Attack:

Attacker has both ciphertext and plaintext versions of the same message.

Goal is to find the cryptographic key used for encryption.

Once the key is found, the attacker can decrypt all messages encrypted with
that key.

6. Chosen Plaintext Attack:

Attacker knows the encryption algorithm or has access to the machine used for
encryption.

Executes chosen pieces of plaintext through the algorithm to determine the key.

Adaptive chosen plaintext attack allows modification of chosen input files to

observe effects on resulting ciphertext.

Social Engineering for Key Discovery

1. Definition of Social Engineering:

Social engineering involves deception, intimidation, coercion, bribery, or other

non-technical means to gain unauthorized access to information.

Cryptography 60
 2. Social Engineering in Encryption Attacks:

Historically successful in compromising encryption systems.

Continues to be part of advanced persistent threat (APT) attack plans.

3. Human Element in Cryptography Systems:

Cryptography systems, like security controls, rely on humans for proper

implementation and operation.

Human vulnerabilities have led to significant compromises of nation or

organization secrets.

4. Defense Against Social Engineering:

Requires a constant focus on awareness, education, and training.

Human awareness is crucial for preventing social engineering attacks.

More Methods of Cryptanalytic Attack

Quantum Cryptanalysis and CryptographySave note

1. Brute Force:

Trying all possible keys until finding the one decrypting the ciphertext.

Key length is crucial for the strength of a cryptosystem.

GPU-based brute force attacks significantly accelerate the process.

2. Differential Cryptanalysis:

Measures exact execution times and power to determine key and algorithm
values.

Considered a side channel attack.

3. Linear Cryptanalysis:

Known plaintext attack using linear approximations.

Cryptography 61
 Obtain bits of information about the key with sufficient plaintext-ciphertext pairs.

4. Algebraic Attacks:

Exploits mathematical structure in block ciphers.

Aims to weaken block ciphers with inherent vulnerabilities.

5. Rainbow Table:

Look-up table of sorted hash outputs for plaintext-hash retrieval.

Saves time in deciphering plaintext from hash values.

6. Birthday Attack:

Exploits the likelihood of finding two messages with the same hash.

Hash algorithms designed to resist simple birthday attacks.

7. Frequency Analysis:

Useful against substitution ciphers.

Exploits known statistics of the plaintext language (e.g., letter frequency).

8. Dictionary Attack:

Commonly used against password files.

Encrypts dictionary words and checks for matching hashes with stored
passwords.

9. Replay Attack:

Disrupts processing by sending repeated files.

Exploits lack of checks or sequence verification codes in receiving software.

10. Factoring Attack:

Targets RSA algorithm by attempting to solve the factoring of large prime

numbers.

11. Reverse Engineering:

Competing firms attempt to reverse engineer cryptographic products.

Cryptography 62
 Aims to find weaknesses in the system or gain critical information about the
algorithm.

12. Temporary Files:

Unused or improperly handled temporary files in cryptosystems may lead to

plaintext compromise.

13. Implementation Attacks:

Relies on system elements outside the algorithm.

Includes side-channel analysis, fault analysis, and probing attacks.

Side-channel attacks leverage physical attributes like power consumption for

key and algorithm insights.

Fault analysis forces system errors to reveal information.

Probing attacks observe circuitry or inject information into cryptographic

modules.

Quantum Cryptanalysis and Cryptography

1. Quantum Cryptography Concept:

Still in the conceptual stage as of 2020.

Differs fundamentally from traditional cryptography.

Utilizes physical events at the subatomic level, like quantum entanglement, to

generate and share keys.

2. Traditional Cryptography vs. Quantum Cryptography:

Traditional cryptography relies on complex mathematical techniques for key

generation.

Quantum cryptography leverages subatomic events for key creation, sharing,

and encryption.

Quantum effects demonstrated, such as quantum entanglement, showcase

potential for ultra-secure communication.

Cryptography 63
 3. Quantum Cryptography Implementation:

Keys generated and distributed through quantum cryptography can be used

with traditional cryptographic algorithms.

Enhances security and resistance to tampering.

Not yet extensively used for encrypting, transferring, or storing data.

4. Cryptanalysis Challenges:

Cryptanalytic attacks from the 1990s have weakened existing cryptosystems.

RSA-250 with 829-bit keys was reported cracked in 2019.

Larger RSA keys still considered computationally impractical for attacks.

5. Quantum Computing Threat:

Quantum computing promises significantly more powerful systems than current

supercomputers.

If practical, quantum computing could render many current encryption systems

vulnerable.

Ongoing research on post-quantum cryptographic algorithms to secure

information.

6. Post-Quantum Cryptography Research:

Governments and military computing environments actively researching post-

quantum cryptographic methods.

Open Quantum-Safe Project initiated by academic researchers and major

corporations.

Explores cryptographic techniques resilient to quantum computing threats.

7. History of Cryptography:

Intertwined with the histories of nations.

Engaged brilliant minds throughout history.

Understanding the evolution of cryptographic processes involves recognizing

weaknesses and acknowledging no system is fully immune to compromise.

Cryptography 64
 Clipping Levels
1. Clipping Level for Incorrect Password Attempts:

Systems often have a clipping level to limit the number of incorrect password
attempts before locking the user account.

This measure aims to prevent brute force attacks.

2. Account Locking and Reset:

Account locking may require administrator intervention or allow users to reset

their own password through identity verification, such as answering secret
questions.

3. Offline Attacks and Password Files:

Unauthorized users with access to password files can launch offline attacks,
attempting to hash various passwords to guess the correct one.

