UNIT 5

Application Layer
The Application Layer is the topmost layer in the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model, directly interacting with end-user applications. Its
primary role is to provide services and interfaces that allow applications to
communicate over a network.

It facilitates data exchange between software applications by using protocols

like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, and more, each designed for specific tasks such as
web browsing, file transfer, email handling, and domain name resolution.

The Application Layer ensures that data is presented in a readable format and
handles aspects such as data compression, encryption, and error handling.

Services of Application Layers

o Network Virtual terminal: An application layer allows a user to log on to a remote host.
To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host.
The user's computer talks to the software terminal, which in turn, talks to the host. The
remote host thinks that it is communicating with one of its own terminals, so it allows the
user to log on.
o File Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM): An application allows a user to
access files in a remote computer, to retrieve files from a computer and to manage files in
a remote computer. FTAM defines a hierarchical virtual file in terms of file structure, file
attributes and the kind of operations performed on the files and their attributes.
o Addressing: To obtain communication between client and server, there is a need for
addressing. When a client made a request to the server, the request contains the server
address and its own address. The server response to the client request, the request
contains the destination address, i.e., client address. To achieve this kind of addressing,
DNS is used.
o Mail Services: An application layer provides Email forwarding and storage.

o Directory Services: An application contains a distributed database that provides access

for global information about various objects and services.

Application architecture is of two types:

 o Client-server architecture: An application program running on the local
machine sends a request to another application program is known as a client,
and a program that serves a request is known as a server. For example, when
a web server receives a request from the client host, it responds to the
request to the client host.

Characteristics Of Client-server architecture:

o In Client-server architecture, clients do not directly communicate with each other. For
example, in a web application, two browsers do not directly communicate with each
other.
o A server is fixed, well-known address known as IP address because the server is always
on while the client can always contact the server by sending a packet to the sender's IP
address.

Disadvantage Of Client-server architecture:

It is a single-server based architecture which is incapable of holding all the requests from the
clients. For example, a social networking site can become overwhelmed when there is only one
server exists.

o P2P (peer-to-peer) architecture: It has no dedicated server in a data center.

The peers are the computers which are not owned by the service provider.
Most of the peers reside in the homes, offices, schools, and universities. The
peers communicate with each other without passing the information through
a dedicated server, this architecture is known as peer-to-peer architecture.
The applications based on P2P architecture includes file sharing and internet
telephony.

Features of P2P architecture

o Self scalability: In a file sharing system, although each peer generates a workload by
requesting the files, each peer also adds a service capacity by distributing the files to the
peer.
o Cost-effective: It is cost-effective as it does not require significant server infrastructure
and server bandwidth.
Client and Server model
o A client and server networking model is a model in which computers such as
servers provide the network services to the other computers such as clients
to perform a user based tasks. This model is known as client-server
networking model.
o The application programs using the client-server model should follow the
given below strategies:

o An application program is known as a client program, running on the local

machine that requests for a service from an application program known as a
server program, running on the remote machine.
o A client program runs only when it requests for a service from the server
while the server program runs all time as it does not know when its service
is required.
o A server provides a service for many clients not just for a single client.
Therefore, we can say that client-server follows the many-to-one
relationship. Many clients can use the service of one server.
o Services are required frequently, and many users have a specific client-
server application program. For example, the client-server application
program allows the user to access the files, send e-mail, and so on. If the
 services are more customized, then we should have one generic application
program that allows the user to access the services available on the remote
computer.

Client
A client is a program that runs on the local machine requesting service
from the server. A client program is a finite program means that the
service started by the user and terminates when the service is completed.

Server
A server is a program that runs on the remote machine providing
services to the clients. When the client requests for a service, then the
server opens the door for the incoming requests, but it never initiates the
service.
A server program is an infinite program means that when it starts, it runs
infinitely unless the problem arises. The server waits for the incoming
requests from the clients. When the request arrives at the server, then it
responds to the request.

