SQL

data: - a piece of useful information. / collection of raw information

database: - database is place where data is stored.

Processor
-to store the data we need to use database
-to communicate with database, we need a manager.
-that manager is DBMS (database management system )
- to communicate with DBMS we need a language, that language is
SQL.
- by using SQL language ,we write queries.
- with the help of query, we can request the dbms to search for the
data.
- once the query is submitted to dbms, it will start processing the
query.
- the dbms will go inside database and it will search of the data inside
database, if the data we are searching is it present inside database,
dbms will take that data and display that data as output for the user.

Note :
SQL – structured query language . perilously called structured
English query language.
Day 2

What is DBMS :-
-Is a program that stores retrieves and modifies data in the database
on request.
- study of different techniques of design, development and
maintenance of the database.

DBMS and it’s types:-

-One of the job of dbms is only storing the data but also arranging the
data.
-To arrange the data we are having different types of dbms.
1.HDBMS
2. NDBMS
3.RDBMS
4.OBJECT ORIENTED DBMS

HDBMS ( Hierarchal database management system ) :-

in hdbms the data is going to be stored in hierarchal manner ( tree

type structure) .
 1

2 3

4 5 6

Day 3

Advantages (hdbms) Disadvantages (hdbms)

If the data you are searching if it If the data you are searching if it
is present in first node then the is present in last node then the
time consumed for searching the time consumed for searching the
data is less data is more
There is no guarantee that data
will be present in the database.

After HDBMS
-to rectify the disadvantages in hdbms they came up with another
dbms as Ndbms.

NDBMs (Networking database management system)

- in Ndbms the data is going to be stored in hierarchal manner along

with networking structure.
for example: -

Day 4
Advantages Disadvantages
All the disadvantages in hdbms It become complex with large about of
are rectified data
(when the no of users are increasing
the complexity of the database will be
increased)

RDBMS (Relational database management system)

entity
Attributes

Here table is called as ENTITY

Column name as ATTRIBUTES
Information we contain in table is DATA
for example: -
Here the table name is student (entity)
Sid Sname contactno
1 Raja 123
2 Rani 234
3 Sweety 345
4 Fruity 567

SQL summary
there are five types of statements used in SQL language/ subsets of
SQL

DDL- Data definition language

DML – Data manipulation language
DTL- Data transaction language
DCL- data session control language
DQL -Data query language

DDL: - CREATE, ALTER, RENAME, TRUNCATE, DROP

DML: - INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
DTL: - COMMIT, SAVEPOINT, ROLLBACK
DQL: - SELECT
DDL (data definition language)
with the help of the DDL we can create or delete a table
DML (data manipulation language)
With the help of DML language we can insert data or we can update
the data or we can delete the data.

DTL (data transaction language)

DTL language is used to save the data inside the database
permanently.
DCL (data control language)
With the help of DCL language we can give the permission or we can
take back the given permission from the other users.

DQL (data query language)

 With the help of DQL language we can search the data that is present
inside database.

Emp table
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMN DEPTNO

Dept table

DEPTNO DNAME LOC

Query example
select * from dept;
Select * from Emp;
(this will display all the data in both the tables)

Questions
Display any one column from emp table?
Ans – select column_ from table_name;
Exp- select empno from emp;
Display any two-column from emp table?
Ans – select empno, ename from emp;

Display any one column from dept table?

Ans – select deptno from dept;

Display any two- column from dept table?

Ans – select deptno, loc from dept;

Display all the employee names?

-Select ename from emp;
Display employee names and salaries of all the employees?
-Select ename, sal from emp;
Display all the department name?
-Select dname from dept;
Display location for all the departments?
-Select loc from dept;
Display employee number and employees’ names from employee
table?
-Select empno, ename from emp;

ALIASES

SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a

temporary name. Aliases are often used to make column names more
readable. An alias only exists for the duration of the query.
Syntax- select SAL as salary from emp;
Syntax - select SAL as “Monthly Salary” from emp;
Note: -
(“” quotes necessary when we have space in new attribute name and if
we want column in particular case (upper or lower) use “ “)

Questions

Display employee name as name for all the employees.

