|SUMMARIZED BIO NOTES|C.S.

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Understanding Microorganisms and Biological Diversity:
Fungi, Protists, Archaea, Bacteria, Cell Structures, and
Animal Phyla
Biology is the study of life, and its scope encompasses an incredible diversity of organisms,
from microscopic bacteria to complex animals. Among the most foundational classifications are
the groups of fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria, as well as the broader categories of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. To fully appreciate the complexity of life, one must also
understand the internal architecture of cells and the classification of animals into phyla.

Fungi: The Decomposers of the Ecosystem

Fungi are a kingdom of eukaryotic organisms distinct from plants and animals. They play
essential roles in ecosystems as decomposers, breaking down dead organic matter and
recycling nutrients. Fungi include mushrooms, molds, yeasts, and more.

Characteristics:

●​ Eukaryotic cells with membrane-bound organelles.

●​ Cell walls made of chitin, unlike plant cell walls which contain cellulose.
●​ Heterotrophic: absorb nutrients from their environment.
●​ Can be unicellular (e.g., yeasts) or multicellular (e.g., mushrooms).
●​ Reproduce by spores, either sexually or asexually.

Protists: The Most Diverse Eukaryotes

Protists are a diverse group of mostly unicellular eukaryotic organisms that do not fit neatly into
other kingdoms like plants, animals, or fungi. They can be autotrophic, heterotrophic, or
mixotrophic.

●​ Form symbiotic relationships (e.g., mycorrhizae with plants, lichens with algae).

Characteristics:

●​ Eukaryotic and mostly unicellular, though some (like kelp) are multicellular.
 ●​ Some have flagella or cilia for movement.
●​ Include organisms like amoebas, paramecia, euglena, and algae.
●​ Reproduce sexually or asexually.
●​ Some cause diseases (e.g., Plasmodium causes malaria).
●​ Live in moist or aquatic environments.

Archaea: The Extremophiles

Archaea are a domain of single-celled organisms that are prokaryotic but genetically distinct
from bacteria. They are known for surviving in extreme environments such as hot springs, acidic
lakes, and salt flats.

Characteristics:

●​ Prokaryotic, lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

●​ Cell walls lack peptidoglycan (unlike bacteria).
●​ Have unique membrane lipids for stability in extreme environments.
●​ Can be methanogens, halophiles, or thermophiles.
●​ Reproduce asexually by binary fission.
●​ Play roles in nutrient cycles, such as methane production in anaerobic conditions.

Bacteria: The Ubiquitous Microbes

Bacteria are the most abundant organisms on Earth. They are prokaryotic and found in nearly
every environment, from soil to human intestines.

Characteristics:

●​ Prokaryotic, with circular DNA and no membrane-bound organelles.

●​ Cell wall contains peptidoglycan.
●​ Shapes include cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), and spirilla (spiral).
●​ Reproduce asexually via binary fission.
●​ Some are beneficial (gut microbiota, nitrogen fixation), while others are pathogenic (e.g.,
Streptococcus, E. coli).
●​ Can form biofilms and exhibit antibiotic resistance.
Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

Understanding the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is essential in biology.

Feature Prokaryotes (Bacteria, Eukaryotes (Fungi, Protists, Plants,

Archaea) Animals)

Nucleus No nucleus True nucleus

DNA Circular, free-floating in Linear, enclosed in the nucleus

cytoplasm

Organelles No membrane-bound Membrane-bound organelles (e.g.,

organelles mitochondria, ER)

Cell Size Small (1-10 µm) Larger (10-100 µm)

Reproduction Asexual (binary fission) Sexual and asexual reproduction

Examples Bacteria, Archaea Fungi, Protists, Plants, Animals

Cell Structures: A Comparative View

Cells are the fundamental units of life, and they share common structures with variations
depending on their type.

Basic Cell Structures:

Structure: Function: Found In

Cell Regulates entry/exit of substances All cells

Membrane

Cell Wall Provides structural support (made of Plants, fungi,

cellulose/chitin/peptidoglycan) bacteria

Nucleus Stores genetic material Eukaryotes

Mitochondria Produces energy (ATP) Eukaryotes

Ribosomes Synthesizes proteins All cells

Chloroplasts Conduct photosynthesis Plant and algal cells

Flagella/Cilia Aid in cell movement Some prokaryotes &

protists
Animal Phyla: Classification of Multicellular Life

Animals are classified into phyla based on characteristics such as body symmetry,
developmental stages, and presence of specialized tissues.