Domain Name System (DNS)

The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
www.google.com) into machine-readable IP addresses (e.g., 142.250.190.14),
enabling internet communication

 It enables computers to locate and communicate with each other on the internet.

 DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host on the
network and its numerical address.

 DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.

 Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of symbols
specified by dots.
  DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This allows the users
of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for other hosts instead of
remembering the IP addresses.

 For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of 132.147.165.50, most
people would reach this site by specifying ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name
is more reliable than IP address.

DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is divided into
three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse domain.

Generic Domains
o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.
o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS
database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization
type.

LLLLLL Description

aero Airlines and aerospace companies

biz Businesses or firms

com Commercial Organizations

coop Cooperative business Organizations

edu Educational institutions

gov Government institutions

info Information service providers

int International Organizations

mil Military groups

museum Museum & other nonprofit organizations

name Personal names

net Network Support centers

org Nonprofit Organizations

pro Professional individual Organizations

Country Domain
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-
character country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of
three character organizational abbreviations.

Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the
server has received a request from the client, and the server contains the
files of only authorized clients. To determine whether the client is on the
authorized list or not, it sends a query to the DNS server and ask for mapping
an address to the name.

Working of DNS
o DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send requests to
the. server while DNS servers send responses to the client.
o Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address known as a forward
DNS lookups while requests containing an IP address which is converted into a name
known as reverse DNS lookups.
 o DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts available on the
internet.
o If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then a piece of
software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server to obtain the IP address
of a hostname. If DNS server does not contain the IP address associated with a hostname,
then it forwards the request to another DNS server. If IP address has arrived at the
resolver, which in turn completes the request over the internet protocol.

How Does DNS Work?

 When we type a website like https://www.geeksforgeeks.org in our browser, our

computer tries to find the IP address.
 First, it checks the local cache (our browser, operating system, or router) to see if
it already knows the IP address.
 If the local cache doesn’t have the IP, the query is sent to a DNS resolver to find
it.
 DNS resolver may check host files (used for specific manual mappings), but
usually, it moves on.
 Resolver sends the query to a Root DNS server, which doesn’t know the exact IP
address but points to the TLD server (e.g., .org server for this example).
 TLD server then directs the resolver to the authoritative name server for
geeksforgeeks.org.
 Authoritative name server knows the exact IP address for geeksforgeeks.org and
sends it back to the resolver.
 Resolver passes the IP address to our computer.
 Our computer uses the IP address to connect to the real server where the website
is hosted.
 The website loads in our browser.

FTP
File Transfer Protocol(FTP) is an application layer protocol which moves files between
local and remote file systems.

It runs on the top of TCP, like HTTP. To transfer a file, 2 TCP connections are used by
FTP in parallel: control connection and data connection.

It can be invoked from the command prompt or some graphical user interface.

It also allows to update (delete, rename, move and copy) files at a server.

It uses a reserved port no. 21

o FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files
from one host to another.
o It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the computer
that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
o It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.

Objectives of FTP
o It provides the sharing of files.

o It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.

o It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

Why FTP?
Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and
straightforward, but sometimes it can cause problems. For example, two systems
may have different file conventions. Two systems may have different ways to
represent text and data. Two systems may have different directory structures. FTP
protocol overcomes these problems by establishing two connections between hosts.
One connection is used for data transfer, and another connection is used for the
control connection.

Mechanism of FTP

The above figure shows the basic model of the FTP. The FTP client has three
components: the user interface, control process, and data transfer process. The
server has two components: the server control process and the server data transfer
process.
There are two types of connections in FTP:

o Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for communication.
Through control connection, we can transfer a line of command or line of response at a
 time. The control connection is made between the control processes. The control
connection remains connected during the entire interactive FTP session.
o Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data types may vary.
The data connection is made between data transfer processes. The data connection opens
when a command comes for transferring the files and closes when the file is transferred.