-select ename as name from emp;
Display SAL as salary, hiredate as joining date for all the employees?
-Select sal as Salary, hiredate as “joining date” from emp;
Display employee name, employee number, SAL as monthly salary,
department number for all the employees?
-select ename, empno, sal as “monthly salary”, deptno from emp;

(note - set pagesize 200 linesize 200 , this command can

change size of data in editor. Please note its editor
command not sql)

SQL Literals: -
A literal is an explicit numeric, character, string, or Boolean
value not represented by an identifier. For example, TRUE,
786, NULL, 'tutorialspoint' are all literals of type Boolean,
number, or string. PL/SQL, literals are case-sensitive.
It is a data, we are having four types some of them are,
number literal -50, character/string/ text literal- ‘hello’ ,date
literal- ‘dd-mm’yy’, integer .
If literal is used in select statement, same literal we will
displayed for each and every row, present in the table.
Syntax -
Select 10 from emp; - example for number
Select ‘hi’ from dept; - example for character

Concatenation operator ( || )
The CONCAT() function adds two or more strings together.
Note: See also Concat with the + operator and CONCAT_WS().

Concat operator is used to merge literal and data (column), by

doing this we can increase readability of the sentence.
Syntax – select ‘hello’ || ename from emp;
Question –
Display all the employee details in the below format. Smith is
clerk.
- select ename || ' is '|| job from emp;

Assignment-
1.Write a query to display name of the employee.
-select ename from emp;
2. Write a query to display ename and salary of all employee.
-select ename, sal from emp;
3. Write a query to display department name and its location for
all the department.
-select dname, loc from dept;
4. Write a query to display name, salary, commission and date
of joining of every employee.
-select ename, sal, comm, hiredate from emp;
5. Write a query to display employee name, his designation and
his manager’s employee number.
-select ename, job, mgr from emp;
6. Write a query to display employee name and his department
number.
-select ename, deptno from emp;
7. write a query to display all the details of each and every
employee of the company.
-select * from emp;
8. Write a query to display all the details of department present
in company.
-select * from dept;
9. Write query to display employee name his employee
number, his salary and also his annual salary for every
employee.
-select ename, empno, sal, sal*12 as “annual salary “from emp;
10. write query to display employee name, for employee
number and salary with the hike of 30% for every employee.
- select ename, empno, sal+ sal*30/100 from emp;

11. write query to display the details of employee in the

following format-
a. Employee x earns a monthly salary of rupees Y
- Select ‘Employee ‘||ename ||’ earns monthly salary of
rupees ‘|| sal from emp;
b. Employee x earns a monthly salary of rupees, Y and annual
salary of rupees Z
- Select ‘Employee ‘||ename ||' earn monthly salary of
rupees,' ||sal|| ' annual salary of rupees '|| sal*12 from emp;
c. The department x bearing department number y is located in
z.
- select ‘the department’ ||dname || ‘bearing department
number‘|| deptno||‘ is located in ‘|| loc from dept;

12. write a query to display name of the employee with annual

salary with monthly bonus of 200 and provide suitable alias
name.
- select ename, (sal*200)*12 “annual salary with monthly bonus” from emp;

13. write a query to display name, salary along with annual

salary of employee with yearly bonus of 100
- select ename, sal, sal*12+ 1000 as “annual salary “from emp;
Operators: -
Arithmetic operators- +, -, *, /
Relational operators- <, >, =, <=, >=, !=
Logical operators- and, or, not
Special operators- like, between and, in is null.

Use of where in sql: -

If you trying to get particular row from table, we use condition
with the help of ‘where’.
For example, I am trying to find all the information about smith
from emp table but only need smith data not any other
employee information, in this case I’ll need to use ‘where’.

Syntax – select * from emp where ename=’SMITH’;

(Note – as ename is character literal we must write smith in
quotes ‘ ‘.
And smith in uppercase as it is in emp table.)

Questions: -
1. Display all the information of Scott?
Select * from emp where ename =’SCOTT’;

2. Display Adam Job?

Select job from emp where ename=’ ADAMS’;

3. Display miller’s salary and department

select sal, depno from emp where ename= ‘MILLER’;
 4. Display employee name of all the clerks
Select ename from emp where job= ‘CLERKS’;

5. Display all the details of the employee who are working in

department number 20?
select * from emp where deptno=20;

6. Display all the employee name whose salary is more than

1500?
select ename from emp where sal>1500;

7. Display employee name, job, salary of all the employees

whose employee number is 7902?
select ename, job, sal from emp where empno=7902;

8. Display all the employee’s information who joined on 30-

dec-1981?
select * from emp where hiredate='30-DEC-1981';

9. Display all the analyst information?

select * from emp where job='ANALYST';