Major Animal Phyla:

1.​ Porifera (Sponges)

○​ Simplest animals, no true tissues or organs.
○​ Asymmetrical, filter feeders.
2.​ Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals)
○​ Radial symmetry, stinging cells (cnidocytes).
○​ Two body forms: polyp and medusa.
3.​ Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)
○​ Bilateral symmetry, simple organs, often parasitic.
4.​ Nematoda (Roundworms)
○​ Unsegmented, complete digestive tract, many are parasites.
5.​ Annelida (Segmented Worms)
○​ Segmented bodies, closed circulatory system.
6.​ Mollusca (Snails, Octopuses, Clams)
○​ Soft-bodied, many have shells, foot for movement.
7.​ Arthropoda (Insects, Crabs, Spiders)
○​ Exoskeleton, jointed appendages, most diverse phylum.
8.​ Echinodermata (Starfish, Sea Urchins)
○​ Radial symmetry in adults, water vascular system.
9.​ Chordata (Vertebrates)
○​ Notochord, dorsal nerve cord, includes fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds,
mammals.

Conclusion

The study of life reveals a rich and varied tapestry, from single-celled bacteria and archaea to
multicellular organisms like fungi and animals. Understanding the distinctions between
prokaryotes and eukaryotes, cell structures, and animal phyla provides a foundational
perspective on the interconnectedness and complexity of life on Earth. As science advances,
our appreciation for the diversity of life continues to grow, further highlighting the importance of
microorganisms and cellular organization in the web of life.
Protists: The Kingdom of Diversity
What Are Protists?

Protists are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that don’t fit neatly into the animal, plant,
or fungal kingdoms. They are primarily unicellular, though some are colonial or multicellular
without specialized tissues. Protists belong to the Kingdom Protista, a classification that is now
considered paraphyletic (not all members share a single common ancestor) but still useful for
understanding simpler eukaryotic life forms.

Biodiversity of Protists

Protists represent an immense range of biological diversity. They include:

1.​ Animal-like protists (Protozoa)

○​ Heterotrophs that ingest food
○​ Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, Giardia
2.​ Plant-like protists (Algae)
○​ Autotrophs that perform photosynthesis
○​ Examples: Euglena, Diatoms, Green algae
3.​ Fungus-like protists (Slime molds, Water molds)
○​ Decomposers; absorb nutrients from dead material
○​ Examples: Physarum, Phytophthora

These groups are based more on functional and ecological roles than evolutionary relationships.

Kingdom Protista

The Kingdom Protista was historically used to classify all simple eukaryotes. Though not a
"true" clade in modern taxonomy, it includes organisms from multiple lineages. Many modern
biologists now divide protists into several supergroups, such as:

●​ Excavata (e.g., Euglena, Giardia)

●​ SAR (Stramenopiles, Alveolates, Rhizaria)
●​ Archaeplastida (includes red and green algae)
●​ Unikonta (includes amoebas and slime molds)
General Characteristics of Protists

●​ Eukaryotic cells: Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

●​ Mostly unicellular: Some are multicellular or colonial.
●​ Various modes of nutrition:
○​ Autotrophic (photosynthesis)
○​ Heterotrophic (ingesting or absorbing food)
○​ Mixotrophic (can switch between autotrophy and heterotrophy)
●​ Mobility: Some move using flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia.
●​ Reproduction:
○​ Asexual (binary fission, budding)
○​ Sexual (conjugation, gamete fusion)

Size Range

Protists vary greatly in size:

●​ Microscopic: Most range from 5 to 500 micrometers.

●​ Macroscopic: Some algae, like kelp, can grow over 30 meters long.

Habitats

Protists are typically found in moist or aquatic environments:

●​ Freshwater: Ponds, lakes, rivers

●​ Marine: Oceans, coral reefs
●​ Soil: Moist soil environments
●​ Inside other organisms: As parasites or symbionts (e.g., Plasmodium in human
blood)

They are particularly abundant in plankton, the base of aquatic food chains.

Ecological Importance

●​ Primary producers: Photosynthetic protists like phytoplankton generate oxygen and

serve as a major food source in aquatic ecosystems.
●​ Decomposers: Slime molds and water molds recycle nutrients from dead organisms.
●​ Pathogens: Some protists cause human diseases, including:
○​ Plasmodium → Malaria
 ○​ Trypanosoma → Sleeping sickness
○​ Entamoeba histolytica → Amoebic dysentery

Conclusion

Protists are essential to life on Earth, despite often being overlooked due to their microscopic
size. They display incredible biodiversity, functional versatility, and ecological significance.
Though traditionally grouped into Kingdom Protista, advances in genetics and molecular
biology are revealing more about their evolutionary complexity and driving a reorganization of
how these organisms are classified.