FTP Clients
o FTP client is a program that implements a file transfer protocol which allows you to
transfer files between two hosts on the internet.
o It allows a user to connect to a remote host and upload or download the files.

o It has a set of commands that we can use to connect to a host, transfer the files between
you and your host and close the connection.
o The FTP program is also available as a built-in component in a Web browser. This GUI
based FTP client makes the file transfer very easy and also does not require to remember
the FTP commands.

Advantages of FTP:
o Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the fastest way
to transfer the files from one computer to another computer.
o Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the operations to get the
entire file.
o Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and password.
Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.
o Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth. Suppose
you are a manager of the company, you send some information to all the employees, and
they all send information back on the same server.

Disadvantages of FTP:
o The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions should be
encrypted. However, not all the FTP providers are equal and not all the providers offer
encryption. So, we will have to look out for the FTP providers that provides encryption.
o FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a network. However,
the size limit of the file is 2GB that can be sent. It also doesn't allow you to run
simultaneous transfers to multiple receivers.
 o Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted eavesdropping.
So, it is quite possible that attackers can carry out the brute force attack by trying to guess
the FTP password.
o It is not compatible with every system.

N Telnet
o The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For example, users want to
run different application programs at the remote site and transfers a result to the local site.
This requires a client-server program such as FTP, SMTP. But this would not allow us to
create a specific program for each demand.
o The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that lets the user access
any application program on a remote computer. Therefore, a program that allows a user
to log on to a remote computer. A popular client-server program Telnet is used to meet
such demands. Telnet is an abbreviation for Terminal Network.
o Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way that a local terminal
appears to be at the remote side.
There are two types of login:
Local Login

o When a user logs into a local computer, then it is known as local

login.
o When the workstation running terminal emulator, the keystrokes
entered by the user are accepted by the terminal driver. The
terminal driver then passes these characters to the operating
system which in turn, invokes the desired application program.
o However, the operating system has special meaning to special
characters. For example, in UNIX some combination of characters
have special meanings such as control character with "z" means
suspend. Such situations do not create any problem as the
terminal driver knows the meaning of such characters. But, it can
cause the problems in remote login.
Remote login

o When the user wants to access an application program on a remote

computer, then the user must perform remote login.

How remote login occurs

At the local site
The user sends the keystrokes to the terminal driver, the characters
are then sent to the TELNET client. The TELNET client which in turn,
transforms the characters to a universal character set known as
network virtual terminal characters and delivers them to the local
TCP/IP stack

At the remote site

The commands in NVT forms are transmitted to the TCP/IP at the
remote machine. Here, the characters are delivered to the operating
system and then pass to the TELNET server. The TELNET server
transforms the characters which can be understandable by a remote
computer. However, the characters cannot be directly passed to the
operating system as a remote operating system does not receive the
characters from the TELNET server. Therefore it requires some piece of
software that can accept the characters from the TELNET server. The
operating system then passes these characters to the appropriate
application program.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT)

o The network virtual terminal is an interface that defines how data and commands are sent
across the network.

o In today's world, systems are heterogeneous. For example, the operating system accepts a
special combination of characters such as end-of-file token running a DOS operating
system ctrl+z while the token running a UNIX operating system is ctrl+d.

o TELNET solves this issue by defining a universal interface known as network virtual
interface.

o The TELNET client translates the characters that come from the local terminal into NVT
form and then delivers them to the network. The Telnet server then translates the data
from NVT form into a form which can be understandable by a remote computer.

SMTP
o SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.

o SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that allow software to transmit an electronic

mail over the internet is called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
o It is a program used for sending messages to other computer users based on e-mail
addresses.
o It provides a mail exchange between users on the same or different computers, and it also
supports:

o It can send a single message to one or more recipients.

 o Sending message can include text, voice, video or graphics.

o It can also send the messages on networks outside the internet.

o The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules between servers. The
servers have a way of identifying themselves and announcing what kind of
communication they are trying to perform. They also have a way of handling the errors
such as incorrect email address. For example, if the recipient address is wrong, then
receiving server reply with an error message of some kind.