10.Display all the employee names who are working under

7698 managers.
select ename from emp where MGR=7698;

11. write a query to select all the salary of employee of the

salary is greater than 1500.
select * from emp where sal <1500;
12. write a query to display employee name, his hire date,
his salary and annual salary only if his annual salary
greater than 10000.
Select ename, hiredate, sal, sal*12 from emp where
(sal*12)>10000;

13. Write query to display all the details of employee if the

department number is 20
Select * from emp where deptno=20;

14. Write query to display all the details of the employee if

designation is manager.
Select * from emp where job= ‘MANAGER’;

15. Write a query to display all the details of employee only if

they were hired after the year 1995
Select * from emp where hiredate>’31-DEC-1995’;

Note: - SQL language is not case sensitive but the data

present inside the table are case sensitive.
Example – select, from, where, table name, column name,
operator all are non-case sensitive.
Data present inside the table is always case sensitive.

Distinct: -
Distinct is used to display unique data present inside the
table.
 A A
B B
A Deleted
C C
B Delete
D D
E E
D Delete
F F
Example –
Select distinct(job) from emp;
Output: -
JOB
CLERK
SALESMAN
PRESIDENT
MANAGER
ANALYST

Questions
1.Display employee information whose comm is 1400.
Select * from emp where comm=1400;

2. Display employee information of clerk who works for

department 20.
Select * from emp where job=’CLERK’ and deptno=20;
3. Display department number 20 employee who gets more
than 1500
Select deptno, sal from emp where sal <1500 and
deptno=20;

4. Display employee names of department number 10,30.

Select ename from emp where deptno= 10 OR deptno=30;

5. Display manager and analyst information.

select * from emp where job= 'MANAGER' or job='ANALYST';

6. Display employee whose earning is between 1000 and

2000 and include the same salaries also.
Select * from emp where sal>=1000 and sal<=2000;

7. Display employee name who joined in the year 1981.

Select ename from emp where hiredate>= ’01-JAN-1981 and
hiredate<=’31-DEC-1981’;
Special operators: -

Between-one operator: -
When we have any rang of values we can use between- and
operator.
Syntax- column name between lower range and higher
ranger.
Example- select * from emp where sal between 1000 and
2000;

In operator: -
If we have multiple OR condition for a signal column then we
can use IN operator.
Syntax: - column name in (data, ….)
Example – select * from emp where job in (‘MANAGER’,
‘ANALYST’);

Is null operator: -
This operator is use to get all null values in the column.
Is null operator is used to find out the null data that is present
inside the table.
Syntax: - column name is null;
Example: - select * from emp where comm is null;
 Not operator: -
Not operator cannot be used solo, it needs to club with any
other operator. Like Not between and, not in, is not null, Not
like.
Example: -
Select * from emp where comm is not null;

Like operator: -
The SQL Server LIKE is a logical operator that determines if a character string
matches a specified pattern. A pattern may include regular characters and
wildcard characters. The LIKE operator is used in the WHERE clause of the
SELECT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements to filter rows based on pattern
matching.

Like operator is a wild card operator which is used to perform

wildcard operations.
We have two wild card operators
%- represents 0-n character.
_ - represents signal character.

Syntax – column name like ‘data’;

Example – ename like ‘S%’; (display all the name starts with S)
ename like ‘%S’;(display all the name ends with S)
ename like ‘_L%’;(display all the name whose 2nd
letter is L)
ename like ‘%E_’; (display all the name whose last
2nd letter is E)
example: - select * from emp where ename like ’S%’;
select * from emp where ename like ‘%S’;
select * from emp where ename like ‘_L%’;
select * from emp where ename like ‘%E_’;

Questions: -

1. Write a query to display Ename, salary, annual salary with

the like of 25% only if he is clerk and his date of hire is
after 16th June 1982.
Select ename, sal, (sal*12)+25/100 from emp where
job=’CLERK’ and hiredate>’16-JUN-1982’;

2. Write a query to display all the details of employee only if

annual salary is greater than 15000 and his commission is
greater than his salary.
Select * from emp where (sal*12)> 15000 and comm>sal;

3. Write a Query to display all the details of department only

if department number is 100 or name of department is
RESEARCH.
Select * from dept where deptno=10 or
dname=’RESEARCH’;
4. Write a query to display employee name and his
employee number and his hired date and salary with
reduction of 20% only if his salary is greater than 2500 of
his department number is 10.
Select ename, empno, hiredate, sal-20/100 from emp where
sal >2500 and deptno=10;