4. Dictionary-Based Password Cracking:

Attackers use dictionary-based tools to guess passwords, focusing on common

words and adaptations of them.

5. Work Factor:

Work factor refers to the amount of time or resources required to defeat

cryptographic protection.

Stronger passwords increase the time required for an attacker to guess them.

6. Brute Force Attacks:

Brute force attacks involve trying every possible password combination to gain
access.

7. Rainbow Tables:

Rainbow tables contain precomputed hash values and corresponding plaintext

passwords, making password cracking faster.

Cryptography 65
 The use of salts in password hashing mitigates the effectiveness of rainbow
tables.

8. Salt in Password Hashing:

A salt is a random value chosen by the administrator during system setup to

enhance password security.

Salts make it more difficult for attackers to use precomputed tables like rainbow
tables.

Terms and Definitions:

Asymmetric Encryption - Process that uses different keys for encryption than it
does for decryption, and in which the decryption key is computationally infeasible to
determine given the encryption key itself, from plaintext and corresponding
ciphertext, or from knowledge of the key generation or encryption algorithm.

Certificate Authority (CA) - An entity trusted by one or more users as an authority

in a network that issues, revokes, and manages digital certificates.

Cleartext - Text or data that is never intended to be encrypted, nor does it require
the protection of encryption. Not to be confused with plaintext, which is the data or
message with its meaning intact and visible.

Code - 1. A set of instructions for a computer. Source: www.merriamwebster.com 2.

System of communication in which arbitrary groups of letters, numbers, or symbols
represent units of plain text of varying length. Source: NSTISSI No. 7002

Cryptanalysis - The study of techniques for attempting to defeat cryptographic

techniques and, more generally, information security services.

Cryptographic Hash - A process or function that transforms an input plaintext into

a unique value called a hash (or hash value). These do not use cryptographic
algorithms; the term “cryptographic” refers to the assertion that strong hash
algorithms are one-way functions, that is, it is computationally infeasible to
determine the input plaintext from the hash value and knowledge of the algorithm
alone. Message digests are an example of the use of a cryptographic hash.

Cryptography 66
 Cryptography - The study or applications of methods to secure or protect the
meaning and content of messages, files, or other information, usually by disguise,
obscuration, or other transformations of that content and meaning.

Cryptology - The science that deals with hidden, disguised, or encrypted

communications. It embraces communications security and communications
intelligence.

Cryptosystem - Represents the entire cryptographic operation. This includes the

algorithm, the key, and key management functions.

Decoding - The reverse process from encoding, converting the encoded message
back into its plaintext format.

Decryption - The reverse process from encryption. It is the process of converting a

ciphertext message into plaintext using the cryptographic algorithm and key that
was used to do the original encryption.

Digital Certificate - An electronic document that contains the name of an

organization or individual, the business address, the digital signature of the
certificate authority issuing the certificate.

Digital Signatures - Provide authentication of a sender and integrity of a sender’s

message.

Encoding - The action of changing a message or other set of information into

another format through the use of a code. Unlike encryption, which obscures or
hides the meaning, encoded information can still be read by anyone with knowledge
of the encoding process.

Encryption - The process of converting the message from its plaintext to ciphertext.

Entity - Any form of user, such as a hardware device, software daemon, task,
processing thread or human, which is attempting to use or access systems
resources. Endpoint devices, for example, are entities that human (or nonhuman)
users make use of in accessing a system. Should be subject to access control and
accounting.

Hash Function - Accepts an input message of any length and generates, through a
one-way operation, a fixed-length output called a message digest or hash.

Cryptography 67
 Hardware Security Module - A device that can safely store and manage encryption
keys. This can be used in servers, data transmission, protecting log files, etc.

Identification - Claim of an identity by a subject.

Initialization Vector (IV) - A non-secret binary vector used as the initializing input
algorithm for the encryption of a plaintext block sequence to increase security by
introducing additional cryptographic variance and to synchronize cryptographic
equipment.

Key - The input that controls the operation of the cryptographic algorithm. It
determines the behavior of the algorithm and permits the reliable encryption and
decryption of the message.

Key Clustering - When different encryption keys generate the same ciphertext from
the same plaintext message.

Key Pair - A matching set of one public and one private key, generally associated
with only one person, organization, or identity.

Key Space - Represents the total number of possible values of keys in a

cryptographic algorithm or other security measure, such as a password.

Message Digest - A small representation of a message, file, or other data, usually

generated by a cryptographic hash. Message digests are used to ensure the
authentication and integrity of information, not the confidentiality.

Plaintext - The message or data in its natural format and in readable form;
extremely vulnerable from a confidentiality perspective.

Private Key - One part of a matching key pair generated via asymmetric encryption
processes, which is kept secret by its possessor. Secrecy and integrity of a public-
key encryption process is entirely dependent upon protecting the value of a public
key.

Pseudorandom Numbers - Numbers generated by a deterministic set of equations

or processes.

Registration Authority (RA) - An entity that is responsible for identification and

authentication of certificate subjects, but that does not sign or issue certificates (i.e.,
a Registration Authority is delegated certain tasks on behalf of an authorized CA).
This entity may be a person, organization or system.

Cryptography 68
 Transposition - The process of reordering the plaintext to hide the message.

Stream-Based Algorithms - An encryption algorithm that works on a continuous

flow of input symbols, for the plaintext and keystream alike, and encrypts one
symbol at a time.

Substitution - The process of exchanging one letter orbit in an input plaintext (and
its alphabet) for another symbol in the output alphabet.

Work Factor The amount of effort necessary to break a cryptographic system,

usually measured in total elapsed time.

Cryptography 69