Components of SMTP

Pau se

o First, we will break the SMTP client and SMTP server into two components
such as user agent (UA) and mail transfer agent (MTA). The user agent (UA)
prepares the message, creates the envelope and then puts the message in
the envelope. The mail transfer agent (MTA) transfers this mail across the
internet.
o SMTP allows a more complex system by adding a relaying system. Instead of
just having one MTA at sending side and one at receiving side, more MTAs
can be added, acting either as a client or server to relay the email.
 o The relaying system without TCP/IP protocol can also be used to send the
emails to users, and this is achieved by the use of the mail gateway. The mail
gateway is a relay MTA that can be used to receive an email.

Working of SMTP
1. Composition of Mail: A user sends an e-mail by composing an electronic mail message
using a Mail User Agent (MUA). Mail User Agent is a program which is used to send
and receive mail. The message contains two parts: body and header. The body is the main
part of the message while the header includes information such as the sender and
recipient address. The header also includes descriptive information such as the subject of
the message. In this case, the message body is like a letter and header is like an envelope
that contains the recipient's address.
2. Submission of Mail: After composing an email, the mail client then submits the
completed e-mail to the SMTP server by using SMTP on TCP port 25.
3. Delivery of Mail: E-mail addresses contain two parts: username of the recipient and
domain name. For example, [email protected], where "vivek" is the username of the
recipient and "gmail.com" is the domain name.
If the domain name of the recipient's email address is different from the sender's domain
name, then MSA will send the mail to the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA). To relay the
email, the MTA will find the target domain. It checks the MX record from Domain Name
System to obtain the target domain. The MX record contains the domain name and IP
address of the recipient's domain. Once the record is located, MTA connects to the
exchange server to relay the message.
 4. Receipt and Processing of Mail: Once the incoming message is received, the exchange
server delivers it to the incoming server (Mail Delivery Agent) which stores the e-mail
where it waits for the user to retrieve it.
5. Access and Retrieval of Mail: The stored email in MDA can be retrieved by using
MUA (Mail User Agent). MUA can be accessed by using login and password.

SNMP
o SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.
o SNMP is a framework used for managing devices on the internet.
o It provides a set of operations for monitoring and managing the internet.

SNMP Concept

o SNMP has two components Manager and agent.

o The manager is a host that controls and monitors a set of agents such as routers.

o It is an application layer protocol in which a few manager stations can handle a set of agents.

o The protocol designed at the application level can monitor the devices made by different
manufacturers and installed on different physical networks.

o It is used in a heterogeneous network made of different LANs and WANs connected by routers or
gateways.
Managers & Agents
o A manager is a host that runs the SNMP client program while the agent is a router that runs the
SNMP server program.

o Management of the internet is achieved through simple interaction between a manager and agent.

o The agent is used to keep the information in a database while the manager is used to access the
values in the database. For example, a router can store the appropriate variables such as a number
of packets received and forwarded while the manager can compare these variables to determine
whether the router is congested or not.

o Agents can also contribute to the management process. A server program on the agent checks the
environment, if something goes wrong, the agent sends a warning message to the manager.

Management with SNMP has three basic ideas:

o A manager checks the agent by requesting the information that reflects the behavior of the agent.

o A manager also forces the agent to perform a certain function by resetting values in the agent
database.

o An agent also contributes to the management process by warning the manager regarding an
unusual condition.

Management Components
o Management is not achieved only through the SNMP protocol but also the use of other protocols
that can cooperate with the SNMP protocol. Management is achieved through the use of the other
two protocols: SMI (Structure of management information) and MIB(management information
base).

o Management is a combination of SMI, MIB, and SNMP. All these three protocols such as
abstract syntax notation 1 (ASN.1) and basic encoding rules (BER).
SMI
The SMI (Structure of management information) is a component used in network management.
Its main function is to define the type of data that can be stored in an object and to show how to
encode the data for the transmission over a network.