5. Write a query to display all the details of employee, if they

have joined the company before 1985 or his salary is
greater than 2500.
Select * from emp where hiredate<’31-DEC-1985’ or
sal>2500;

6. Write a Query to display all the details of employee who

belongs to department number is 10 or 20 and salary
greater than 2000.
Select * from emp where deptno in(10,20)and sal>2000;

7. Write a query to display all the details of employee he is

working as a salesman or analyst and department number
either 10 or 20 salary should be greater than 2000.
Select * from emp where job in (‘SALEMAN’,‘ANALYST’)
and deptno in (10, 20) and sal >2000;
 8. Write a Query to display all the details of employee who is
working as SALESMAN and ANALYST.
Select * from emp where job in(’ SALESMAN’,‘ANALYST’);

9. Write Query to display all the details of employee he

working either salesman or clerk and salary greater than
3000 or not equal to 2500 and department number either
30,10, 40.
Select * from emp where job in(’SALEMAN’ ,’CLERK’ )and
(sal>3000 or sal not in( 2500 )) and deptno in(10,30,40);

10. Write a Query to display employee name, job,

commission, depart number, existing salary, new salary
with the reduction of 35% only if job not equal to check
and depart number either 10, 20, 30. Hire date greater
than 1983 and omission should be less than salary.
Select ename, job,comm,deptno,sal,(sal-35/100) from emp
where job!=’CHEAK’ and deptno in(10,20,30) and hiredate
>’31-DEC-198’ and comm<sal;

11. Write a Query to display all the details of employee if

number either 10, 20, 30.
Select * from emp where deptno in (10,20,30)

12. Write a Query to display all the employee who belong to

department number 10 or 20 and comm between 1000 and
3000 and were hired during 1980 to 1983.
 Select * from emp where deptno in(10,20) and comm
between 1000 and 3000 and hiredate between ‘01-JAN-
1980’ and ‘31-DEC-1983’;

13. Write a query to display all the details of employee if he is

not having the reporting manager.
Select * from emp where MGR is null;

14. Write Query to display all the employee who don’t take
comm.
select * from emp where comm is null;

15. Write a Query to select a name which begins with ‘A’.

Select ename from emp where ename like ‘A%’;

16. Write a Query to select the name which begins with ‘A’
and ends with ‘A’.
Select ename from emp where ename like ‘A%A’;

17. Write a Query to select a name which is having at least 2

‘a’ in it.
Select ename from emp where ename like’%A%A%’;

18. Write a query to select the name which starts with ‘M’.
Select ename from emp where ename like ‘M%’;
19. Write a Query to match name to select string which is
having substring MAD.
Select ename from emp where ename like ‘%MAD%’;

Functions: -
Functions. "A procedures or function is a group or set of SQL and PL/SQL statements
that perform a specific task.". The major difference between a procedure and
a function is, a function must always return a value,

-functions are used to perform operations.

- there are two types of functions, they are :
Single row functions
Multi row functions

Single row functions:

These single row functions will take each row as input and
produce output for each row.
Like that it will create a corresponding output for every row.
(take each input at a time and perform operation to produce
output)
Explanation
Examples of single row function

Length: - length function is used to get a length of the string.

Syntax- length(data)
Select ename, length(ename) from emp;
SMITH- 5
MILLER- 6

Lower: - lower function is used to convert text into lower case.

Syntax- lower(data)
Select ename, lower(ename) from emp;
SMITH- smith
MILLER- miller

Initcap: -
This function actually used to get first letter of word uppercase
and remaining in lowercase.
Initcap- inticap(data)
Select ename, inticap(ename) from emp;
SMITH- Smith
MILLER- Miller
Concat: -
Concat function is used to combine two strings. we can only
use two string not more than that.
Concat (ip1, ip2)
Concat (smith, clerk)- smithcleak
Concat (miller, Allen)- millerallen
Syntax- select ename, job, contact (ename, job) from emp;

Nested functions: -
If function is written inside another function it is known as
nested function.
Fun(fun(data, data),data)
Example: -Select length(lower(ename)) from emp;

Replace: -

The REPLACE() function replaces all occurrences of a substring

within a string, with a new substring.

Note: The search is case-insensitive.

REPLACE(string, old_string, new_string)

String- required, the original string

Old_string- requires. The string to be replace

New_string- required. The new replacement string.