🧬 PROTOZOANS: Animal-like Protists

📘 Paragraph: “Animal-like protists are also called protozoans...”
“Animal-like protists are also called protozoans. Like animals, protozoans are
heterotrophs. They ingest food obtained from the environment which includes
bacteria, other protists, and nonliving organic compounds. However, unlike animals
which are multicellular, protozoans are unicellular organisms. But these single,
independent cells lack the protection of a cell wall typical of prokaryotes.”

🔍 Explanation:
Protozoans are the “animal-like” members of Kingdom Protista. They resemble animals in
one major way—they must eat other organisms to survive (heterotrophs). But, unlike true
animals:

●​ They are unicellular, meaning the entire organism is just one cell.
●​ Despite being single-celled, they can hunt, digest, move, and reproduce all within that
one microscopic body.
●​ They do not have cell walls, which makes them more flexible and mobile than many
other microbes.

Think of a protozoan as a tiny hunter—a floating predator or scavenger in water or soil that
gobbles up bacteria or organic debris.
🌊 HABITAT OF PROTOZOANS
📘 Paragraph: “Protozoans live in different aquatic environments...”
“Protozoans live in different aquatic environments. Free-living protozoans are found
in freshwater, marine waters, damp soil, and droplets of water on plants. Parasitic
protozoans live in the body fluids of living hosts that include plants and animals. In
humans, they cause many significant diseases such as malaria and African
sleeping sickness.”

🔍 Explanation:
Protozoans thrive in moist or wet environments—they need water to survive and move. They
can be:

●​ Free-living: roaming in ponds, rivers, oceans, even in the tiny water droplets on a leaf.
●​ Parasitic: living inside host organisms (like humans, fish, or insects) where they absorb
nutrients from body fluids.

Notably, some protozoans are dangerous parasites, responsible for deadly diseases:

●​ Plasmodium → causes malaria

●​ Trypanosoma → causes African sleeping sickness

These diseases are especially serious in tropical areas and often spread by insect vectors like
mosquitoes or tsetse flies.

🧬 MOVEMENT IN PROTOZOANS
📘 Paragraph: “Generally, protozoans are motile organisms...”
“Generally, protozoans are motile organisms. They move about their environment
using different structures. Some move briskly using long, thin whiplike structures
called flagella. Others move slowly using temporary cytoplasmic projections called
pseudopodia. Still others use hairlike projections called cilia to creep their way
around.”

🔍 Explanation:
Unlike bacteria that often drift passively, protozoans can move actively. They use three main
types of movement, each tied to different species:
 ●​ Flagella: Long, tail-like structures. Used like a whip to propel the cell forward. (e.g.,
Trypanosoma)
●​ Pseudopodia (“false feet”): Extensions of the cell's own cytoplasm used to crawl slowly
and engulf food. (e.g., Amoeba)
●​ Cilia: Tiny, hair-like structures that beat rhythmically to move the organism or direct
food. (e.g., Paramecium)

These modes of locomotion help protozoans not just to travel, but also to hunt, evade
predators, or find hosts.

🧫 PARASITIC PROTOZOANS
📘 Paragraph: “However, some parasitic protozoans lack structures for
motility...”

“Inside the host, there seems to be no need for motility since food is abundant in
the surrounding body fluids. The kind of motile structures present, or the lack of it, is
the basis for dividing protozoans into four groups.”

🔍 Explanation:
Interestingly, not all protozoans need to move. Some parasitic forms lose their motility
because:

●​ Inside the host body, food is plentiful and constant—there's no need to chase prey or
flee.
●​ These organisms specialize in invading and exploiting the host, not wandering freely.

This idea leads to the classification of protozoans based on how (or whether) they move:

1.​ Flagella → Zooflagellates

2.​ Pseudopodia → Amoeboids
3.​ Cilia → Ciliates
4.​ No movement → Apicomplexans (like Plasmodium)

So even motility becomes a tool to understand evolutionary relationships and adaptiveness

in protozoans.
🔁 FLAGELLATED PROTOZOANS (ZOOFLAGELLATES)
📘 Paragraph: “Protozoans with flagella are also known as
zooflagellates...”

“They are fast swimmers with one or more flagella. The flagella beat rhythmically to
push or pull the whole cell through the fluid environment. Like most prokaryotes,
zooflagellates generally reproduce by binary fission, producing genetically identical
individuals. Most species of zooflagellates are free-living. Others are parasitic.”

🔍 Explanation:
Zooflagellates are protozoans that use flagella to swim—often very rapidly. These long
whip-like tails move in a rhythmic motion to push or pull the cell, much like how a fish swishes
its tail.

●​ Reproduction: They reproduce asexually through binary fission (splitting into two
identical cells).
●​ Lifestyle: While many are free-living, others can be parasites—for example:
○​ Giardia → causes intestinal infections.
○​ Trypanosoma → responsible for African sleeping sickness.