MIB

o The MIB (Management information base) is a second component for the network management.

o Each agent has its own MIB, which is a collection of all the objects that the manager can manage.
MIB is categorized into eight groups: system, interface, address translation, ip, icmp, tcp, udp,
and egp. These groups are under the mib object.

World Wide Web (WWW)

WWW stands for World Wide Web and is commonly known as the Web. The WWW was
started by CERN in 1989. WWW is defined as the collection of different websites around the
world, containing different information shared via local servers(or computers).

Working of WWW
A Web browser is used to access web pages. Web browsers can be defined as
programs which display text, data, pictures, animation and video on the Internet.
Hyperlinked resources on the World Wide Web can be accessed using software
surfing the Web but now they have become more universal.

Web browsers can be used for several tasks including conducting searches, mailing,
transferring files, and much more. Some of the commonly used browsers are Internet Explorer,
Opera Mini, and Google Chrome.

Features of WWW

 WWW is open source.

 It is a distributed system spread across various websites.

 It is a Hypertext Information System.

 It is Cross-Platform.

 Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface for many services.

 Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.

Components of the Web

There are 3 components of the web:

 Uniform Resource Locator (URL): URL serves as a system for resources on the web.

 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP specifies communication of browser and
server.
 Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): HTML defines the structure, organisation and
content of a web page.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol

HTTP is the primary method through which web browsers and servers communicate
to share information on the internet.

HTTP stands for “Hypertext Transfer Protocol.” It is a set of rules for sharing
data on the World Wide Web (WWW). When you visit a website, HTTP helps
your browser request and receive the data needed to display the web pages you
see. It is a fundamental part of how the internet works, making it possible for us
to browse and interact with websites.
 Basic Structure: HTTP forms the foundation of the web, enabling data
communication and file sharing.

 Web Browsing: Most websites use HTTP, so when you click on a link or
download a file, HTTP is at work.

 Client-Server Model: HTTP works on a request-response system. Your browser

(client) asks for information, and the website’s server responds with the data.

 Application Layer Protocol: HTTP operates within the Internet Protocol Suite,
managing how data is transmitted and received.

Working of HTTP [HyperText Transfer Protocol]

First of all, whenever we want to open any website, we first open a web browser.
after that we will type the URL of that website (e.g., www.facebook.com ). This
URL is now sent to the Domain Name Server (DNS) . Then DNS first checks records
for this URL in their database, and then DNS will return the IP address to the web
browser corresponding to this URL. Now, the browser can send requests to the
actual server.
After the server sends data to the client, the connection will be closed. If we want
something else from the server, we should have to re-establish the connection
between the client and the server.
What is an HTTP Request?
HTTP request is simply termed as the information or data that is needed by Internet
browsers for loading a website. This is simply known as HTTP Request.

There is some common information that is generally present in all HTTP requests.
These are mentioned below.

 HTTP Version

 URL

 HTTP Method

 HTTP Request Headers

 HTTP Body

HTTP Request Headers

HTTP Request Headers generally store information in the form of key-value pairs
and must be present in each HTTP Request. The use of this Request Header is to
provide core information about the client’s information, etc.
HTTP Request Body

HTTP Request Body simply contains the information that has to be transferred.
HTTP Request has the information or data to be sent to these browsers.

HTTP Method

HTTP Methods are simply HTTP Verbs. In spite of being presentin so many HTTP
Methods, the most common HTTP Methods are HTTP GET and HTTP POST . These
two are generally used in HTTP cases. In HTTP GET, the information is received in
the form of a website.

What is HTTP Response?

HTTP Response is simply the answer to what a Server gets when the request is
raised. There are various things contained in the HTTP Response, some of them are
listed below.
 HTTP Status Code
 HTTP Headers
 HTTP Body

HTTP Response Headers

HTTP Response headers are simply like an HTTP Request where it has that work to send some
important files and data to the HTTP Response Body.
HTTP Response Body
HTTP Responses are the responses that are received successfully upon the request. Generally,
it comes under the requests generated by the web. In most cases, the request is to transfer the
HTML data into a webpage.