Example- select ename, replace(ename,’A’,’X’) from emp;

select ename, replace(ename, ‘A') from emp;

replace(‘java’,’a’,’b’)-jbvb

replace(‘java’,’x’,’y’)- java

replace(‘java’,’a’)- java

Write a query to select name which is having substring NA at least

twice

Select ename from emp where ename like ‘%NA%NA%’;

Write a query to display all the employee’s whose name is having ‘R’
as the second last character.

Select ename from emp where ename like ‘%R_’;

List all the employee whose name starts with ‘s’

Select ename from emp where ename like ‘S%’;

List all the employee whose name is having letter L as second

character

Select ename from emp where ename like ‘_L%’;

List all the employee whose name is having at least 2 L in it.

Select ename from emp where ename like ‘%L%L%’;

List all the employee whose name having letter ‘E’ as the last but one
character

Select ename from emp where ename like ‘%E_’;

List all the employee whose name is having letter ‘R’ in the 3rd
position.

Select ename from emp where ename like ‘__R%’;

SUBSTRING FUNCTION

Substring function is used to diplay particular part of string.

Syntax; substr(ip1,ip2,ip3)

Ip1- data

Ip2- position to start

Ip3 – no of character

Substr(‘developer’,1,3) – dev

Substr(‘developer’,3,3) – vel

Substr(‘developer’,5,1) – l

Substr(‘developer’,-3,3) – per

Substr(‘developer’,5) – loper

Substr(‘developer’,-2)- er
D(1,-9) E(2,-8) V(3,-7) E(4,-6) L(5,-5) O(6,-4) P(7,-3) E(8,-2) R(9,-1)

Example to display first chartere of every emplyoee name

Select ename, substr(ename,1,1) from emp

Question

Display first letter of every employee name

Select ename, substr(ename,1,1) from emp;

Display last letter of every employee name

Select ename, substr(ename,-1,1) from emp;

Display last letter of every employee name without using -1?

Select ename, substr(ename,length(ename),-1) from emp;

Display first three characters of every job

Select job, substr(job,1,3) from emp;

Write a query to remove A character from every employee name

select ename, replace(ename, ‘A') from emp;

Write a query to count no of A characters present in every employee

name.

Select ename, length(ename)- length(replace(ename,’A’))from emp;

Display employee names whose name is having 4 characters.

Select ename from emp where length(ename)=4;

Display employee names and jobs whose job is starting with man.

Select ename, job from emp where Substr( job,1,3)=’MAN’;

Display all the employee details who joined in the month of feb.

Select * from emp where substr(hiredate,4,3)=’FEB’;

Display employee names whose name is having last but one character
as E.

Select ename from emp where substr(ename, -2,1)=’E’;

Instring function: -

Syntax instr(ip1,ip2, ip3,ip4)

Ip1 – data

Ip2- character to search

Ip3- position to start

Ip4- occurrence

Instring function is used to display the position of character.

Instr(‘developer’, ‘e’, 1,1) output: - 2

Instr(‘developer’, ’e’,3,1) output: - 4

Instr(‘developer’, ’e’,1, 3) output: - 8

Instr(‘developer’, ’e’,4,1) output: - 4

Instr(‘developer’, ’e’,5,2) output: - 0

Instr(‘developer’, ’e’,-4,1) output: - 4

Instr(‘developer’, ’e’,-3,2) output: - 2

Instr(‘developer’, ’vel’,1,1) output: - 3

Instr(‘developer’, ’vell’,1,1) output: - 0

Instr(‘developer’, ’e’) output: - 2

D(1,-9) E(2,-8) V(3,-7) E(4,-6) L(5,-5) O(6,-4) P(7,-3) E(8,-2) R(9,-1)

Example: Select ename, instr(ename, ‘A’, 1, 1) from emp;

NVL function: -

Nvl(column name, value)

It is used to replace null data with zero. For example, we have null
values in comm column in emp table. So, we can use NVL to replace
values with o.

Select comm, nvl(comm, 0) from emp;

Q. Display me total salary of the all emp incuding comm.

Select comm, sal, sal+NVL(comm,0) from emp;

Nvl2 function: -

Nvl2 (column name, value1, value2)

If column having null data it will replace it with value2 and if it

having any data it replaces with value1.
With the help of this function you can replace null data and not-null
data also.