Their ability to move quickly gives them an edge in chasing food or escaping predators in
aquatic environments.

🌿 PSEUDOPODIA-PRODUCING PROTOZOANS
(AMOEBOIDS)
📘 Paragraph: “The amoeba is a pseudopod, a protist that bears
pseudopodia...”

“This unicellular organism appears as a shapeless mass of cytoplasm bounded by

a thin outer cell membrane. The cytoplasmic content of an active amoeba streams
constantly, presses against the membrane, and creates fingerlike projections called
pseudopodia. Pseudopodia, which literally means ‘false feet,’ aid in the
characteristic creeping movement of the amoeba. The amoeba also uses its
pseudopodia to engulf algae, other protists, and nonliving organic substances.
Pseudopods digest their food using secreted enzymes.”
🔍 Explanation:
This paragraph introduces the amoeba, a classic example of protozoans that move using
pseudopodia, or “false feet.”

●​ The amoeba’s body is soft and flexible—it constantly reshapes itself.

●​ It moves by streaming its cytoplasm in the direction it wants to go, creating extensions
(pseudopodia) to pull the rest of the body forward.
●​ These projections are also used to trap food in a process similar to hugging prey—the
amoeba wraps around it and digests it with enzymes.

This makes amoeboids skilled predators and scavengers, creeping through soil or water to
find nutrients.

🌿 PSEUDOPODIA-PRODUCING PROTOZOANS
(Continued tehee)
Focus: Amoeba & Entamoeba histolytica

📘 Paragraph: “The thin outer membrane assists in the exchange of

substances between the amoeba and its environment...”

“Oxygen gas dissolved in the fluid environment diffuses into the cell and is used for
metabolism. Waste materials such as carbon dioxide and ammonia diffuse across
the same membrane into the environment. Excessive water molecules enter the
amoeba through osmosis and cause it to swell and burst. However, the amount of
water inside the organism remains constant because an organelle, called
contractile vacuole, pumps out excess water and bulky waste materials through
pores in the membrane.”

🔍 Explanation:
This paragraph focuses on internal cellular regulation in amoebas, especially how they:

●​ Breathe: They take in oxygen directly from water through simple diffusion (no lungs
needed!).
●​ Excrete: Waste gases like CO₂ and ammonia exit the same way—across the cell
membrane.
●​ Manage water levels: Since amoebas often live in freshwater, water constantly enters
their bodies via osmosis (water moves from an area of low solute to high solute).
○​ Without control, they’d swell and burst.
 ○​ Enter the contractile vacuole—an internal water pump. It expels excess water
and waste, keeping the cell from bursting.

💡 Analogy: Think of the contractile vacuole as a sump pump in a basement—it constantly

removes water to prevent flooding.

⚠️ Pathogen Spotlight: Entamoeba histolytica

📘 Paragraph: “Entamoeba histolytica, a parasitic species that causes
amoebiasis or amoebic dysentery...”

“People who consume water and food contaminated with the cysts of the parasite
may or may not develop the symptoms of amoebiasis.”

🔍 Explanation:
This introduces Entamoeba histolytica, a parasitic amoeba and one of the most common
human-infecting protozoans.

●​ It spreads through ingestion of contaminated water or food—especially in areas with

poor sanitation.
●​ What’s consumed isn’t the amoeba itself, but its cyst form—a hard, resistant shell that
allows it to survive stomach acid and reach the intestines.
●​ Once in the intestines, the cyst breaks open, releasing active trophozoites that may:
○​ Remain harmless, OR
○​ Invade intestinal tissues and cause disease.

This variation in impact means that some people are carriers without symptoms, while others
get severely ill.

🦠 Amoebiasis: The Disease

📘 Paragraph: “Amoebiasis may be mild or, in rare cases, severe...”
“Symptoms of mild infection include nausea, loose stool, abdominal tenderness,
and occasional fever. Severe infection ensues when the parasite attacks the large
intestine and moves beyond, to the liver for example, causing liver abscess. There
is a high incidence of amoebiasis in the tropics and subtropics where animal
excrement is used as fertilizer for agricultural land.”
🔍 Explanation:
Amoebiasis is a disease with a wide range of severity:

●​ Mild cases:
○​ Nausea
○​ Diarrhea
○​ Cramps
○​ Fever
●​ Severe cases:
○​ The parasite may invade the intestinal wall, causing bleeding and ulceration.
○​ It can enter the bloodstream and infect the liver, forming a liver abscess—a
painful, sometimes life-threatening condition.

The disease is more common in developing tropical countries with poor sanitation or where
animal feces are used as fertilizer, creating a route for cysts to contaminate food and water
supplies.