Advantages of HTTP
 Memory usage and CPU usage are low because of fewer simultaneous
connections.
 Since there are few TCP connections, network congestion is less.
 Since handshaking is done at the initial connection stage, latency is reduced
because there is no further need for handshaking for subsequent requests.
 The error can be reported without closing the connection.
 HTTP allows HTTP pipe-lining of requests or responses.

Disadvantages of HTTP
 HTTP requires high power to establish communication and transfer data.
 HTTP is less secure because it does not use any encryption method like HTTPS
and uses TLS to encrypt regular HTTP requests and responses.
 HTTP is not optimized for cellular phones, and it is too gabby.
 HTTP does not offer a genuine exchange of data because it is less secure.
 The client does not close the connection until it receives complete data from the
server; hence, the server needs to wait for data completion and cannot be
available for other clients during this time.

Electronic Mail
Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of most widely used services of Internet. This
service allows an Internet user to send a message in formatted manner (mail) to
the other Internet user in any part of world.
Message in mail not only contain text, but it also contains images, audio and
videos data. The person who is sending mail is called sender and person who
receives mail is called recipient. It is just like postal mail service.

Components of E-Mail System : The basic components of an email system are :

User Agent (UA), Message Transfer Agent (MTA), Mail Box, and Spool file.
These are explained as following below.
1. User Agent (UA) : The UA is normally a program which is used to send and
receive mail. Sometimes, it is called as mail reader. It accepts variety of
commands for composing, receiving and replying to messages as well as for
manipulation of the mailboxes.

2. Message Transfer Agent (MTA) : MTA is actually responsible for transfer of

mail from one system to another. To send a mail, a system must have client MTA
and system MTA. It transfer mail to mailboxes of recipients if they are connected
in the same machine. It delivers mail to peer MTA if destination mailbox is in
another machine. The delivery from one MTA to another MTA is done by Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol .
 Mailbox : It is a file on local hard drive to collect mails. Delivered mails are
present in this file. The user can read it delete it according to his/her requirement.
To use e-mail system each user must have a mailbox . Access to mailbox is only
to owner of mailbox.

Spool file : This file contains mails that are to be sent. User agent appends
outgoing mails in this file using SMTP. MTA extracts pending mail from spool
file for their delivery. E-mail allows one name, an alias, to represent several
different e-mail addresses. It is known as mailing list, Whenever user have to
sent a message, system checks recipient’s name against alias database. If mailing
list is present for defined alias, separate messages, one for each entry in the list,
must be prepared and handed to MTA. If for defined alias, there is no such
mailing list is present, name itself becomes naming address and a single message
is delivered to mail transfer entity.

Advantages of email:

1. Convenient and fast communication with individuals or groups globally.

2. Easy to store and search for past messages.

3. Ability to send and receive attachments such as documents, images, and videos.

4. Cost-effective compared to traditional mail and fax.

5. Available 24/7.

Disadvantages of email:

1. Risk of spam and phishing attacks.

2. Overwhelming amount of emails can lead to information overload.

3. Can lead to decreased face-to-face communication and loss of personal touch.

4. Potential for miscommunication due to lack of tone and body language in written
messages.

5. Technical issues, such as server outages, can disrupt email service.

6. It is important to use email responsibly and effectively, for example, by keeping
the subject line clear and concise, using proper etiquette, and protecting against
security threats.

Network Security
All the measures used to safeguard a computer network's integrity and the
data on it are collectively referred to as network security. Network security is
crucial because it protects sensitive data from online threats and guarantees
the network's dependability. Multiple security measures are used in
successful network security plans to shield users and organizations from
malware and online threats like distributed denial of service.