Example: Select comm, sal, sal+NVL2(comm, comm,0) from emp;

sysdate: -

If you want to display todays date (date of your system)

Example: - select sysdate from emp;

Systimestamp: -

This will display date, time and time zone.

Example: -Select systimestamp from emp;

Trunc function: -

If you give decimal value as input it will remove decimal and give
integer value as output.

from example trunc(72.3) – 72

trunc(75.8)- 75

Round function: -

If you give decimal value as input ,it will round off decimal value and
give integer value as output.

round(72.3) -72

round(75.6) -76

round(73.5) -74
round(79.8)- 80

Mod function: -

Mod fun is consisting of inputs. Mod function is used to display

reminder of this values.

Example: -

Mod(20,2) – 0

Mod(25,2) – 1

Question:

1. Display employee name, sal, no of days working in the

company.
Select ename, sal, (sysdate- hiredate) as “No of working days”
from emp;

2. Display the employee names who had worked more than 12000
days.
Select ename from emp where (sysdate- hiredate) >12000;

3. Display employee names, sal, yearsvof experience for all the all
the employees.
Select ename, sal, round(((sysdate-hiredate) /365)) as “years of
experience” from emp;

Order by statement: -

Order by statement is used to arrange the data based on column name

or condition.
Example: -

Select * from emp order by ename;

Select * from emp order by ename desc;

Select * from emp order by deptno, job;

Select * from emp order by sal*12

Select ename, sal, sal*12 as “ annual salary” from emp order by

“annual salary” ;

Questions: -

Display list of employees joined on 01-may-81, 03-dec-81, 17-dec-81,

19-jan-80 in ascending of seniority.

Select * from emp where hiredate in (‘01-MAY-81’, ’17-DEC-81’,

’19-JAN-80’) order by hiredate;

Display employees in the ascending order of designation who joined

after second half of 1981.

select * from emp where hiredate>=’01-JUL-1981’ order by job;

List all the employees who does not belong to department no 20.

Select * from emp where deptno !=20;

Multi-row functions : -

Select max(sal) from emp; ( to display maximum salary of emp)

Select min(sal) from emp; (to display minimum salary of employee)

Select avg(sal) from emp; (to display average salaries of employees)

Select sum(sal) from emp; (to display sum salaries of all the
employees)

Select count(comm) from emp; (to display count of input values(

rows))

Questions: -

1. Display no of analysts.

select count(JOB) from emp where JOB='ANALYST';

2. Display average salary among all the employees working in

department no 20.

select avg(sal) from emp where deptno= 20;

3. Display least salary earned by manger.

select min(sal) from emp where job=’MANAGER’;

4. Display total salary earned by employees who joined in the year

81.
 Select sum(sal) from emp where hiredate between ’01-JAN-81’
and ’31-DEC-81’;

5. Display no of employee in department number 10.

Select count(empno) where deptno=10;

6. Display no of employee present in each department.

Select deptno, count(*) from emp group by deptno;

Group by: -

Group by statement is used to dived a table based on condition

or column name.

1. Display no of employees working in each Job.

Select job, count(*) from emp group by Job;

2. Display maximum salary earned in each job.

Select Job, max(sal) from emp group by Job;

3. Display no of employees in each job, select only those where

no of employees is 3 and above.

Select job, count(*) from emp group by Job having

count(ename)>=3;
(here we are using having keyword which is similarly to
where but can be used after dividing the table)

4. Display total salary of each department only if the total salary

exceeds 9000?

Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp group by deptno having

sum(sal)>9000;
Joins:
Joins are used to merge two or more tables.

Equi join-

For joining of two tables, if we use equal to (=) operator then it

represents as Equi-join.

Syntax: - select * from emp, dept where emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

Questions: -

Display employee name and department name for all the employee.

Select ename, dname from emp, dept where emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

Display employee name, location and department number for all the
employees.

Select ename, loc, emp.deptno from emp, dept where

emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

Display ename and dname of all the salesman.

Select ename, dname from emp, dept where Job=’SALESMAN’ and

emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

Non Equi Join: -

For joining of two tables , if we doesn’t use equal to(=) operator then
it’s called as Non equi join.
Syntax: -

Select * from emp, salgrade where sal between losal and hisal;

Cross join: -

While joining two table if we don’t give any join condition then it
performs cross join.

Cross join actually means all the records of first table will be merged
with first record of two table similarly the merging continues till the
end of all the records.

Syntax – select * from emp, dept;

(as emp consist of 14 and dept consist of 4 record it will give 56

records as output)

Inner join: -

Inner join will display common information that is present both the
tables.

Select * from emp, dept where emp.deptno=dept.deptno;

Outer join: -

Left join: -
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and
the matched records from the right table (table2). The result is NULL from
the right side, if there is no match.

Select * from emp, dept where emp.deptno=dept.deptno(+);

Right join: -
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2),
and the matched records from the left table (table1). The result is NULL from
the left side, when there is no match

Select * from emp, dept where emp.deptno(+)= dept.deptno;

Full outer join: -

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a match in
left (table1) or right (table2) table records.

Note: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large result-sets!

(FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the same)

Constraints: -

Constraints are restriction that are applied on the table.

Unique constraint: -

Unique constraint will not allow duplicate data but will allow null data.

For example: - below table we should have unique data in Student Id buut it
will accept null value.

StudentId Name Contact No

1 Raja 123

2 Rani 234
 3 Sweety 124

Fruity 121

Not Null: - Not null constraint will not allow null data but it allow duplicate
data.

PRIMARY KEY Constraint

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table.

Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.

A table can have only ONE primary key; and in the table, this primary key
can consist of single or multiple columns (fields).

(it is combination of unique and not null constraints. It is also known as

unique identifier. In the hole table I can only one primary key)

FOREIGN KEY Constraint

A FOREIGN KEY is a key used to link two tables together.

A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table that refers to
the PRIMARY KEY in another table.

The table containing the foreign key is called the child table, and the table
containing the candidate key is called the referenced or parent table.

(Foreign key constraint is used to build the relationships between

tables. It is also known as referential integrity constraint. In a signal
table you can have n no. of foreign keys.)
DDL (Data definition language)

Creating table

Syntax:

For parent table

SQL> create table Department(deptno number(4) primary key,

dname varchar(15) not null, loc varchar(10));

Child table

SQL> create table emp420(empno number(4) primary key, ename

varchar(30) not null, deptno references Department(deptno));

Alter: -

Alter is used to add, remove or modify column in existing table.

Add column-

we are trying to add column name remark in table emp420.

Syntax: - alter table table_name add( column_name datatype(size)

constrain,..);0

SQL> alter table emp420 add(remark varchar(30) not null);

Rename column: -

We are trying to rename column name remark to rating

Syntax: -Alter table tablename column oldcolumn to newcolumn;

SQL> alter table emp420 rename column remark to rating;

Table altered.
Remove column: -

To remove column, we use this syntax.

Syntax: -

Alter table table_name drop column column_name;

SQL> alter table emp420 drop column rating;

Table altered.

Modify the datatype: -

This is used to change datatype of column.

Syntax: -Alter table table_name modify (column_name

newdatatype(size));

SQL> alter table emp420 modify(remark number(2));

Table altered.

Renaming table: -

Syntax: - Rename old table name to new table name;

SQL> rename emp420 to emp520;

Table renamed.

Drop: -

We can using delete table using drop.

Syntax: - drop table tablename;

SQL> drop table emp520;

Table dropped.

Truncate: -

It is used to delete only data inside the table but table structure will
remain as it is.

Syntax: - truncate table tablename;

Truncate table emp520;

DML (data manipulation language

1. Insert: - this is used to insert data inside the table.

Syntax Insert into table_name values(data);

insert into emp values(7945, 'MARK', 'CLERK', 7789, '17-JAN-95',

950,0, 20);

2. update: -

Syntax: -Update tablename Set columname=data;

SQL> update emp set deptno=40 where ename= 'MARK';

1 row updated.

3. Delete: -

Syntax- delete tablename where columnname=data;

SQL> delete emp where ename='MARK';

1 row deleted.
DCL: - DCL is short name of Data Control Language which includes commands
such as GRANT and mostly concerned with rights, permissions and other controls of
the database system.

Syntax:

Grant select on emp to hr; // here hr is another user such as scott

Revoke select on emp from hr;// to revoke permission

DTL: -

TCL(transaction Control Language) : TCL commands deals with

the transaction within the database.
Examples of TCL commands:
• COMMIT– commits a Transaction.
• ROLLBACK– rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.
• SAVEPOINT–sets a savepoint within a transaction.
• SET TRANSACTION–specify characteristics for the transaction.

Syntax: -

Commit – commit;

Save point- savepoint name;

Roll back- Rollback to name;