Computers, servers, wireless networks, and other associated devices make

up a network. Many of these gadgets are open to possible intruders. Utilizing
a range of hardware and software tools on a network or as software as a
service is necessary for network security. As networks get increasingly
complicated and businesses rely more on their networks and data to
operate, security becomes more crucial. As threat actors develop new ways
to target these more complex networks, security techniques must change.

Security is typically described as everyone's duty since every user on the

network represents a potential vulnerability in that network, regardless of
the exact method or business security plan.

Advantages of Network Security

o Network security is essential for safeguarding client data and information,
maintaining the security of shared data, guaranteeing dependable network
performance, and defending against online attacks.
o An effective network security solution lowers overhead costs and protects
businesses from significant losses brought on by a data breach or other
security event.
o Ensuring appropriate access to systems, applications, and data facilitates
company operations and customer service.

Aspects of Network Security

Following are the desirable properties to achieve secure communication:
o Privacy: Privacy means both the sender and the receiver expects confidentiality. The
transmitted message should be sent only to the intended receiver while the message
should be opaque for other users. Only the sender and receiver should be able to
understand the transmitted message as eavesdroppers can intercept the message.
Therefore, there is a requirement to encrypt the message so that the message cannot be
intercepted. This aspect of confidentiality is commonly used to achieve secure
communication.

o Message Integrity: Data integrity means that the data must arrive at the receiver exactly
as it was sent. There must be no changes in the data content during transmission, either
maliciously or accident, in a transit. As there are more and more monetary exchanges
over the internet, data integrity is more crucial. The data integrity must be preserved for
secure communication.

o End-point authentication: Authentication means that the receiver is sure of the sender?s
identity, i.e., no imposter has sent the message.

o Non-Repudiation: Non-Repudiation means that the receiver must be able to prove that
the received message has come from a specific sender. The sender must not deny sending
a message that he or she send. The burden of proving the identity comes on the receiver.
For example, if a customer sends a request to transfer the money from one account to
another account, then the bank must have a proof that the customer has requested for the
transaction.
Cryptography
Cryptography is a technique of securing information and communications through
the use of codes so that only those persons for whom the information is intended can
understand and process it. Thus, preventing unauthorized access to information.

The prefix “crypt” means “hidden” and the suffix “graphy” means “writing”.

In Cryptography, the techniques that are used to protect information are obtained
from mathematical concepts and a set of rule-based calculations known as
algorithms to convert messages in ways that make it hard to decode them. These
algorithms are used for cryptographic key generation, digital signing, and
verification to protect data privacy, web browsing on the internet and to protect
confidential transactions such as credit card and debit card transactions.
Types of Cryptography

1. Symmetric Key Cryptography

It is an encryption system where the sender and receiver of a message
use a single common key to encrypt and decrypt messages. Symmetric
Key cryptography is faster and simpler but the problem is that the
sender and receiver have to somehow exchange keys securely. The
most popular symmetric key cryptography systems are Data Encryption
Systems (DES) and Advanced Encryption Systems (AES) .

2. Hash Functions
There is no usage of any key in this algorithm. A hash value with a fixed length is
calculated as per the plain text which makes it impossible for the contents of plain
text to be recovered. Many operating systems use hash functions to encrypt
passwords.
3. Asymmetric Key Cryptography
In Asymmetric Key Cryptography, a pair of keys is used to encrypt and decrypt
information. A sender’s public key is used for encryption and a receiver’s private
key is used for decryption. Public keys and Private keys are different. Even if the
public key is known by everyone the intended receiver can only decode it because he
alone knows his private key. The most popular asymmetric key cryptography
algorithm is the RSA algorithm.

Advantages of Cryptography

 Cryptography can be used for access control to ensure that only parties with the
proper permissions have access to a resource.
 For secure online communication, it offers secure mechanisms for transmitting
private information like passwords, bank account numbers, and other sensitive
data over the Internet.
 It helps in the defense against various types of assaults including replay and man-
in-the-middle attacks .
 Cryptography can help firms in meeting a variety of legal requirements including
data protection and privacy legislation.